Happiness and Education: Scientific Limitations and Ideological Biases of “Positive Education”
Abstract The interest in positive education has grown exponentially in the last two decades. Introduced as a new scientific movement aimed at moving away from traditional and remedial approaches to educational matters, the movement’s main argument is that promoting happiness and positive skills amongst students is crucial for mental health prevention, improved learning, and higher performance. Parallel to this growing interest, the criticism addressed to the movement has also been mounting and numerous. Such criticism has not only been raised by the critical literature on the movement but also from within the movement itself, thus casting serious doubt over the quality and utility of the movement. In view of this, the objective of this paper is to provide an integrative overview of the main problems and limitations that touch on the field so far. The paper organizes these limitations into two main groups: scientific deficits and ideological biases. Regarding the former, the paper comments on the absence of a clear theoretical framework and the lack of enough accumulated evidence in favor; the conceptual and methodological shortfalls around some of its main concepts; and the limited impact and generalizability of key interventions. Regarding the ideological biases, the paper tackles the individualistic, decontextualized, and universalistic approach of the movement. The paper concludes with a brief remark on the present and future implications of the movement in the field of education.
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Cabanas, E. (2018). Positive Psychology and the legitimation of individualism. Theory and Psychology, 28(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354317747988
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Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). Mindsets: A View From Two Eras. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(3), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804166
Ecclestone, K. (2004) Learning or therapy? The demoralisation of education. British Journal of Educational Studies, 52(2), 112–137.
Ecclestone, K. (2012). From emotional and psychological well-being to character education: challenging policy discourses of behavioural science and ‘vulnerability’’.’ Research Papers in Education, 27(4), 463–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2012.690241
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Furedi, F. (2009). Wasted: why education isn’t educating. Continuum.
Gillham, J. E., Hamilton, J., Freres, D. R., Patton, K., & Gallop, R. (2006). Preventing Depression Among Early Adolescents in the Primary Care Setting: A Randomized Controlled Study of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-9014-7
Gong, Z., & Jiao, X. (2019). Are Effect Sizes in Emotional Intelligence Field Declining? A Meta-Meta Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01655
Gorard, S., See, B. H., & Davies, P. (2012). The impact of attitudes and apirations on educational attainment and participation. https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/education-young-people-parents-full.pdf
Hallam, W. T., Youssef, G., Robinson, J., Hendry, J., O’Connor, M., Hoare, E., … Toumbourou, J. W. (2018). Design, Implementation and Evaluation of the Giving for a Better World Project at Geelong Grammar School. Victoria. http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30115280/toumbourou-designimplement-2018.pdf
Hanley, A. W., Abell, N., Osborn, D. S., Roehrig, A. D., & Canto, A. I. (2016). Mind the Gaps: Are Conclusions About Mindfulness Entirely Conclusive? Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(1), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12066
Horowitz, D. (2018). Happier? The history of a cultural movement that aspired to transform America. Oxford University Press.
Humphrey, N., Curran, A., Morris, E., Farrell, P., & Woods, K. (2007). Emotional Intelligence and Education: A critical review. Educational Psychology, 27(2), 235–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410601066735
Kallapiran, K., Koo, S., Kirubakaran, R., & Hancock, K. (2015). Review: Effectiveness of mindfulness in improving mental health symptoms of children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20(4), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12113
Kreplin, U., Farias, M., & Brazil, I. A. (2018). The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 2403. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z
Kristjánsson, K. (2012). Positive Psychology and Positive Education: Old Wine in New Bottles? Educational Psychologist, 47(2), 86–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.610678
Li, Y., & Bates, T. C. (2019). You can’t change your basic ability, but you work at things, and that’s how we get hard things done: Testing the role of growth mindset on response to setbacks, educational attainment, and cognitive ability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(9), 1640–1655. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000669
Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2016). Second Wave Positive Psychology: Exploring the Positive–Negative Dialectics of Wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(4), 1753–1768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y
Lomas, T., Waters, L., Williams, P., Oades, L. G., & Kern, M. L. (2020). Third wave positive psychology: broadening towards complexity. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1805501
Marina, J. A. (2005) Precisiones sobre la Educación Emocional. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado, 19(3), 27-43. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2126751
Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2013). The education of selves: How psychology transformed students. Oxford University Press.
