Pragmatic Skills in the Population with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Assessment from a Gender Perspective
Abstract Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that affects various areas such as social communication and repetitive behaviors. In these areas, there have been observed symptomatic differences in individuals with ASD based on gender. Therefore, the objective of this study is to analyze and compare the pragmatic skills of boys and girls with Level 1 ASD in terms of gender to determine if there are any differences between them. In this study, pragmatic competence was analyzed in a sample of 60 participants, with a comparison made between the scores of boys with ASD (n = 29) and girls with ASD (n = 31). The results showed significant differences between the two groups, revealing a discrepancy in the pragmatic skills of boys and girls with Level 1 ASD. The findings highlighted that the group of girls with ASD exhibited better overall pragmatic skills than the group of boys with ASD, although in some areas, boys scored higher. However, the lack of linguistic studies regarding gender perspective makes further investigation into this topic an essential necessity.
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American Psychological Association (APA). (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4.ª ed.) (DSM-IV). American Psychiatric Association.
American Psychological Association (APA). (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5.ª ed.). https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.books.9780890425596
Archer, J. y Coyne, S. M. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(3), 212-230. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01904-6
Bishop, D. V. (2004). Expression, reception and recall of narrative instrument: ERRNI. Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Assessment.
Boorse, J., Cola, M., Plate, S., Yankowitz, L., Pandey, J., Schultz, R. T. y Parish-Morris, J. (2019). Linguistic markers of autism in girls: Evidence of a “blended phenotype” during storytelling. Molecular Autism, 10, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-019-0268-2
Buckner, J. P. y Fivush, R. (1998). Gender and self in children’s autobiographical narratives. Applied cognitive psychology: The oficial. Journal of the Society for Applied Research in Memory and Cognition, 12(4), 407-429. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-0720(199808)12:4<407::AID-ACP575>3.0.CO;2-7
Burton, J. M., Creaghead, N. A., Silbert, N., Breit-Smith, A., Duncan, A. W. y Grether, S. M. (2020). Social communication and structural language of girls with high functioning autism spectrum disorder. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 51(4), 1139-1155. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_LSHSS-20-00004
Bussey, K. y Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713.
Carter, M. J. (2014). Gender socialization and identity theory. Social Sciences, 3(2), 242-263. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci3020242
Chester, V. (2019). Autistic women and girls: Under-recognised, under-researched and under-served. Advances in Autism, 5(1), 1-1. https://doi.org/10.1108/AIA-01-2019-049
Cho, S., Cola, M., Knox, A., Pelella, M. R., Russell, A., Hauptmann, A., Covello, M., Cieri, C., Liberman, M., Schultz, R. T. y Parish-Morris, J. (2023). Sex differences in the temporal dynamics of autistic children’s natural conversations. Molecular Autism, 14(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-023-00545-6
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Cola, M., Yankowitz, L. D., Tena, K., Russell, A., Bateman, L., Knox, A., Plate, S., Cubit, L. S., Zampella, C. J., Pandey, J., Schultz, R. T. y Parish-Morris, J. (2022). Friend matters: Sex differences in social language during autism diagnostic interviews. Molecular Autism, 13(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-021-00483-1
Conlon, O., Volden, J., Smith, I. M., Duku, E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Waddell, C., Szatmari, P., Mirenda, P., Vaillancourt, T., Bennett, T., Georgiades, S., Elsabbagh, M. y Ungar, W. J. (2019). Gender differences in pragmatic communication in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(5), 1937-1948. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-03873-2
Dean, M., Kasari, C., Shih, W., Frankel, F., Whitney, R., Landa, R., Lord, C., Orlich, F., King, B. y Harwood, R. (2014). The peer relationships of girls with ASD at school: Comparison to boys and girls with and without ASD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(11), 1218-1225. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12242
Den Hartog, A., de la Roche, L., Derby, B., Psaradellis, E. y Kelley, E. (2023). A scoping review of sex/gender differences in pragmatic language and friendship characteristics in autistic children and adolescents. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 108, e102229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2023.102229
Ely, R., Gleason, J. B., Narasimhan, B. y McCabe, A. (1995). Family talk about talk: Mothers lead the way. Discourse Processes, 19(2), 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539509544914
Groen, W., Zwiers, M., Vandergaag, R. y Buitelaar, J. (2008). The phenotype and neural correlates of language in autism: An integrative review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(8), 1416-1425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.05.008
Hartley, S. L. y Sikora, D. M. (2009). Sex differences in autism spectrum disorder: An examination of developmental functioning, autistic symptoms, and coexisting behavior problems in toddlers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(12), 1715-1722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0810-8
Hodges, H., Fealko, C. y Soares, N. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder: Definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation. Translational Pediatrics, 9 (S1), S55-S65. https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2019.09.09
