Habilidades narrativas orales de niños y adolescentes con síndrome de Down: la macroestructura como una fortaleza relativa
Resumen Las narraciones orales cumplen una función central en el desarrollo cognitivo, lingüístico y social, al permitir organizar experiencias, construir identidad y participar en la vida cultural. En niños y adolescentes con síndrome de Down, estas habilidades son especialmente relevantes para favorecer su inclusión educativa y social. A pesar de las dificultades lingüísticas que caracterizan a esta población, la literatura suele indicar que la macroestructura narrativa —referida a la coherencia global y organización del relato— podría representar una fortaleza relativa, en contraste con las limitaciones observadas en la microestructura. Este artículo, de revisión, profundiza en las evidencias recientes en torno a esta noción de la macroestructura como una fortaleza relativa. El artículo se organiza en tres secciones: 1) las formas de evaluación de la macroestructura narrativa utilizadas en este grupo; 2) las evidencias más relevantes sobre la concepción de la macroestructura como una fortaleza relativa, organizadas en torno a tres argumentos centrales; y 3) las variables asociadas al desempeño macroestructural en esta población. Todo ello, poniendo especial énfasis en estudios realizados en diversos contextos lingüísticos, ampliando la perspectiva más allá del contexto angloparlante. Finalmente, se discuten las principales implicaciones para la investigación y la práctica.
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Abbeduto, L., Arias-Trejo, N., John, A., Ramos-Sánchez, J. y Del Hoyo, L. (2023). Language development in Down syndrome. En J. A. Burack, J. O. Edgin y L. Abbeduto (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of Down syndrome and development (pp. 332-366). Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190645441.013.18
Ashby, S. A., Channell, M. M. y Abbeduto, L. (2017). Inferential language use by youth with Down syndrome during narration. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 71, 98-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.002
Barton-Hulsey, A., Sevcik, R. A. y Romski, M. (2017). Narrative language and reading comprehension in students with mild intellectual disabilities. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 122(5), 392-408. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-122.5.392
Bigozzi, L. y Vettori, G. (2016). To tell a story, to write it: Developmental patterns of narrative skills from preschool to first grade. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31(4), 461-477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-015-0273-6
Blom, E. y Boerma, T. (2016). Why do children with language impairment have difficulties with narrative macrostructure? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 55, 301-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.05.001
Botting, N. (2002). Narrative as a tool for the assessment of linguistic and pragmatic impairments. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 18(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265659002ct224oa
Boudreau, D. M. y Chapman, R. S. (2000). The relationship between event representation and linguistic skill in narratives of children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43(5), 1146-1159. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4305.1146
Bowles, R. P., Justice, L. M., Khan, K. S., Piasta, S. B., Skibbe, L. E. y Foster, T. D. (2020). Development of the narrative assessment protocol-2: A tool for examining young children’s narrative skill. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(2), 390-404. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-19-00038
Bruner, J. (1985). Chapter VI: Narrative and paradigmatic modes of thought. Teachers College Record, 86(6), 97-115. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146818508600606
Bruner, J. (2003). La fábrica de historias. Derechos, literatura, vida. FCE.
Channell M. M. (2020). Cross-Sectional trajectories of mental state language development in children with Down syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(2), 760-775. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_AJSLP-19-00035
Channell, M. M., McDuffie, A. S., Bullard, L. M. y Abbeduto, L. (2015). Narrative language competence in children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00283
Channell, M. M., Sandstrom, L. E. y Harvey, D. (2022). Mental state language development in children with Down syndrome versus typical development. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 127(6), 495-510. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-127.6.495
Chapman R. S. (2006). Language learning in Down syndrome: The speech and language profile compared to adolescents with cognitive impairment of unknown origin. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 10(2), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.3104/reports.306
Chapman, R. S., Hesketh, L. J. y Kistler, D. J. (2002). Predicting longitudinal change in language production and comprehension in individuals with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(5), 902-915. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2002/073)
Cleave, P., Bird, E. K.-R., Czutrin, R. y Smith, L. (2012). A longitudinal study of narrative development in children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 50(4), 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-50.4.332
DʼSouza, D., DʼSouza, H., Johnson, M. H. y Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2016). Audio-visual speech perception in infants and toddlers with Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and Williams syndrome. Infant Behavior and Development, 44, 249-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.07.002
Estigarribia, B., Martin, G. E., Roberts, J. E., Spencer, A., Gucwa, A. y Sideris, J. (2011). Narrative skill in boys with fragile X syndrome with and without autism spectrum disorder. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32(2), 359-388. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716410000445
Fernández-Urquiza, M., Diez-Itza, E. y Cortiñas, S. (2017). PREP-CORP: Sistema de etiquetado pragmático de corpus clínicos de lengua oral. En M. C. Fernández, M. Martí y A. Ruiz (Eds.), Investigaciones actuales en lingüística, Vol. VI: Aplicaciones de la Lingüística (pp. 167-183). Universidad de Alcalá.