Matthews, G., Roberts, R. D., & Zeidner, M. (2004). TARGET ARTICLES: “Seven Myths About Emotional Intelligence.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1503_01
Miller, A. (2008). A critique of positive psychology—or “the new science of happiness.” Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, 591–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00646.x
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Norrish, J., Williams, P., O’Connor, M., & Robinson, J. (2013). An Applied Framework for Positive Education. International Journal of Wellbeing, 3(2), 147–161. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v3i2.2
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O’Connor, P. J., Hill, A., Kaya, M., & Martin, B. (2019). The Measurement of Emotional Intelligence: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01116
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Vella-Brodrick, D. A., Rickard, N. S., & Chin, T. C. (2014). An Evaluation of Positive Education at Geelong Grammar School: A Snapshot of 2013. Melbourne.
Waters, L. (2011). A review of school-based positive psychology interventions. The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 28(02), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1375/aedp.28.2.75
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Binkley, S. (2014). Happiness as Enterprise: An Essay on Neoliberal Life. Sunny Press.
Boman, P., Furlong, M. J., Shochet, I., Lilles, E., & Jones, C. (2009). Optimism and the School Context. In R. Gilman, S. E. Huebner, & M. J. Furlong (Eds.), Handbook of Positive Psychology in Schools (pp. 51–64). Routledge.
Brunila, K. (2014) The Rise of the Survival Discourse in an Era of Therapisation and Neoliberalism, Education Inquiry, 5(1), 7-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/edui.v5.24044
Burgoyne, A. P., Hambrick, D. Z., & Macnamara, B. N. (2020). How Firm Are the Foundations of Mind-Set Theory? The Claims Appear Stronger Than the Evidence. Psychological Science, 095679761989758. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797619897588
Cabanas, E. (2018). Positive Psychology and the legitimation of individualism. Theory and Psychology, 28(1), 3–19. https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354317747988
Cabanas, E., e Illouz, E. (2019). Happycracia. Cómo la ciencia y la industria de la felicidad controla nuestras vidas. Paidós.
Chiesa, A. (2013). The Difficulty of Defining Mindfulness: Current Thought and Critical Issues. Mindfulness, 4(3), 255–268. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0123-4
Chowdry, H., Crawford, C., & Goodman, A. (2011). The role of attitudes and behaviours in explaining socio-economic differences in attainment at age 16. Longitudinal and Life Course Studies, 2(1), 59–76. https://doi.org/10.14301/llcs.v2i1.141
Ciarrochi, J., Atkins, P. W. B., Hayes, L. L., Sahdra, B. K., & Parker, P. (2016). Contextual Positive Psychology: Policy Recommendations for Implementing Positive Psychology into Schools. Frontiers in Psychology, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01561
Coyne, J. C. (2016). Unintended consequences of universal mindfulness training for schoolchildren? http://www.coyneoftherealm.com/2016/11/16/unintended-consequences-of-universal-mindfulness-training-for-schoolchildren/
Davidson, R. J., & Kaszniak, A. W. (2015). Conceptual and methodological issues in research on mindfulness and meditation. American Psychologist, 70(7), 581–592. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0039512
Dweck, C. S., & Yeager, D. S. (2019). Mindsets: A View From Two Eras. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(3), 481–496. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691618804166
Ecclestone, K. (2004) Learning or therapy? The demoralisation of education. British Journal of Educational Studies, 52(2), 112–137.
