Media Choice and the Polarization of Public Opinion About Covid-19 in Brazil
Abstract Brazil is one of the countries most affected by the Covid-19 pandemic. Yet, while rates of contagion and deaths increase over time, polls show that opinions about the pandemic become less concerned about the virus and less supportive of mitigation measures. According to observers, a key factor in this process is President Bolsonaro’s denialist stance. In this paper, we show that patterns of media choice help explain how Bolsonaro influences public opinion over time. Using three online surveys conducted at different stages of the pandemic, we show that the divergence in views about the pandemic is driven largely by Bolsonaro supporters who prefer to consume news online. The findings have implications not just for understanding the politicization of the pandemic in Brazil, but also for the relationship between populism and mass communications in the social media era.
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Ajzenman, N., Cavalcanti, T., & Da Mata, D. (2020). More than Words: Leaders’ Speech and Risky Behavior During a Pandemic. Available at SSRN 3582908 (2020).
Baekkeskov, E. and Rubin, O. (2014). Why pandemic response is unique: powerful experts and hands-off political leaders. Disaster Prevention and Management, 23(1), 81-93.
Bakshy, E., Messing, S., & Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130-1132.
Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting From Left to Right: Is Online Political Communication More Than an Echo Chamber? Psychological Science, 26(10), 1531-1542.
Bennett, W. L., & Iyengar, S. (2008). A New Era of Minimal Effects? the Changing Founda¬tions of Political Communication. Journal of Communication, 58, 707-731.
Betz, H.-G. (2019). Populist mobilization across time and space. In K. A. Hawkins, R. A. Carlin, L. Littvay, & C. R. Kaltwasser (Eds.), The ideational approach to populism: concept, theory and analysis (pp. 181-201). New York: Routledge.
Boas, T. C. (2005). Television and Neopopulism in Latin America: Media Effects in Brazil and Peru. Latin American Research Review, 40(2), 27-49.
Bol, D., Giani, M., Blais, A., & Loewen, P. J. (forthcoming, 2020). The effect of COVID-19 lock¬downs on political support: Some good news for democracy? European Journal of Political Research.
Calvo, E., & Ventura, T. (forthcoming, 2020). Will I get COVID-19? partisanship, Social Media Frames, and Perceptions of Health Risk in Brazil. Latin American Politics & Society.
Cohen, J. E. (2015). Presidential Leadership of Public Opinion: An Embedded Survey Experi¬ment. Political Communication, 32(3), 345-355.
Croda, J., de Oliveira, W. K., Frutuoso, R. L., Mandetta, L. H., da Silva, D. C. B., Brito-Souza, J. D., Monteiro, W. M., and aes Lacerda, M. V. G. (2020). COVID-19 in Brazil: advantages of a socialized uni ed health system and preparation to contain cases. Journal of the Brazil¬ian Society of Tropical Medicine, 53(e20200167), 1-6.
Datafolha (2020a). Opinião sobre a pandemia de coronavírus: conhecimento e meios de in¬formaçãp. Retrieved from: http://datafolha.folha.uol.com.br/opiniaopublica/2020/04/ 1988655-78-se-consideram-bem-informados-sobre-coronavirus.shtml.
Datafolha (2020b). Opiniões sobre a pandemia coronavírus. Retrieved from: http://data-folha.folha.uol.com.br/opiniaopublica/2020/05/1988729-60-sao-favoraveis-a-fecha¬mento-total-para-conter-coronavirus.shtml.
Deutsche Welle. (2020, March 7). Coronavírus: Bolsonaro diz que não há motivo para pâ¬nico. Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/pt-br/coronavrus-bolsonaro-diz-que-no-h-motivo-para-pnico/a-52675458.
do Amaral, O. E. (2020). The Victory of Jair Bolsonaro According to the Brazilian Electoral Study of 2018. Brazilian Political Science Review, 14(1), 1-13.
Duque, D., & Smith, A. E. (2019). The Establishment Upside Down: A Year of Change in Bra¬zil. Revista de Ciencia Política, 39(2), 165-189.
