Política de I+D en Estados Unidos y antecedentes de una diplomacia científica. Apuntes históricos
Resumen La progresiva implicación del gobierno de Estados Unidos en la financiación y promoción de políticas públicas de investigación y desarrollo (I+D) se intensificó en los años cuarenta, enmarcada por la expansión del Estado federal y por la movilización de recursos motivada por la II Guerra Mundial. En aquella coyuntura se creó el Office of Scientific Research and Development-OSRD, dirigido por Vannevar Bush. Las experiencias de la guerra fomentaron la cooperación entre responsables políticos, científicos, ingenieros, militares e industriales, una tendencia que continuó en la posguerra. A medida que se intensificaban las tensiones entre Estados Unidos y la Unión Soviética, se amplió el consenso sobre la necesidad de contar con un sólido sistema de I+D respaldado por una fuerte financiación pública. La Guerra Fría no se limitó a una contienda política, estratégica, económica e ideológica, sino que por su propia dinámica global acarreó una competición por la supremacía científica mundial. En el país americano se promovió la Big Science, articulada en torno a la trilogía de “big money, big equipement, and big teams” en sectores considerados estratégicos. La investigación sobre la energía atómica ocupó un lugar preferente y fue la primera en contar con organismos específicos para su supervisión y organización (la Atomic Energy Commission-AEC), reflejo de su prioridad para la seguridad nacional. Más tarde otras agencias estatales irían sumándose a un entorno concebido para responder a los desafíos de la política de I+D (National Institutes of Health-NIH, National Science Foundation-NSF, National Aeronautics and Space Administration-NASA).Simultáneamente, la política de I+D experimentó un proceso de internacionalización, destinado a fomentar dinámicas de colaboración en un mundo cada vez más globalizado y ganar aliados extranjeros en la confrontación bipolar. La diplomacia científica norteamericana fue configurándose para responder a la proliferación de agencias internacionales que mostraban la creciente presencia de la ciencia y la tecnología en los asuntos mundiales. La Organización Europea de Cooperación Económica-OECE, luego OCDE, sirvió de canal para transferir a los países occidentales los paradigmas y métodos estadounidenses en materia de I+D, haciendo hincapié en la conexión entre crecimiento económico, investigación y formación científico-técnica. Estos principios también influyeron en las políticas de cooperación emprendidas en los años sesenta, con el horizonte de promover el desarrollo del Tercer Mundo y situarlo en la senda de la modernización. Otro ámbito prioritario de aquella diplomacia científica en ciernes fueron los programas de formación de capital humano, cuyos destinatarios actuarían como agentes mediadores del modelo americano con sus sociedades de origen.
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Haas, Peter M. (1992). “Introduction: epistemic communities and international policy coordination”.International Organization46(1), pp. 1-35.
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Hewlett, Richard G., & Duncan, Francis (1969). Atomic Shield, 1947-1952: A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Hewlett, Richard G., & Holl, Jack M. (1989). Atoms for Peace and War, 1953-1961. Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kevles, Daniel J. (1987). The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kevles, Daniel J. (1990). “Principles and Politics in Federal I+D Policy: An Appreciation of the Bush Report”. EnScience, the Endless Frontier: A Report to the President. Washinton D.C., pp. ix-xxxiii.
King, Alexander (1965). “L’OCDE et la Science”. En Emmanuel G. Mesthene (ed.),Les ministres et la science. Paris: OCDE, pp. 17-25.
Kipping, Mathias, & Bjarvar, Ove (eds.) (1998). The Americanisation of European Business: The Marshall Plan and the Transfer of US Management Models. London: Routledge.
Kramer, Paul A. (2009). “Is the World Our Campus? International Students and U.S. Global Power in the Long Twentieth Century”.Diplomatic History, 33(5), pp. 775-806.
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Krige, John (2008). American Hegemony and the Postwar Reconstruction of Science in Europe. Cambridge-Mass: The MIT Press.
Krige, John, & Barth, Kai-Henrik (2006). “Introduction: Science, Technology, and International Affairs”. En John Krige and Kai-Henrik Barth (eds.),Global Power Knowledge. Science and Technology in International Affairs. Osiris 21, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1-21.
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Lambright, W. Henry (1985). Presidential Management of Science and Technology: The Johnson Presidency. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Latham, Michael (2000). Modernization as Ideology. American Social Science and Nation Building in the Kennedy Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Launius, Roger (1994). NASA, A History of the US Civil Space Program. Malabar-Fla: Krieger.
Lebovic, Sam (2013). “From War Junk to Educational Exchange: The World War II Origins of the Fulbright Program and the Foundations of American Cultural Globalism, 1945-1950”.Diplomatic History,37(2), pp. 280-312.