Ecclestone, K. (2012). From emotional and psychological well-being to character education: challenging policy discourses of behavioural science and ‘vulnerability’’.’ Research Papers in Education, 27(4), 463–480. https://doi.org/10.1080/02671522.2012.690241
Friedman, H. L., & Robbins, B. D. (2012). The negative shadow cast by positive psychology: Contrasting views and implications of humanistic and positive psychology on resiliency. The Humanistic Psychologist, 40(1), 87–102. https://doi.org/10.1080/08873267.2012.643720
Gil, F. & Reyero, D. (2014). La prioridad de la filosofía de la educación sobre las disciplinas empíricas en la investigación educativa. Revista Española de Pedagogía, 258, 263-280. https://revistadepedagogia.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/06/258-03.pdf
Froh, J. J., Huebner, E. S., Youssef, A.-J., & Conte, V. (2011). Acknowledging and appreciating the full spectrum of the human condition: School Psychology’s (limited) focus on positive psychological functioning. Psychology in the Schools, 48(2), 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20530
Furedi, F. (2009). Wasted: why education isn’t educating. Continuum.
Gillham, J. E., Hamilton, J., Freres, D. R., Patton, K., & Gallop, R. (2006). Preventing Depression Among Early Adolescents in the Primary Care Setting: A Randomized Controlled Study of the Penn Resiliency Program. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 34(2), 195–211. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-005-9014-7
Gong, Z., & Jiao, X. (2019). Are Effect Sizes in Emotional Intelligence Field Declining? A Meta-Meta Analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01655
Gorard, S., See, B. H., & Davies, P. (2012). The impact of attitudes and apirations on educational attainment and participation. https://www.jrf.org.uk/sites/default/files/jrf/migrated/files/education-young-people-parents-full.pdf
Hallam, W. T., Youssef, G., Robinson, J., Hendry, J., O’Connor, M., Hoare, E., … Toumbourou, J. W. (2018). Design, Implementation and Evaluation of the Giving for a Better World Project at Geelong Grammar School. Victoria. http://dro.deakin.edu.au/eserv/DU:30115280/toumbourou-designimplement-2018.pdf
Hanley, A. W., Abell, N., Osborn, D. S., Roehrig, A. D., & Canto, A. I. (2016). Mind the Gaps: Are Conclusions About Mindfulness Entirely Conclusive? Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(1), 103–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12066
Horowitz, D. (2018). Happier? The history of a cultural movement that aspired to transform America. Oxford University Press.
Humphrey, N., Curran, A., Morris, E., Farrell, P., & Woods, K. (2007). Emotional Intelligence and Education: A critical review. Educational Psychology, 27(2), 235–254. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410601066735
Kallapiran, K., Koo, S., Kirubakaran, R., & Hancock, K. (2015). Review: Effectiveness of mindfulness in improving mental health symptoms of children and adolescents: a meta-analysis. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 20(4), 182–194. https://doi.org/10.1111/camh.12113
Kreplin, U., Farias, M., & Brazil, I. A. (2018). The limited prosocial effects of meditation: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Scientific Reports, 8(1), 2403. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-20299-z
Kristjánsson, K. (2012). Positive Psychology and Positive Education: Old Wine in New Bottles? Educational Psychologist, 47(2), 86–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2011.610678
Li, Y., & Bates, T. C. (2019). You can’t change your basic ability, but you work at things, and that’s how we get hard things done: Testing the role of growth mindset on response to setbacks, educational attainment, and cognitive ability. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 148(9), 1640–1655. https://doi.org/10.1037/xge0000669
Lomas, T., & Ivtzan, I. (2016). Second Wave Positive Psychology: Exploring the Positive–Negative Dialectics of Wellbeing. Journal of Happiness Studies, 17(4), 1753–1768. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-015-9668-y
Lomas, T., Waters, L., Williams, P., Oades, L. G., & Kern, M. L. (2020). Third wave positive psychology: broadening towards complexity. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2020.1805501
Marina, J. A. (2005) Precisiones sobre la Educación Emocional. Revista Interuniversitaria de Formación del Profesorado, 19(3), 27-43. https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=2126751
Martin, J., & McLellan, A. (2013). The education of selves: How psychology transformed students. Oxford University Press.