Kauschke, C., van der Beek, B. y Kamp-Becker, I. (2016). Narratives of girls and boys with autism spectrum disorders: Gender differences in narrative competence and internal state language. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(3), 840-852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2620-5
Klann-Delius, G. (2015). Emotion in language. En Lüdtke, U. (ed.), Emotion in language. Theory-research-application (pp. 135-156). John Benjamin Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/ceb.10.07kla
Ladegaard, H. J. y Bleses, D. (2003). Gender differences in young children’s speech: The acquisition of sociolinguistic competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 222-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/1473-4192.00045
Lord, C., Elsabbagh, M., Baird, G. y Veenstra-Vanderweele, J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder. The Lancet, 392(10146), 508-520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01406736(18)31129-2
Maccoby, E. E. (2002). Gender and group process: A developmental perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(2), 54-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/14678721.00167
May, T., Cornish, K. y Rinehart, N. (2014). Does Gender Matter? A One year follow up of autistic, attention and anxiety symptoms in high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(5), 1077-1086. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1964-y
McFayden, T. C., Antezana, L., Albright, J., Muskett, A. y Scarpa, A. (2020). Sex differences in an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis: Are restricted repetitive behaviors and interests the key? Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 7, 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-019-00183-w
Miniscalco, C. y Carlsson, E. (2022). A longitudinal case study of six children with autism and specified language and non-verbal profiles. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 36 (4-5), 398-416. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2021.1874536
Nishimura, T., Takahashi, N., Okumura, A., Harada, T., Iwabuchi, T., Nakayasu, C., ... y Tsuchiya, K. J. (2023). Sex differences in neurodevelopmental trajectories in children with different levels of autistic traits. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 77(5), 282-289. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13529
Norbury, C. F. y Bishop, D. V. M. (2003). Narrative skills of children with communication impairments. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 38(3), 287-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/136820310000108133
Norbury, C. F, Gemmell, T. y Paul, R. (2014). Pragmatics abilities in narrative production: A cross-disorder comparison. Journal of Child Language, 3(41), 485-510. https://doi.org/10.1017/S030500091300007X
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Reindal, L., Nærland, T., Weidle, B., Lydersen, S., Andreassen, O. A. y Sund, A. M. (2023). Structural and pragmatic language impairments in children evaluated for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 701-719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04853-1
Reynoso, C., Rangel. M. J. y Melgar, V. (2017). El trastorno del espectro autista: aspectos etiológicos, diagnósticos y terapéuticos. Revista Médica del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, 2(55), 214-222.
Rojas, V., Rivera, A. y Nilo, N. (2019). Actualización en diagnóstico e intervención temprana del trastorno del espectro autista. Revista Chilena de Pediatría, 90(5), 478-484. https://doi.org/10.32641/rchped.v90i5.1294
Rose, A. J. y Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98-131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98
Rosello, B., Berenguer, C., Baixauli, I., García, R. y Miranda, A. (2020). Theory of Mind Profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder: Adaptive/social skills and pragmatic competence. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567401
Sandoval, M. L. (2002). Pierre Bourdieu y la teoría sobre la dominación masculina. Revista Colombiana de Sociología, 7(1), 55-72.
Schmidlin, R. (1999). Wie deutschschweizer kinder schreiben und erzählen lernen. Textstruktur und lexik von kindertexten aus der deutschschweiz und aus deutschland. Francke.
Sturrock, A., Adams, C. y Freed, J. (2021). A subtle profile with a significant impact: Language and communication difficulties for autistic females without intellectual disability. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621742
Sturrock, A., Marsden, A., Adams, C. y Freed, J. (2020). Observational and reported measures of language and pragmatics in young people with autism: A comparison of respondent data and gender profiles. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(3), 812-830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04288-3
Tillmann, J., Ashwood, K., Absoud, M., Bölte, S., Bonnet-Brilhault, F., Buitelaar, J. K., Calderoni, S., Calvo, R., Canal-Bedia, R., Canitano, R., De Bildt, A., Gomot, M., Hoekstra, P. J., Kaale, A., McConachie, H., Murphy, D. G., Narzisi, A., Oosterling, I., Pejovic-Milovancevic, M., … y Charman, T. (2018). Evaluating sex and age differences in ADI-R and ADOS scores in a large european multi-site sample of individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48(7), 2490-2505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-3510-4
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Archer, J. y Coyne, S. M. (2005). An integrated review of indirect, relational, and social aggression. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9(3), 212-230. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr0903_2
Baron-Cohen, S. (2002). The extreme male brain theory of autism. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 6(6), 248-254. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1364-6613(02)01904-6
Bishop, D. V. (2004). Expression, reception and recall of narrative instrument: ERRNI. Psychological Corporation/Harcourt Assessment.