Eisenhammer, S., & Spring, J. (2020, March 24). Bolsonaro urges Brazilians back to work, dismisses coronavirus ‘hysteria’. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-brazil/bolsonaro-urges-brazilians-back-to-work-dismisses-coronavirus-hysteria-idUSKBN21B2H2/.
Fraile, M., & Iyengar, S. (2014). Not all news sources are equally informative: A cross- na¬tional analysis of political knowledge in europe. International Journal of Press/Politics, 19(3), 275-294.
G1. (2020, March 9). Bolsonaro diz que ‘poder destruidor’ do coronavírus ‘está sendo super¬dimensionado’. G1. https://g1.globo.com/bemestar/coronavirus/noticia/2020/03/09/ bolsonaro-diz-que-poder-destruidor-do-coronavirus-esta-sendo-superdimensionado. ghtml.
Galhardi, C. P., Freire, N. P., de Souza Minayo, M. C., & Fagundes, M. C. M. (2020). Fact or Fake? an analysis of disinformation regarding the Covid-19 pandemic in Brazil. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 25, 4201-4210.
Impactos da pandemia de COVID-19 na televisão brasileira. (2021, January 8). In Wiki¬pedia. Retrieved from https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impactos_da_pandemia_de_ COVID-19_na_televisão_brasileira.
IPSOS (2020). What Worries the World? Retrieved from: https://www.ipsos.com/sites/ default/files/ct/news/documents/2020-04/what-worries-the-world-april-2020-ipsos. pdf.
Kata, A. (2012). Anti-vaccine activists, web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm – an overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine, 30(25), 3778–3789.
Machado, C., Kira, B., Narayanan, V., Kollanyi, B., & Howard, P. N. (2019). A study of misin¬formation in Whatsapp groups with a focus on the Brazilian presidential elections. In Proceedings of The Web Conference, WWW’19.
Manchetômetro. (2020, April 22). Boletim M - A Cobertura do Coronavírus. Retrieved from http://www.manchetometro.com.br/index.php/publicacoes/boletim-m/2020/04/22/ boletim-m-a-cobertura-do-coronavirus/.
Massuchin, M. G., Mitozo, I. B., & de Carvalho, F. C. (2017). Eleições e debate político on-line em 2014: os comentários no Facebook do jornal O Estado de São Paulo. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Política, 23, 295-320.
McIntyre, L. (2018). Post-truth. Cambridge: MIT Press.
McKee, M., & Diethelm, P. (2010). How the growth of denialism undermines public health. The BJM, 341, 1-6.
Mendonça, R. F., & Amaral, E. F. L. (2016). Racionalidade online: provimento de razões em discussões virtuais. Opinião Pública, 22(2), 418-445.
M_i_t_o_z_o_,_ _I_._ _B_._,_ _M_a_s_s_u_c_h_i_n_,_ _M_._ _G_._,_ _&_ _d_e_ _C_a_r_v_a_l_h_o_,_ _F_._ _C_._ _(_2_0_1_7_)_._ _D_e_b_a_t_e_ _p_o_l_í?t_i_c_o_-_e_l_e_i_t_o_r_a_l_ _n_o_ _Facebook: os comentários do público em posts jornalísticos na eleição presidencial de 2014. Opinião Pública, 23(2), 459-484.
Mondak, J. J. (1993). Source cues and policy approval: The cognitive dynamics of public sup¬port for the Reagan agenda. American Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 186-212.
Mounk, Y. (2018). The people vs. democracy: Why our freedom is in danger and how to save it. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Ox¬ford University Press.
Mundim, P. S. (2012). Imprensa e voto nas eleições presidenciais brasileiras de 2002 e 2006. Revista de Sociologia e Política, 20(41), 123-147.
Porto, M. (2010). The Changing Landscape of Brazil’s News Media. In D. A. Levy and R. K. Nielsen (Eds.), The Changing Business of Journalism and its Implications for Democracy (pp. 107-124). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Porto, M. (2012). Media Power and Democratization in Brazil: TV Globo and the Dilemmas of Political Accountability. New York: Routledge.