Matthews, G., Roberts, R. D., & Zeidner, M. (2004). TARGET ARTICLES: “Seven Myths About Emotional Intelligence.” Psychological Inquiry, 15(3), 179–196. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli1503_01
Miller, A. (2008). A critique of positive psychology—or “the new science of happiness.” Journal of Philosophy of Education, 42, 591–608. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9752.2008.00646.x
Norrish, J. (2015). Positive Education. The Geelong Grammar School Journey. Oxford University Press.
Norrish, J., Williams, P., O’Connor, M., & Robinson, J. (2013). An Applied Framework for Positive Education. International Journal of Wellbeing, 3(2), 147–161. https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v3i2.2
O’Connor, M., & Cameron, G. (2017). The Geelong Grammar Positive Psychology Experience. In E. Frydenberg, A. Martin, & R. J. Collie (Eds.), Social and Emotional Learning in Australia and the Asia-Pacific (pp. 353–370). Springer Singapore.
O’Connor, P. J., Hill, A., Kaya, M., & Martin, B. (2019). The Measurement of Emotional Intelligence: A Critical Review of the Literature and Recommendations for Researchers and Practitioners. Frontiers in Psychology, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01116
Pekrun, R., Lichtenfeld, S., Marsh, H. W., Murayama, K., & Goetz, T. (2017). Achievement Emotions and Academic Performance: Longitudinal Models of Reciprocal Effects. Child Development, 88(5), 1653–1670. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12704
Prieto Egido, M. (2018). La psicologización de la educación: implicaciones pedagógicas de la inteligencia emocional y la psicología positiva. Educación XX1, 21(1), 303–320. https://doi.org/10.5944/educXX1.20200
Seligman, M. E. P., & Adler, A. (2018). Positive Education. In Global Happiness Policy Report (pp. 52–73). Global Happiness Council, GHC. https://s3.amazonaws.com/ghc-2018/GlobalHappinessPolicyReport2018.pdf
Seligman, M. E. P., Ernst, R. M., Gillham, J., Reivich, K., & Linkins, M. (2009). Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions. Oxford Review of Education, 35(3), 293–311. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054980902934563
Sirin, S. R. (2005). Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417–453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417
Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018). To What Extent and Under Which Circumstances Are Growth Mind-Sets Important to Academic Achievement? Two Meta-Analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617739704
Solé, J., & Moyano, S. (2017). La colonización Psi del discurso educativo. Foro de Educación, 15(23), 101-120. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.14516/fde.551
Spence, S. H., & Shortt, A. L. (2007). Research Review: Can we justify the widespread dissemination of universal, school-based interventions for the prevention of depression among children and adolescents? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48(6), 526–542. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01738.x
Thomas, N., Graham, A., Powell, M. A., & Fitzgerald, R. (2016). Conceptualisations of children’s wellbeing at school: The contribution of recognition theory. Childhood, 23(4), 506–520. https://doi.org/10.1177/0907568215622802
Trask-Kerr, K., Chin, T.-C., & Vella-Brodrick, D. (2019). Positive education and the new prosperity: Exploring young people’s conceptions of prosperity and success. Australian Journal of Education, 63(2), 190–208. https://doi.org/10.1177/0004944119860600
Valentine, J. C., DuBois, D. L., & Cooper, H. (2004). The Relation Between Self-Beliefs and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review. Educational Psychologist, 39(2), 111–133. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep3902_3
Van Dam, N. T., van Vugt, M. K., Vago, D. R., Schmalzl, L., Saron, C. D., Olendzki, A., … Meyer, D. E. (2018). Mind the Hype: A Critical Evaluation and Prescriptive Agenda for Research on Mindfulness and Meditation. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 13(1), 36–61. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617709589
Vella-Brodrick, D. A., Rickard, N. S., & Chin, T. C. (2014). An Evaluation of Positive Education at Geelong Grammar School: A Snapshot of 2013. Melbourne.
Waters, L. (2011). A review of school-based positive psychology interventions. The Australian Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 28(02), 75–90. https://doi.org/10.1375/aedp.28.2.75
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