Assessing Political Knowledge Scales Across Countries: Evidence from Latin America
Abstract An informed public is viewed as essential for democratic representation. Exist- ing work suggests individual-level characteristics such as education affect political information. But contextual factors such as level of democracy and type of electoral system may also impede or facilitate the acquisition of knowledge. However, survey questions often vary across countries, making it difficult to identify the role of con- textual factors. Using the AmericasBarometer surveys from Latin America and the Caribbean, this paper compares alternative scaling methods and demonstrates that the conclusions about knowledge cross-nationally depend on the measure used. The analyses compare a raw additive scale, a standardized additive scale, factor scores, item response scores with anchoring, and item response scores with bridging. The conventional additive scale suggests that very little predicts variation in knowledge across countries, while the alternatives show that factors such democracy, telecom- munications, ethnolinguistic diversity, and electoral system have substantial effects on knowledge.
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Alesina, A., Devleeschauwer, A., Easterly, W., Kurlat, S., and Wacziarg, R. (2003). Fractionalization. Journal of Economic Growth, 8:155-194. - https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024471506938
Alesina, A. and Ferrara, E. L. (2000). Participation in Heterogeneous Communities. - https://doi.org/10.3386/w7859
The Quarterly Journal of Economics, (w7155):847-904.
Anderson, C. J. and Paskeviciute, A. (2006). How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogene- ity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society: A Comparative Study of Citizenship Behavior. The Journal of Politics, 68(4):783-802. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00470.x
Bafumi, J. and Herron, M. C. (2010). Leapfrog representation and extremism: A study of american voters and their members in congress. The American Political Science Review, 104(3):519-542. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055410000316
Barabas, J., Jerit, J., Pollock, W., and Rainey, C. (2014). The Question(s) of Political Knowledge. The American Political Science Review, 108(4):840-855. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055414000392
Batista Pereira, F. (2019). Gendered Political Contexts: The Gender Gap in Political Knowledge. The Journal of Politics, 81(4):1480-1493. - https://doi.org/10.1086/704599
Benz, M. and Stutzer, A. (2004). Are Voters Better Informed When They Have a Larger Say in Politics? Evidence for the European Union and Switzerland. Public Choice, 119(1-2):31-59. - https://doi.org/10.1023/B:PUCH.0000024161.44798.ef
Berggren, H. M. (2001). Institutional Context and Reduction of the Resource Bias in Political Sophistication. Political Research Quarterly, 54(3):531-552. - https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290105400303
Blais, A. and Gidengil, E. (1993). Things Are Not Always What They Seem: French-English Differences and the Problem of Measurement Equivalence. Cana- dian Journal of Political Science, 26(3):541-555. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423900003449
Borjas, G. J. and Sueyoshi, G. T. (1994). A two-stage estimator for probit models with structural group effects. Journal of Econometrics, 64:165-182. - https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)90062-0
Bowler, S. and Donovan, T. (2002). Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes about Citizen Influence on Government. British Journal of Political Science, 32(2):371- 390. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123402000157
Carey, J. M. and Hix, S. (2011). The Electoral Sweet Spot: Low-Magnitude Propor- tional Electoral Systems. American Journal of Political Science, 55(2):383-397. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00495.x
Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex, UK.
Clinton, J., Jackman, S., and Rivers, D. (2004). The Statistical Analysis of Roll Call Data. The American Political Science Review, 98(2):355-370. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055404001194
Costello, A. B. and Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best Practices in Exploratory Factor Analysis: Four Recommendations for Getting the Most From Your Analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 10(7):1-9.
Dassonneville, R. and McAllister, I. (2018). Gender, Political Knowledge, and Descriptive Representation: The Impact of Long-Term Socialization. American Journal of Political Science, 62(2):249-265. - https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12353
Davidov, E., Dulmer, H., Cieciuch, J., Kuntz, A., Sedig, D., and Schmidt, P. (2018). Explaining Measurement Nonequivalence Using Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling: The Case of Attitudes Toward Citizenship Rights. Sociological Methods and Research, 47(4):729-760. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124116672678
DeBell, M. (2013). Harder Than It Looks: Coding Political Knowledge on the ANES. Political Analysis, 21:393-406. - https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt010
Delli Carpini, M. X. and Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matters. Yale University Press, New Haven.
Elff, M. (2009). Political Knowledge in Comparative Perspective: The Problem of Cross-National Equivalence of Measurement. Paper presented at the MPSA 2009 Annual National Conference.
Embretson, S. E. and Reise, S. P. (2000). Item Response Theory For Psychologists. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, New Jersey.