Prior, M. (2005). News vs. Entertainment: How Increasing Media Choice Widens Gaps in Political Knowledge and Turnout. American Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 577-592.
Ragsdale, L. (1984). The politics of presidential speechmaking, 1949-1980. The American Political Science Review, 78(4), 971-984.
Recuero, R., & Soares, F. (2020). O Discurso Desinformativo sobre a Cura do COVID-19 no Twitter. E-Compós.
Reluga, T. C. (2010). Game theory of social distancing in response to an epidemic. PLos Com¬putational Biology, 6(5), 1-9.
Rennó, L. (Forthcoming, 2020). The Bolsonaro Voter: Issue Positions and Vote Choice in the 2018 Brazilian Presidential Elections. Latin American Politics & Society.
Resende, G., Melo, P., Reis, J. C. S., Vasconcelos, M., Almeida, J., & Benevenuto, F. (2019). Analyzing Textual (Mis)information Shared in WhatsApp Groups. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Web Science, WebSci’19.
Ricard, J., & Medeiros, J. (2020). Using misinformation as a political weapon: COVID- 19 and Bolsonaro in Brazil. The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(2), 1-7.
Rocha, M. M., de Almeida, P., & Corrêa, I. (2020). Os Governos Municipais Frente ao Coro¬navirus: Um Balano Provisório. Research Report: Núcleo de Estudos sobre Política Local (UFJF).
Rossini, P., Stromer-Galley, J., Erica Anita Baptista, & Vanessa Veiga de Oliveira (2020). Dysfunctional information sharing on Whatsapp and Facebook: The role of political talk, cross-cutting exposure and social corrections. new media & society, 1-22.
Rottinghaus, B. (2009). Strategic leaders: Determining successful presidential opinion lead¬ership tactics through public appeals. Political Communication, 26(3), 296-316.
Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism and the Question of How to Respond to it. In R. Kalt¬wasser, C., Taggart, P., Espejo, P. O., & Ostiguy, P. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Pop¬ulism (pp. 489-507). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sahneh, F. D., Chowdhury, F. N., & Scoglio, C. M. (2012). On the existence of a threshold for preventive behavioral responses to suppress epidemic spreading. Scientific Reports, 2(632), 1-8.
Salathé, M., & Bonhoeffer, S. (2008). The effect of opinion clustering on disease out- breaks. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 5(29), 1505-1508.
Silva, C., & Suzart, W. (2020). Reflexivity and media: the covid-19 and local development in Brazil. International Journal of Development Research, 10(08), 39434-39437.
Storopoli, J., da Silva Neto, W. L. B., & Mesch, G. S. (2020). Confidence in social institutions, perceived vulnerability and the adoption of recommended protective behaviors in brazil during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Science and Medicine, 265, 1-7.
Stroud, N. J. (2008). Media use and political predispositions: Revisiting the concept of selec¬tive exposure. Political Behavior, 30, 341-366.
Stroud, N. J. (2010). Polarization and Partisan Selective Exposure. Journal of Communication, 60, 556–576.
Tamaki, E. R., & Fuks, M. (2020). Populism in Brazil’s 2018 General Elections: An Analyses of Bolsonaro’s Campaign Speeches. Lua Nova, 109, 103-127.
Vieira, M. C., & Matos, C. (2020, June 19). A retórica de Bolsonaro: o que revelam os discursos na pandemia. Veja. Retrieved from: https://veja.abril.com.br/politica/a-retorica-de-bolsonaro-o-que-revelam-os-discursos-na-pandemia/
Waisbord, S., & Amado, A. (2017). Populist communication by digital means: presidential Twitter in Latin America. Information, Communication & Society, 20(9), 1330-1346.
Waldron, T. (2020, March 12). Bolsonaro Blames the Medias as Coronavirus Worsens in Brazil. Huffpost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/jair-bolsonaro-coronavirus-brazil-tr ump_n_5e6a443cc5b6747ef1186cb3.
Weyland, K. (1998). The Politics of Corruption in Latin America. Journal of Democracy, 9(2).