Leslie, Stuart W. (1993). The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford. New York: Columbia University Press.
Lowen, Rebecca (1997). Creating the Cold War University: The transformation of Stanford. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Manzione, Joseph (2000). “«Amusing and Amazing and Practical and Military»: The Legacy of Scientific Internationalism in American Foreign Policy, 1945-1963”.Diplomatic History,24(1), pp. 21-55.
McDougall, Walter A. (1985). The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age. New York: Basic Books.
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Mesthene, Emmanuel G. (ed.) (1965). Les ministres et la science. Paris: OCDE.
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Westad, Odd A. (2000). “The New International History of the Cold War: Three (Possible) Paradigms”.Diplomatic History,24, pp. 551-565.
Whitesides, Greg (2019). Science and American Foreign Relations since World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wolfe, Audra J. (2018). Freedom’s Laboratory: The Cold War Struggle for the Soul of Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Alperovitz, Gar (1965). Atomic Diplomacy: Hiroshima and Postdam. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Atkinson, Carol (2014). Military Soft Power: Public Diplomacy through Military Educational Exchanges. Lanham-MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
Barjot, Dominique (ed.) (2002). Catching up with America. Productivity Missions and the Diffusion of American Economic and Technological Influence after the Second World War. Paris: Presses de l’Université de Paris-Sorbonne.
Barksdale Clowes, Barbara (1981). Brainpower for the Cold War: The Sputnik Crisis and National Defense Education Act of 1958. Westport-CT: Greenwood Press.
Bird, Kai, & Sherwin, Martin J. (2005). American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer. New York: Knopf.
Blumtritt, Oskar, Petzold, Hartmunt, & Aspra, William (eds.) (1994). Tracking the History of Radar. New Jersey: The IEEE-Rutgers Center for the History of Electrical Engineering.
Bush, Vannevar (1945). Science the Endless Frontier. A Report to the President. Washington D.C.: United States Government Printing Office. Reeditado en 1990 con motivo del 40 aniversario de la National Science Foundation.
Dennis, Michael A. (1994). “«Our First Line of Defense». Two University Laboratories in the Postwar American State”.Isis,85(3), pp. 427-455.
Divine, Robert A. (1993). The Sputnik Challenge: Eisenhower’s Response to the Soviet Satellite. New York: Oxford University Press.
Djelic, Marie-Laure (1998). Exporting the American Model. The Postwar Transformation of European Business. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Doel, Ronald E. (1997). “Scientists as Policymakers, Advisors, and Intelligence Agents: Linking Contemporary Diplomatic History with the History of Contemporary Science”. En Thomas Söderqvist (ed.),The Historiography of Contemporary Science and Technology. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publishers, pp. 215-244.
Doel, Ronald E. (2015). “Scientists, Secrecy, and Scientific Intelligence: The Challenges of International Science in Cold War America”. En Jeroen van Dongen (ed.),Cold War Science and the Transatlantic Circulation of Knowledge. Leiden: Brill, pp. 11-35.
Doel, Ronald E., & Harper, Kristine C. (2023). “Science and Technology”. En G. Kurt Piehler and Jonathan A. Grant (eds.),The Oxford Handbook of World War II. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 431-447.
Drogan, Mara (2016). “The Nuclear Imperative: Atoms for Peace and the Development of U.S. Policy on Exporting Nuclear Power, 1953-1955” Diplomatic History,40(5), pp. 948-974.
Dupree, A. Hunter (1972). “The Great Instauration of 1940: The Organization of Scientific Research for War”. En Gerald Holton (ed.),The Twentieth Century Sciences: Studies in the Biography of Ideas. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., pp. 457-459.
Dupree, A. Hunter (1986). Science in the Federal Government: A History of Policies and Activities. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press (revised edition).
Elfert, Maren (2019). “The OECD, American Power and the Rise of the ‘Economics of Education’ in the 1960s”. En Christian Ydesen (ed.),The OECD’s Historical Rise in Education. The Formation of a Global Governing Complex. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 39-61.
Engerman, David C. (2004). “The Romance of Economic Development and New Histories of the Cold War”.Diplomatic History,28, pp. 23-54.
England, J. Merton (1982). A Patron for Pure Science: The National Science Foundation’s Formative Years, 1945-57. Washington D.C.: National Science Foundation.
Flamm, Kenneth (1988). Creating the Computer: Government, Industry, and High Technology. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution Press.
Fischer, David (1997). History of International Atomic Energy Agency. The First Forty Years. Viena: IAEA.