Ferrari, A. (2025). A longitudinal study on the relationship between socio-communicative skills and narrative competence in school-age autistic children (Tesis doctoral, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca). https://hdl.handle.net/10281/540963
Filipe, M. G., Cruz, S., Veloso, A. S. y Frota, S. (2022). Early predictors of language outcomes in Down syndrome: A mini-review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 934490. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934490
Finestack, L. H., Palmer, M. y Abbeduto, L. (2012). Macrostructural narrative language of adolescents and young adults with Down syndrome or fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 21(1), 29-46. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0095)
Griffin, T. M., Hemphill, L., Camp, L. y Wolf, D. P. (2004). Oral discourse in the preschool years and later literacy skills. First Language, 24(2), 123-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723704042369
Grove, N. (2015). Finding the sparkle: Storytelling in the lives of people with learning disabilities. Tizard Learning Disability Review, 20(1), 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1108/TLDR-05-2014-0015
Heilmann, J., Miller, J. F., Nockerts, A. y Dunaway, C. (2010). Properties of the narrative scoring scheme using narrative retells in young school-age children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(2), 154-166. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2009/08-0024)
Hessling, A. y Brimo, D. M. (2019). Spoken fictional narrative and literacy skills of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Communication Disorders, 79, 76-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.03.005
Hogan-Brown, A. L., Losh, M., Martin, G. E. y Mueffelmann, D. J. (2013). An investigation of narrative ability in boys with autism and fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 118(2), 77-94. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-118.2.77
Kapantzoglou, M., Fergadiotis, G. y Restrepo, M. A. (2017). Language sample analysis and elicitation technique effects in bilingual children with and without language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(10), 2852-2864. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0335
Miles, S. y Chapman, R. S. (2002). Narrative content as described by individuals with Down syndrome and typically developing children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(1), 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2002/013)
Miles, S., Chapman, R. y Sindberg, H. (2006). Sampling context affects MLU in the language of adolescents with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 325-337. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2006/026)
Neitzel, I. (2023). Narrative abilities in individuals with Down syndrome: Single case-profiles. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1116567. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116567
Neitzel, I. (2024a). Reported speech in individuals with Down syndrome: First evidence. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 37(1), e13163. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.13163
Neitzel, I. (2024b). Vocabulary and expressive morpho-syntax in individuals with Down syndrome: Links to narration. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 151, 104781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104781
Neitzel, I. y Penke, M. (2022). Narrative profiles of individuals with typical development and down syndrome. En Y. Gong y F. Kpogo (Eds.), BUCLD 46: Proceedings of the 46th annual Boston University conference on language development (2, pp. 552-562). Cascadilla Press.
Norbury, C. F. y Bishop, D. V. (2003). Narrative skills of children with communication impairments. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 38(3), 287-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/136820310000108133
Peterson, C. y McCabe, A. (1983). Developmental psycholinguistics: Three ways of looking at a child’s narrative. Plenum Press.
Portilla, A. Y., Almanza, V., Castillo, A. D. y Restrepo, G. (2021). El desarrollo de las habilidades narrativas en niños: una revisión sistemática de la literatura. Revista de Investigación en Logopedia, 11(2), e67607. https://doi.org/10.5209/rlog.67607
Reese, E., Suggate, S., Long, J. y Schaughency, E. (2010). Children’s oral narrative and reading skills in the first 3 years of reading instruction. Reading and Writing, 23(6), 627-644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9175-9
Renfrew, C. (1991). The bus story. Speechmark.