Weyland, K. (2001). Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of Latin Ameri¬can Politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22.
Baekkeskov, E. and Rubin, O. (2014). Why pandemic response is unique: powerful experts and hands-off political leaders. Disaster Prevention and Management, 23(1), 81-93.
Bakshy, E., Messing, S., & Adamic, L. A. (2015). Exposure to ideologically diverse news and opinion on Facebook. Science, 348(6239), 1130-1132.
Barberá, P., Jost, J. T., Nagler, J., Tucker, J. A., & Bonneau, R. (2015). Tweeting From Left to Right: Is Online Political Communication More Than an Echo Chamber? Psychological Science, 26(10), 1531-1542.
Bennett, W. L., & Iyengar, S. (2008). A New Era of Minimal Effects? the Changing Founda¬tions of Political Communication. Journal of Communication, 58, 707-731.
Betz, H.-G. (2019). Populist mobilization across time and space. In K. A. Hawkins, R. A. Carlin, L. Littvay, & C. R. Kaltwasser (Eds.), The ideational approach to populism: concept, theory and analysis (pp. 181-201). New York: Routledge.
Boas, T. C. (2005). Television and Neopopulism in Latin America: Media Effects in Brazil and Peru. Latin American Research Review, 40(2), 27-49.
Bol, D., Giani, M., Blais, A., & Loewen, P. J. (forthcoming, 2020). The effect of COVID-19 lock¬downs on political support: Some good news for democracy? European Journal of Political Research.
Calvo, E., & Ventura, T. (forthcoming, 2020). Will I get COVID-19? partisanship, Social Media Frames, and Perceptions of Health Risk in Brazil. Latin American Politics & Society.
Cohen, J. E. (2015). Presidential Leadership of Public Opinion: An Embedded Survey Experi¬ment. Political Communication, 32(3), 345-355.
Croda, J., de Oliveira, W. K., Frutuoso, R. L., Mandetta, L. H., da Silva, D. C. B., Brito-Souza, J. D., Monteiro, W. M., and aes Lacerda, M. V. G. (2020). COVID-19 in Brazil: advantages of a socialized uni ed health system and preparation to contain cases. Journal of the Brazil¬ian Society of Tropical Medicine, 53(e20200167), 1-6.
Datafolha (2020a). Opinião sobre a pandemia de coronavírus: conhecimento e meios de in¬formaçãp. Retrieved from: http://datafolha.folha.uol.com.br/opiniaopublica/2020/04/ 1988655-78-se-consideram-bem-informados-sobre-coronavirus.shtml.
Datafolha (2020b). Opiniões sobre a pandemia coronavírus. Retrieved from: http://data-folha.folha.uol.com.br/opiniaopublica/2020/05/1988729-60-sao-favoraveis-a-fecha¬mento-total-para-conter-coronavirus.shtml.
Deutsche Welle. (2020, March 7). Coronavírus: Bolsonaro diz que não há motivo para pâ¬nico. Deutsche Welle. https://www.dw.com/pt-br/coronavrus-bolsonaro-diz-que-no-h-motivo-para-pnico/a-52675458.
do Amaral, O. E. (2020). The Victory of Jair Bolsonaro According to the Brazilian Electoral Study of 2018. Brazilian Political Science Review, 14(1), 1-13.
Duque, D., & Smith, A. E. (2019). The Establishment Upside Down: A Year of Change in Bra¬zil. Revista de Ciencia Política, 39(2), 165-189.
Eisenhammer, S., & Spring, J. (2020, March 24). Bolsonaro urges Brazilians back to work, dismisses coronavirus ‘hysteria’. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-health-coronavirus-brazil/bolsonaro-urges-brazilians-back-to-work-dismisses-coronavirus-hysteria-idUSKBN21B2H2/.
Fraile, M., & Iyengar, S. (2014). Not all news sources are equally informative: A cross- na¬tional analysis of political knowledge in europe. International Journal of Press/Politics, 19(3), 275-294.