Boorse, J., Cola, M., Plate, S., Yankowitz, L., Pandey, J., Schultz, R. T. y Parish-Morris, J. (2019). Linguistic markers of autism in girls: Evidence of a “blended phenotype” during storytelling. Molecular Autism, 10, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-019-0268-2
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Bussey, K. y Bandura, A. (1999). Social cognitive theory of gender development and differentiation. Psychological Review, 106(4), 676-713.
Carter, M. J. (2014). Gender socialization and identity theory. Social Sciences, 3(2), 242-263. https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci3020242
Chester, V. (2019). Autistic women and girls: Under-recognised, under-researched and under-served. Advances in Autism, 5(1), 1-1. https://doi.org/10.1108/AIA-01-2019-049
Cho, S., Cola, M., Knox, A., Pelella, M. R., Russell, A., Hauptmann, A., Covello, M., Cieri, C., Liberman, M., Schultz, R. T. y Parish-Morris, J. (2023). Sex differences in the temporal dynamics of autistic children’s natural conversations. Molecular Autism, 14(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-023-00545-6
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Cola, M., Yankowitz, L. D., Tena, K., Russell, A., Bateman, L., Knox, A., Plate, S., Cubit, L. S., Zampella, C. J., Pandey, J., Schultz, R. T. y Parish-Morris, J. (2022). Friend matters: Sex differences in social language during autism diagnostic interviews. Molecular Autism, 13(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-021-00483-1
Conlon, O., Volden, J., Smith, I. M., Duku, E., Zwaigenbaum, L., Waddell, C., Szatmari, P., Mirenda, P., Vaillancourt, T., Bennett, T., Georgiades, S., Elsabbagh, M. y Ungar, W. J. (2019). Gender differences in pragmatic communication in school-aged children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 49(5), 1937-1948. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-018-03873-2
Dean, M., Kasari, C., Shih, W., Frankel, F., Whitney, R., Landa, R., Lord, C., Orlich, F., King, B. y Harwood, R. (2014). The peer relationships of girls with ASD at school: Comparison to boys and girls with and without ASD. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 55(11), 1218-1225. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12242
Den Hartog, A., de la Roche, L., Derby, B., Psaradellis, E. y Kelley, E. (2023). A scoping review of sex/gender differences in pragmatic language and friendship characteristics in autistic children and adolescents. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 108, e102229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2023.102229
Ely, R., Gleason, J. B., Narasimhan, B. y McCabe, A. (1995). Family talk about talk: Mothers lead the way. Discourse Processes, 19(2), 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/01638539509544914
Groen, W., Zwiers, M., Vandergaag, R. y Buitelaar, J. (2008). The phenotype and neural correlates of language in autism: An integrative review. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 32(8), 1416-1425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2008.05.008
Hartley, S. L. y Sikora, D. M. (2009). Sex differences in autism spectrum disorder: An examination of developmental functioning, autistic symptoms, and coexisting behavior problems in toddlers. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39(12), 1715-1722. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0810-8
Hodges, H., Fealko, C. y Soares, N. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder: Definition, epidemiology, causes, and clinical evaluation. Translational Pediatrics, 9 (S1), S55-S65. https://doi.org/10.21037/tp.2019.09.09
Kauschke, C., van der Beek, B. y Kamp-Becker, I. (2016). Narratives of girls and boys with autism spectrum disorders: Gender differences in narrative competence and internal state language. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 46(3), 840-852. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-015-2620-5
Klann-Delius, G. (2015). Emotion in language. En Lüdtke, U. (ed.), Emotion in language. Theory-research-application (pp. 135-156). John Benjamin Publishing Company. https://doi.org/10.1075/ceb.10.07kla
Ladegaard, H. J. y Bleses, D. (2003). Gender differences in young children’s speech: The acquisition of sociolinguistic competence. International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 13(2), 222-233. https://doi.org/10.1111/1473-4192.00045
Lord, C., Elsabbagh, M., Baird, G. y Veenstra-Vanderweele, J. (2018). Autism spectrum disorder. The Lancet, 392(10146), 508-520. https://doi.org/10.1016/S01406736(18)31129-2