Roch, M., Florit, E. y Levorato, C. (2016). Narrative competence of Italian-English bilingual children between 5 and 7 years. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(1), 49-67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716415000417
Sánchez-Gómez, V., Amor González, A. M., Zampini, L., Verdugo, M. Á. y Calvo, M. I. (2025). Exploring oral narrative abilities of Chilean school-age children with Down syndrome: A preliminary study. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 63(1), 51-65. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-63.1.51
Scionti, N., Zampini, L. y Marzocchi, G. M. (2023). The relationship between narrative skills and executive functions across childhood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 10(8), 1391. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10081391
Segal, A. y Pesco, D. (2015). Narrative skills of youth with Down syndrome: A comprehensive literature review. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 27(5), 721-743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-015-9441-5
Smorti, A. (2001). El pensamiento narrativo: construcción de historias y desarrollo del conocimiento social. Mergablum, Edición y Comunicación.
Smorti, A. (2020). Telling to understand: The impact of narrative on autobiographical memory. Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43161-7
Spencer, T. D. y Petersen, D. B. (2018). Bridging oral and written language: An oral narrative language intervention study with writing outcomes. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(3), 569-581. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-17-0030
Stein, N. y Glenn, C. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. En R. O. Freedle (Ed.), Advances in discourse processes: New directions in discourse processing (2, pp. 53-120). Ablex.
Udhnani, M., Perez, M., Clasen, L. S., Adeyemi, E. y Lee, N. R. (2020). Relations between everyday executive functioning and language in youth with Down Syndrome and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 45(2), 79-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2019.1706518
van Bysterveldt, A. K., Westerveld, M. F., Gillon, G. y Foster-Cohen, S. (2012). Personal narrative skills of school-aged children with Down syndrome. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 47(1), 95-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00085.x
Viejo, A., Fernández-Urquiza, M. y Diez-Itza, E. (2025). Narrative microstructure and macrostructure in adolescents with Down syndrome and Williams syndrome. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1402121. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1402121
Westby, C. y Culatta, B. (2016). Telling tales: Personal event narratives and life stories. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 47(4), 260-282. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_LSHSS-15-0073
Zampini, L. y D’Odorico, L. (2011). Lexical and syntactic development in Italian children with Down’s syndrome. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 46(4), 386-396. https://doi.org/10.3109/13682822.2010.508764
Zanchi, P. y Zampini, L. (2021). The narrative competence task: A standardized test to assess children’s narrative skills. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(1), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000569
Zanchi, P., Zampini, L. y Panzeri, F. (2021). Narrative and prosodic skills in children and adolescents with Down syndrome and typically developing children. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 23(3), 286-294. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2020.1804618
Ashby, S. A., Channell, M. M. y Abbeduto, L. (2017). Inferential language use by youth with Down syndrome during narration. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 71, 98-108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2017.10.002
Barton-Hulsey, A., Sevcik, R. A. y Romski, M. (2017). Narrative language and reading comprehension in students with mild intellectual disabilities. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 122(5), 392-408. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-122.5.392
Bigozzi, L. y Vettori, G. (2016). To tell a story, to write it: Developmental patterns of narrative skills from preschool to first grade. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 31(4), 461-477. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-015-0273-6
Blom, E. y Boerma, T. (2016). Why do children with language impairment have difficulties with narrative macrostructure? Research in Developmental Disabilities, 55, 301-311. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2016.05.001
Botting, N. (2002). Narrative as a tool for the assessment of linguistic and pragmatic impairments. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 18(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1191/0265659002ct224oa
Boudreau, D. M. y Chapman, R. S. (2000). The relationship between event representation and linguistic skill in narratives of children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 43(5), 1146-1159. https://doi.org/10.1044/jslhr.4305.1146
Bowles, R. P., Justice, L. M., Khan, K. S., Piasta, S. B., Skibbe, L. E. y Foster, T. D. (2020). Development of the narrative assessment protocol-2: A tool for examining young children’s narrative skill. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(2), 390-404. https://doi.org/10.1044/2019_LSHSS-19-00038
Bruner, J. (1985). Chapter VI: Narrative and paradigmatic modes of thought. Teachers College Record, 86(6), 97-115. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146818508600606
Bruner, J. (2003). La fábrica de historias. Derechos, literatura, vida. FCE.