G1. (2020, March 9). Bolsonaro diz que ‘poder destruidor’ do coronavírus ‘está sendo super¬dimensionado’. G1. https://g1.globo.com/bemestar/coronavirus/noticia/2020/03/09/ bolsonaro-diz-que-poder-destruidor-do-coronavirus-esta-sendo-superdimensionado. ghtml.
Galhardi, C. P., Freire, N. P., de Souza Minayo, M. C., & Fagundes, M. C. M. (2020). Fact or Fake? an analysis of disinformation regarding the Covid-19 pandemic in Brazil. Ciência & Saúde Coletiva, 25, 4201-4210.
Impactos da pandemia de COVID-19 na televisão brasileira. (2021, January 8). In Wiki¬pedia. Retrieved from https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impactos_da_pandemia_de_ COVID-19_na_televisão_brasileira.
IPSOS (2020). What Worries the World? Retrieved from: https://www.ipsos.com/sites/ default/files/ct/news/documents/2020-04/what-worries-the-world-april-2020-ipsos. pdf.
Kata, A. (2012). Anti-vaccine activists, web 2.0, and the postmodern paradigm – an overview of tactics and tropes used online by the anti-vaccination movement. Vaccine, 30(25), 3778–3789.
Machado, C., Kira, B., Narayanan, V., Kollanyi, B., & Howard, P. N. (2019). A study of misin¬formation in Whatsapp groups with a focus on the Brazilian presidential elections. In Proceedings of The Web Conference, WWW’19.
Manchetômetro. (2020, April 22). Boletim M - A Cobertura do Coronavírus. Retrieved from http://www.manchetometro.com.br/index.php/publicacoes/boletim-m/2020/04/22/ boletim-m-a-cobertura-do-coronavirus/.
Massuchin, M. G., Mitozo, I. B., & de Carvalho, F. C. (2017). Eleições e debate político on-line em 2014: os comentários no Facebook do jornal O Estado de São Paulo. Revista Brasileira de Ciência Política, 23, 295-320.
McIntyre, L. (2018). Post-truth. Cambridge: MIT Press.
McKee, M., & Diethelm, P. (2010). How the growth of denialism undermines public health. The BJM, 341, 1-6.
Mendonça, R. F., & Amaral, E. F. L. (2016). Racionalidade online: provimento de razões em discussões virtuais. Opinião Pública, 22(2), 418-445.
M_i_t_o_z_o_,_ _I_._ _B_._,_ _M_a_s_s_u_c_h_i_n_,_ _M_._ _G_._,_ _&_ _d_e_ _C_a_r_v_a_l_h_o_,_ _F_._ _C_._ _(_2_0_1_7_)_._ _D_e_b_a_t_e_ _p_o_l_í?t_i_c_o_-_e_l_e_i_t_o_r_a_l_ _n_o_ _Facebook: os comentários do público em posts jornalísticos na eleição presidencial de 2014. Opinião Pública, 23(2), 459-484.
Mondak, J. J. (1993). Source cues and policy approval: The cognitive dynamics of public sup¬port for the Reagan agenda. American Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 186-212.
Mounk, Y. (2018). The people vs. democracy: Why our freedom is in danger and how to save it. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Ox¬ford University Press.
Mundim, P. S. (2012). Imprensa e voto nas eleições presidenciais brasileiras de 2002 e 2006. Revista de Sociologia e Política, 20(41), 123-147.
Porto, M. (2010). The Changing Landscape of Brazil’s News Media. In D. A. Levy and R. K. Nielsen (Eds.), The Changing Business of Journalism and its Implications for Democracy (pp. 107-124). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Porto, M. (2012). Media Power and Democratization in Brazil: TV Globo and the Dilemmas of Political Accountability. New York: Routledge.
Prior, M. (2005). News vs. Entertainment: How Increasing Media Choice Widens Gaps in Political Knowledge and Turnout. American Journal of Political Science, 49(3), 577-592.
Ragsdale, L. (1984). The politics of presidential speechmaking, 1949-1980. The American Political Science Review, 78(4), 971-984.
Recuero, R., & Soares, F. (2020). O Discurso Desinformativo sobre a Cura do COVID-19 no Twitter. E-Compós.