Maccoby, E. E. (2002). Gender and group process: A developmental perspective. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 11(2), 54-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/14678721.00167
May, T., Cornish, K. y Rinehart, N. (2014). Does Gender Matter? A One year follow up of autistic, attention and anxiety symptoms in high-functioning children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(5), 1077-1086. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1964-y
McFayden, T. C., Antezana, L., Albright, J., Muskett, A. y Scarpa, A. (2020). Sex differences in an autism spectrum disorder diagnosis: Are restricted repetitive behaviors and interests the key? Review Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 7, 119-126. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40489-019-00183-w
Miniscalco, C. y Carlsson, E. (2022). A longitudinal case study of six children with autism and specified language and non-verbal profiles. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 36 (4-5), 398-416. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699206.2021.1874536
Nishimura, T., Takahashi, N., Okumura, A., Harada, T., Iwabuchi, T., Nakayasu, C., ... y Tsuchiya, K. J. (2023). Sex differences in neurodevelopmental trajectories in children with different levels of autistic traits. Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 77(5), 282-289. https://doi.org/10.1111/pcn.13529
Norbury, C. F. y Bishop, D. V. M. (2003). Narrative skills of children with communication impairments. International Journal of Language and Communication Disorders, 38(3), 287-313. https://doi.org/10.1080/136820310000108133
Norbury, C. F, Gemmell, T. y Paul, R. (2014). Pragmatics abilities in narrative production: A cross-disorder comparison. Journal of Child Language, 3(41), 485-510. https://doi.org/10.1017/S030500091300007X
Parish-Morris, J., Liberman, M. Y., Cieri, C., Herrington, J. D., Yerys, B. E., Bateman, L., Donaher, J., Ferguson, E., Pandey, J. y Schultz, R. T. (2017). Linguistic camouflage in girls with autism spectrum disorder. Molecular Autism, 8, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13229-017-0164-6
Puyuelo, M., Barreiro, L. M. R., Calvo, M. A., Laparte, M. A. G., Hernández, S. O. y Pastor, R. M. S. (2007). Aplicación de BLOC a poblaciones con necesidades educativas especiales. En BLOC (BLOC-C/BLOC-S/BLOC-SR), Aplicación a poblaciones con necesidades educativas específicas: evaluación del lenguaje (pp. 1-74).
Reindal, L., Nærland, T., Weidle, B., Lydersen, S., Andreassen, O. A. y Sund, A. M. (2023). Structural and pragmatic language impairments in children evaluated for autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 53(2), 701-719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-020-04853-1
Reynoso, C., Rangel. M. J. y Melgar, V. (2017). El trastorno del espectro autista: aspectos etiológicos, diagnósticos y terapéuticos. Revista Médica del Instituto Mexicano del Seguro Social, 2(55), 214-222.
Rojas, V., Rivera, A. y Nilo, N. (2019). Actualización en diagnóstico e intervención temprana del trastorno del espectro autista. Revista Chilena de Pediatría, 90(5), 478-484. https://doi.org/10.32641/rchped.v90i5.1294
Rose, A. J. y Rudolph, K. D. (2006). A review of sex differences in peer relationship processes: Potential trade-offs for the emotional and behavioral development of girls and boys. Psychological Bulletin, 132(1), 98-131. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.1.98
Rosello, B., Berenguer, C., Baixauli, I., García, R. y Miranda, A. (2020). Theory of Mind Profiles in children with autism spectrum disorder: Adaptive/social skills and pragmatic competence. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.567401
Sandoval, M. L. (2002). Pierre Bourdieu y la teoría sobre la dominación masculina. Revista Colombiana de Sociología, 7(1), 55-72.
Schmidlin, R. (1999). Wie deutschschweizer kinder schreiben und erzählen lernen. Textstruktur und lexik von kindertexten aus der deutschschweiz und aus deutschland. Francke.
Sturrock, A., Adams, C. y Freed, J. (2021). A subtle profile with a significant impact: Language and communication difficulties for autistic females without intellectual disability. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.621742
Sturrock, A., Marsden, A., Adams, C. y Freed, J. (2020). Observational and reported measures of language and pragmatics in young people with autism: A comparison of respondent data and gender profiles. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 50(3), 812-830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-019-04288-3
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