Channell M. M. (2020). Cross-Sectional trajectories of mental state language development in children with Down syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(2), 760-775. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_AJSLP-19-00035
Channell, M. M., McDuffie, A. S., Bullard, L. M. y Abbeduto, L. (2015). Narrative language competence in children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00283
Channell, M. M., Sandstrom, L. E. y Harvey, D. (2022). Mental state language development in children with Down syndrome versus typical development. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 127(6), 495-510. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-127.6.495
Chapman R. S. (2006). Language learning in Down syndrome: The speech and language profile compared to adolescents with cognitive impairment of unknown origin. Down Syndrome Research and Practice, 10(2), 61-66. https://doi.org/10.3104/reports.306
Chapman, R. S., Hesketh, L. J. y Kistler, D. J. (2002). Predicting longitudinal change in language production and comprehension in individuals with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(5), 902-915. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2002/073)
Cleave, P., Bird, E. K.-R., Czutrin, R. y Smith, L. (2012). A longitudinal study of narrative development in children and adolescents with Down syndrome. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 50(4), 332-342. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-50.4.332
DʼSouza, D., DʼSouza, H., Johnson, M. H. y Karmiloff-Smith, A. (2016). Audio-visual speech perception in infants and toddlers with Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, and Williams syndrome. Infant Behavior and Development, 44, 249-262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.infbeh.2016.07.002
Estigarribia, B., Martin, G. E., Roberts, J. E., Spencer, A., Gucwa, A. y Sideris, J. (2011). Narrative skill in boys with fragile X syndrome with and without autism spectrum disorder. Applied Psycholinguistics, 32(2), 359-388. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716410000445
Fernández-Urquiza, M., Diez-Itza, E. y Cortiñas, S. (2017). PREP-CORP: Sistema de etiquetado pragmático de corpus clínicos de lengua oral. En M. C. Fernández, M. Martí y A. Ruiz (Eds.), Investigaciones actuales en lingüística, Vol. VI: Aplicaciones de la Lingüística (pp. 167-183). Universidad de Alcalá.
Ferrari, A. (2025). A longitudinal study on the relationship between socio-communicative skills and narrative competence in school-age autistic children (Tesis doctoral, Università degli Studi di Milano-Bicocca). https://hdl.handle.net/10281/540963
Filipe, M. G., Cruz, S., Veloso, A. S. y Frota, S. (2022). Early predictors of language outcomes in Down syndrome: A mini-review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 934490. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.934490
Finestack, L. H., Palmer, M. y Abbeduto, L. (2012). Macrostructural narrative language of adolescents and young adults with Down syndrome or fragile X syndrome. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 21(1), 29-46. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2011/10-0095)
Griffin, T. M., Hemphill, L., Camp, L. y Wolf, D. P. (2004). Oral discourse in the preschool years and later literacy skills. First Language, 24(2), 123-147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723704042369
Grove, N. (2015). Finding the sparkle: Storytelling in the lives of people with learning disabilities. Tizard Learning Disability Review, 20(1), 29-36. https://doi.org/10.1108/TLDR-05-2014-0015
Heilmann, J., Miller, J. F., Nockerts, A. y Dunaway, C. (2010). Properties of the narrative scoring scheme using narrative retells in young school-age children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 19(2), 154-166. https://doi.org/10.1044/1058-0360(2009/08-0024)
Hessling, A. y Brimo, D. M. (2019). Spoken fictional narrative and literacy skills of children with Down syndrome. Journal of Communication Disorders, 79, 76-89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcomdis.2019.03.005
Hogan-Brown, A. L., Losh, M., Martin, G. E. y Mueffelmann, D. J. (2013). An investigation of narrative ability in boys with autism and fragile X syndrome. American Journal on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 118(2), 77-94. https://doi.org/10.1352/1944-7558-118.2.77
Kapantzoglou, M., Fergadiotis, G. y Restrepo, M. A. (2017). Language sample analysis and elicitation technique effects in bilingual children with and without language impairment. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 60(10), 2852-2864. https://doi.org/10.1044/2017_JSLHR-L-16-0335
Miles, S. y Chapman, R. S. (2002). Narrative content as described by individuals with Down syndrome and typically developing children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 45(1), 175-189. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2002/013)
Miles, S., Chapman, R. y Sindberg, H. (2006). Sampling context affects MLU in the language of adolescents with Down syndrome. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 49, 325-337. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2006/026)
Neitzel, I. (2023). Narrative abilities in individuals with Down syndrome: Single case-profiles. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1116567. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1116567
Neitzel, I. (2024a). Reported speech in individuals with Down syndrome: First evidence. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities, 37(1), e13163. https://doi.org/10.1111/jar.13163
Neitzel, I. (2024b). Vocabulary and expressive morpho-syntax in individuals with Down syndrome: Links to narration. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 151, 104781. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2024.104781
Neitzel, I. y Penke, M. (2022). Narrative profiles of individuals with typical development and down syndrome. En Y. Gong y F. Kpogo (Eds.), BUCLD 46: Proceedings of the 46th annual Boston University conference on language development (2, pp. 552-562). Cascadilla Press.