Frey, Marc, Kunkel, Sönke, & Unger, Corinna (eds.) (2014). International Organizations and Development. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Friedberg, Aaron (1996). “Science, the Cold War, and the American State”.Diplomatic History,20(1), pp. 107-118.
Galison, Peter, & Hevly, Bruce (eds.) (1992). Big Science: The Growth of Large-Scale Research. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Geiger, Roger L. (1993). Research and Relevant Knowledge: American Research Universities since World War II. New York: Oxford University Press.
Gilman, Nils (2003). Mandarins of the Future. Modernization Theory in Cold War America. Baltimore: The Jonhs Hopkins University Press.
Godin, Benoit (2004). Measurement and Statistics on Science and Technology. 1920 to the Present. London: Routledge.
Gorn, Michael H. (1988). Harnessing the Genie. Science and Technology Forecasting for the Air Force, 1944-1986. Washington D.C.: Office of Air Force History.
Gourvish, Terry, & Tiratsoo, Nick (eds.) (1998). Missionaries and Managers: American influences on European management education, 1945-69. Manchester-New York: Manchester University Press.
Guzzeti, Luca (1995). A Brief History of European Union Research Policy. Luxembourg: OOPEC.
Haas, Peter M. (1992). “Introduction: epistemic communities and international policy coordination”.International Organization46(1), pp. 1-35.
Herken, Gregg (1982). The Winning Weapon: The Atomic Bomb in the Cold War, 1945-50. New York: Vintage.
Hewlett, Richard G., & Duncan, Francis (1969). Atomic Shield, 1947-1952: A History of the United States Atomic Energy Commission. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Hewlett, Richard G., & Holl, Jack M. (1989). Atoms for Peace and War, 1953-1961. Eisenhower and the Atomic Energy Commission. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Kevles, Daniel J. (1987). The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Kevles, Daniel J. (1990). “Principles and Politics in Federal I+D Policy: An Appreciation of the Bush Report”. EnScience, the Endless Frontier: A Report to the President. Washinton D.C., pp. ix-xxxiii.
King, Alexander (1965). “L’OCDE et la Science”. En Emmanuel G. Mesthene (ed.),Les ministres et la science. Paris: OCDE, pp. 17-25.
Kipping, Mathias, & Bjarvar, Ove (eds.) (1998). The Americanisation of European Business: The Marshall Plan and the Transfer of US Management Models. London: Routledge.
Kramer, Paul A. (2009). “Is the World Our Campus? International Students and U.S. Global Power in the Long Twentieth Century”.Diplomatic History, 33(5), pp. 775-806.
Krige, John (2006). “Atoms for Peace, Scientific Internationalism, and Scientific Intelligence”. En John Krige and Kai-Henrik Barth (eds.),Global Power Knowledge. Science and Technology in International Affairs. Osiris 21, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 161-181.
Krige, John (2008). American Hegemony and the Postwar Reconstruction of Science in Europe. Cambridge-Mass: The MIT Press.
Krige, John, & Barth, Kai-Henrik (2006). “Introduction: Science, Technology, and International Affairs”. En John Krige and Kai-Henrik Barth (eds.),Global Power Knowledge. Science and Technology in International Affairs. Osiris 21, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 1-21.
Krige, John, & Wang, Jessica (2015). “Nation, Knowledge, and Imagined Futures: Science, Technology, and Nation-Building, Post-1945”.History and Technology, 31, pp. 298-335.
Lambright, W. Henry (1985). Presidential Management of Science and Technology: The Johnson Presidency. Austin: University of Texas Press.
Latham, Michael (2000). Modernization as Ideology. American Social Science and Nation Building in the Kennedy Era. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Launius, Roger (1994). NASA, A History of the US Civil Space Program. Malabar-Fla: Krieger.
Lebovic, Sam (2013). “From War Junk to Educational Exchange: The World War II Origins of the Fulbright Program and the Foundations of American Cultural Globalism, 1945-1950”.Diplomatic History,37(2), pp. 280-312.
Leslie, Stuart W. (1993). The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford. New York: Columbia University Press.
Lowen, Rebecca (1997). Creating the Cold War University: The transformation of Stanford. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Manzione, Joseph (2000). “«Amusing and Amazing and Practical and Military»: The Legacy of Scientific Internationalism in American Foreign Policy, 1945-1963”.Diplomatic History,24(1), pp. 21-55.
McDougall, Walter A. (1985). The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age. New York: Basic Books.
Mehili, Elidor (2014). “Technology and the Cold War”. En Artemi Kalinovsky and Craig Daigle (eds.),The Routledge Handbook of the Cold War. London: Routledge, pp. 292-304.
Mesthene, Emmanuel G. (ed.) (1965). Les ministres et la science. Paris: OCDE.