Reluga, T. C. (2010). Game theory of social distancing in response to an epidemic. PLos Com¬putational Biology, 6(5), 1-9.
Rennó, L. (Forthcoming, 2020). The Bolsonaro Voter: Issue Positions and Vote Choice in the 2018 Brazilian Presidential Elections. Latin American Politics & Society.
Resende, G., Melo, P., Reis, J. C. S., Vasconcelos, M., Almeida, J., & Benevenuto, F. (2019). Analyzing Textual (Mis)information Shared in WhatsApp Groups. In Proceedings of the ACM Conference on Web Science, WebSci’19.
Ricard, J., & Medeiros, J. (2020). Using misinformation as a political weapon: COVID- 19 and Bolsonaro in Brazil. The Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 1(2), 1-7.
Rocha, M. M., de Almeida, P., & Corrêa, I. (2020). Os Governos Municipais Frente ao Coro¬navirus: Um Balano Provisório. Research Report: Núcleo de Estudos sobre Política Local (UFJF).
Rossini, P., Stromer-Galley, J., Erica Anita Baptista, & Vanessa Veiga de Oliveira (2020). Dysfunctional information sharing on Whatsapp and Facebook: The role of political talk, cross-cutting exposure and social corrections. new media & society, 1-22.
Rottinghaus, B. (2009). Strategic leaders: Determining successful presidential opinion lead¬ership tactics through public appeals. Political Communication, 26(3), 296-316.
Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism and the Question of How to Respond to it. In R. Kalt¬wasser, C., Taggart, P., Espejo, P. O., & Ostiguy, P. (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Pop¬ulism (pp. 489-507). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Sahneh, F. D., Chowdhury, F. N., & Scoglio, C. M. (2012). On the existence of a threshold for preventive behavioral responses to suppress epidemic spreading. Scientific Reports, 2(632), 1-8.
Salathé, M., & Bonhoeffer, S. (2008). The effect of opinion clustering on disease out- breaks. Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 5(29), 1505-1508.
Silva, C., & Suzart, W. (2020). Reflexivity and media: the covid-19 and local development in Brazil. International Journal of Development Research, 10(08), 39434-39437.
Storopoli, J., da Silva Neto, W. L. B., & Mesch, G. S. (2020). Confidence in social institutions, perceived vulnerability and the adoption of recommended protective behaviors in brazil during the COVID-19 pandemic. Social Science and Medicine, 265, 1-7.
Stroud, N. J. (2008). Media use and political predispositions: Revisiting the concept of selec¬tive exposure. Political Behavior, 30, 341-366.
Stroud, N. J. (2010). Polarization and Partisan Selective Exposure. Journal of Communication, 60, 556–576.
Tamaki, E. R., & Fuks, M. (2020). Populism in Brazil’s 2018 General Elections: An Analyses of Bolsonaro’s Campaign Speeches. Lua Nova, 109, 103-127.
Vieira, M. C., & Matos, C. (2020, June 19). A retórica de Bolsonaro: o que revelam os discursos na pandemia. Veja. Retrieved from: https://veja.abril.com.br/politica/a-retorica-de-bolsonaro-o-que-revelam-os-discursos-na-pandemia/
Waisbord, S., & Amado, A. (2017). Populist communication by digital means: presidential Twitter in Latin America. Information, Communication & Society, 20(9), 1330-1346.
Waldron, T. (2020, March 12). Bolsonaro Blames the Medias as Coronavirus Worsens in Brazil. Huffpost. https://www.huffpost.com/entry/jair-bolsonaro-coronavirus-brazil-tr ump_n_5e6a443cc5b6747ef1186cb3.
Weyland, K. (1998). The Politics of Corruption in Latin America. Journal of Democracy, 9(2).
Weyland, K. (2001). Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of Latin Ameri¬can Politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22.
Batista Pereira, F., & Nunes, F. (2021). Media Choice and the Polarization of Public Opinion About Covid-19 in Brazil. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 10(2), 39–57 (Anexo 59. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.23681
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