Norbury, C. F. y Bishop, D. V. (2003). Narrative skills of children with communication impairments. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 38(3), 287-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/136820310000108133
Peterson, C. y McCabe, A. (1983). Developmental psycholinguistics: Three ways of looking at a child’s narrative. Plenum Press.
Portilla, A. Y., Almanza, V., Castillo, A. D. y Restrepo, G. (2021). El desarrollo de las habilidades narrativas en niños: una revisión sistemática de la literatura. Revista de Investigación en Logopedia, 11(2), e67607. https://doi.org/10.5209/rlog.67607
Reese, E., Suggate, S., Long, J. y Schaughency, E. (2010). Children’s oral narrative and reading skills in the first 3 years of reading instruction. Reading and Writing, 23(6), 627-644. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-009-9175-9
Renfrew, C. (1991). The bus story. Speechmark.
Roch, M., Florit, E. y Levorato, C. (2016). Narrative competence of Italian-English bilingual children between 5 and 7 years. Applied Psycholinguistics, 37(1), 49-67. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716415000417
Sánchez-Gómez, V., Amor González, A. M., Zampini, L., Verdugo, M. Á. y Calvo, M. I. (2025). Exploring oral narrative abilities of Chilean school-age children with Down syndrome: A preliminary study. Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities, 63(1), 51-65. https://doi.org/10.1352/1934-9556-63.1.51
Scionti, N., Zampini, L. y Marzocchi, G. M. (2023). The relationship between narrative skills and executive functions across childhood: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Children, 10(8), 1391. https://doi.org/10.3390/children10081391
Segal, A. y Pesco, D. (2015). Narrative skills of youth with Down syndrome: A comprehensive literature review. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities, 27(5), 721-743. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10882-015-9441-5
Smorti, A. (2001). El pensamiento narrativo: construcción de historias y desarrollo del conocimiento social. Mergablum, Edición y Comunicación.
Smorti, A. (2020). Telling to understand: The impact of narrative on autobiographical memory. Springer Nature Switzerland AG. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-43161-7
Spencer, T. D. y Petersen, D. B. (2018). Bridging oral and written language: An oral narrative language intervention study with writing outcomes. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 49(3), 569-581. https://doi.org/10.1044/2018_LSHSS-17-0030
Stein, N. y Glenn, C. (1979). An analysis of story comprehension in elementary school children. En R. O. Freedle (Ed.), Advances in discourse processes: New directions in discourse processing (2, pp. 53-120). Ablex.
Udhnani, M., Perez, M., Clasen, L. S., Adeyemi, E. y Lee, N. R. (2020). Relations between everyday executive functioning and language in youth with Down Syndrome and youth with autism spectrum disorder. Developmental Neuropsychology, 45(2), 79-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565641.2019.1706518
van Bysterveldt, A. K., Westerveld, M. F., Gillon, G. y Foster-Cohen, S. (2012). Personal narrative skills of school-aged children with Down syndrome. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 47(1), 95-105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00085.x
Viejo, A., Fernández-Urquiza, M. y Diez-Itza, E. (2025). Narrative microstructure and macrostructure in adolescents with Down syndrome and Williams syndrome. Frontiers in Psychology, 16, 1402121. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2025.1402121
Westby, C. y Culatta, B. (2016). Telling tales: Personal event narratives and life stories. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 47(4), 260-282. https://doi.org/10.1044/2016_LSHSS-15-0073
Zampini, L. y D’Odorico, L. (2011). Lexical and syntactic development in Italian children with Down’s syndrome. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 46(4), 386-396. https://doi.org/10.3109/13682822.2010.508764
Zanchi, P. y Zampini, L. (2021). The narrative competence task: A standardized test to assess children’s narrative skills. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 37(1), 15-22. https://doi.org/10.1027/1015-5759/a000569
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