Miller, Clark A. (2006). “’An Effective Instrument of Peace’. Scientific Cooperation as an Instrument of U.S. Foreign Policy, 1938-1950”. En John Krige and Kai-Henrik Barth (eds.),Global Power Knowledge. Science and Technology in International Affairs. Osiris 21, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 133-160.
Moore, Kelly (2008). Disrupting Science: Social Movements, American Scientists, and the Politics of the Military, 1945-1975. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Mott IV, William H. (2002). United States Military Assistance. An Empirical Perspective. Westport and London: Greenwood Press.
Nye Jr., Joseph S. (2004). Soft Power: The Means to Success in World Politics. New York: Public Affairs.
Oreskes, Naomi, & Krige, John (eds.) (2014). Science and Technology in the Global Cold War. Boston: MIT Press.
Osgood, Kenneth (2006). Total Cold War: Eisenhower’s Secret Propaganda Battle at Home and Abroad. Lawrence: University of Kansas Press.
Reynolds, David (2010). “Science, technology, and the Cold War”. En Melvyn P. Leffler and Odd Arne Westad (eds.),The Cambridge History of the Cold War, Vol. III Endings. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 378-399.
Rhodes, Richard (1986). The Making of the Atomic Bomb. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Rubinson, Paul (2014). “U.S. Scientists and the Cold War”. En Artemy M. Kalinovsky and Craig Daigle (eds.),The Routledge Handbook of the Cold War. New York & London: Routledge, pp. 249-258.
Sapolsky, Harvey (1990). Science and the Navy: The History of the Office of Naval Research. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Schmeltzer, Matthias (2016). The Hegemony of Growth: The OECD and the Making of the Economic Growth. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Science at the Bicentennial (1976). A Report from the Research Community. Washington D.C.: National Science Board.
Scott-Smith, Giles (2006). “Building a community around the Paix Americana. The US government and exchange programs during the 1950s”. En Helen Laville and Hugh Wilford (eds.),The US Government, Citizen Groups and the Cold War. The state-private network. London & New York: Routledge, pp. 83-99.
Scott-Smith, Giles (2008). Networks of Empire: The US State Department's Foreign Leader Program in the Netherlands, France, and Britain 1950-70. Brussels: P.I.E. Peter Lang.
Sherwin, Martin (2003). A World Destroyed: Hiroshima and Its Legacies. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
Smith, Bruce L. R. (1992). The Advisors: Scientists in the Policy Process. Washington D.C.: Brookings Institution.
Stewart, Irving (1948). Organizing Scientific Research for War: The Administrative History of the Office of Scientific Research and Development. Boston: Little, Brown & Co.
Tent, James F. (1982). Mission on the Rhine: “Reeducation” and Denazification in American-Occupied Germany. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
The National Science Foundation (1994). The National Science Foundation: A Brief History. National Science Foundation.
Thomson, Charles A., & Laves, Walter H. C. (1963). Cultural Relations and U.S. Foreign Policy. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Tobia, Simona (2008). Advertising America. The Unites States Information Service in Italy, 1945-1956. Milano: LED Edizioni Universitarie.
Tournes, Ludovic (2020). Américanisation. Une histoire mondiale (XVIIIe -XXe siècle). Paris: Fayard.
Tournes, Ludovic, & Scott-Smith, Giles (2018). “A World of Exchanges: Conceptualizing the History of International Scholarship Programs (Nineteenth to Twenty-First Centuries)”. En Ludovic Tournes & Giles Scott-Smith (eds.),Global Exchanges. Scholarships and Transnational Circulations in the Modern World. New York-Oxford: Berghahn Books, pp. 1-29.
Unger, Corinna (2018). International Development. A Postwar History.London: Bloomsbury Academic.
Wagnleitner, Reinhold (1994). Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Cold War. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
Wang, Zuoyue (2008). In Sputnik's Shadow: The President's Science Advisory Committee and Cold War America. New Brunswick-NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Weber, Nathaniel R. (2016). United States Military Assistance Groups during the Cold War, 1945-1965. Texas A&M University.
Westad, Odd A. (2000). “The New International History of the Cold War: Three (Possible) Paradigms”.Diplomatic History,24, pp. 551-565.
Whitesides, Greg (2019). Science and American Foreign Relations since World War II. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wolfe, Audra J. (2018). Freedom’s Laboratory: The Cold War Struggle for the Soul of Science. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Gómez-Escalonilla, L. D. (2025). Política de I+D en Estados Unidos y antecedentes de una diplomacia científica. Apuntes históricos. Artefactos. Revista De Estudios Filosóficos Sobre Ciencia Y Tecnología, 14, e32641. https://doi.org/10.14201/art2025.32641
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