Fortin-Rittberger, J. (2016). Cross-National Gender Gaps in Political Knowledge: How Much is Due to Context? Political Research Quarterly, 69(3):391-402. - https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912916642867
Fortin-Rittberger, J. (2019). Political Knowledge: Assessing the Stability of Gen- der Gaps Cross-Nationally. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, edz005:1-20. - https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz005
Fraile, M. (2013). Do information-rich contexts reduce knowledge inequalities? The contextual determinants of political knowledge in Europe. Acta Politica, 48(2):119-143. - https://doi.org/10.1057/ap.2012.34
Gallagher, M. (1991). Proportionality, Disproportionality, and Electoral Systems. Electoral Studies, 10(1):33-51. - https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(91)90004-C
Gibson, J. L. and Caldeira, G. A. (2009). Knowing the Supreme Court? A Re- consideration of Public Ignorance of the High Court. The Journal of Politics, 71(2):429-441. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609090379
Gordon, S. B. and Segura, G. M. (1997). Cross-National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals: Capability or Choice? The Journal of Politics, 59(1):126-147. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2998218
Gronlund, K. and Milner, H. (2006). The Determinants of Political Knowledge in Comparative Perspective. Scandinavian Political Studies, 29(4):386-406. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2006.00157.x
Iyengar, S. (1976). Assessing Linguistic Equivalence in Multilingual Surveys. Com- parative Politics, 8(4):577-589. Iyengar, S., Curran, J., Lund, A. B., Salovaara-Moring, I., Hahn, K. S., and Coen,
https://doi.org/10.2307/421544
S. (2010). Cross-National versus Individual-Level Differences in Political Infor- mation: A Media Systems Perspective. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion, and Parties, 20(3):291-309. - https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2010.490707
Iyengar, S., Hahn, K. S., Bonfadelli, H., and Marr, M. (2009). "Dark Areas of Ignorance" Revisited: Comparing International Affairs Knowledge in Switzerland and the United States. Communication Research, 36(3):341-358. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650209333024
Jackman, S. (2009). Bayesian Analysis for the Social Sciences. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex, UK. - https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470686621
Johnson, V. E. and Albert, J. H. (1999). Ordinal Data Modelling. Springer, New York.
King, G., Keohane, R. O., and Verba, S. (1994). Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton University Press, Princeton. - https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400821211
Knack, S. and Keefer, P. (1997). Does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4):1251-1288. - https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300555475
Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P. J., Jerit, J., and Rich, R. F. (2001). The Political Environment and Citizen Competence. American Journal of Political Science, 45(2):410-424. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2669349
Lau, R. R. and Redlawsk, D. P. (2001). Advantages and Disadvantages of Cognitive Heuristics in Political Decision Making. American Journal of Political Science, 45(4):951-971. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2669334
Lewis, J. B. and Linzer, D. A. (2005). Estimating Regression Models in Which the Dependent Variable Is Based on Estimates. Political Analysis, 13:345-364. - https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpi026
Lipset, S. M. (1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy. The American Political Science Review, 53(1):69-105. - https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Lo, J., Proksch, S.-O., and Gschwend, T. (2014). A Common Left-Right Scale for Voters and Parties in Europe. Political Analysis, 22:205-223. - https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt028
Luskin, R. C. (1987). Measuring Political Sophistication. American Journal of Political Science, 31(4):856-899. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2111227
Luskin, R. C. and Bullock, J. G. (2011). "Don't Know" Means "Don't Know": DK Responses and the Public's Level of Political Knowledge. The Journal of Politics, 73(1):547-557. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381611000132
Milner, H. (2002). Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work. University Press of New England, Hanover and London.
Mondak, J. J. (1999). Reconsidering the Measurement of Political Knowledge. Political Analysis, 8(1):57-82. - https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029805
Mondak, J. J. and Anderson, M. R. (2004). The Knowledge Gap: A Reexamination of Gender-Based Differences in Political Knowledge. The Journal of Politics, 66(2):492-512. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2004.00161.x
Mondak, J. J. and Canache, D. (2004). Knowledge Variables in Cross-National Social Inquiry. Social Science Quarterly, 85(3):539-558. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00232.x
Neuman, W. R. (1981). Differentiation and Integration: Two Dimensions of Political Thinking. American Journal of Sociology, 86(6):1236-1268. - https://doi.org/10.1086/227384
Pérez, E. O. (2009). Lost in Translation? Item Validity in Bilingual Political Surveys. The Journal of Politics, 71(4):1530-1548. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990156
Prior, M. and Lupia, A. (2008). Money, Time, and Political Knowledge: Distin- guishing Quick Recall and Political Learning Skills. American Journal of Political Science, 52(1):169-183. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00306.x
Przeworski, A. and Teune, H. (1966-1967). Equivalence in Cross-National Research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 30(4):551-568. - https://doi.org/10.1086/267455
Rainey, C. (2015). Strategic mobilization: Why proportional representation de- creases voter mobilization. Electoral Studies, 37:86-98. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2014.10.008
Robison, J. (2015). Who Knows? Question Format and Political Knowledge. In- ternational Journal of Public Opinion Research, 27(1):1-21. - https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edu019
Schoonvelde, M. (2013). Media freedom and the institutional underpinnings of political knowledge. Political Science Research and Methods, (FirstView):1-16.
Sniderman, P. M. and Levendusky, M. S. (2007). An institutional theory of political choice. In Dalton, R. J. and Klingemann, H.-D., editors, Oxford Handbook of Political Behavior, Chapter 23, pages 437-456. Oxford. - https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199270125.003.0023
Tausanovitch, C. and Warshaw, C. (2013). Measuring Constituent Policy Preferences in Congress, State Legislatures, and Cities. The Journal of Politics, 75(2):330-342. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381613000042
Toka, G. (2008). Citizen information, election outcomes and good governance. Electoral Studies, 27:31-44. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2007.11.006
Verba, S. (1993). The Uses of Survey Research in the Study of Comparative Politics: Issues and Strategies. Historical Social Research, 18(2):55-103.
Zechmeister, E. J. and Corral, M. (2013). Individual and Contextual Constraints on Ideological Labels in Latin America. Comparative Political Studies, 46(6):675- 701. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012463880
Zeller, R. A. and Carmines, E. G. (1980). Measurement in the social sciences: The link between theory and data. Cambridge University Press.
Alesina, A., Devleeschauwer, A., Easterly, W., Kurlat, S., and Wacziarg, R. (2003). Fractionalization. Journal of Economic Growth, 8:155-194. - https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024471506938
Alesina, A. and Ferrara, E. L. (2000). Participation in Heterogeneous Communities. - https://doi.org/10.3386/w7859
The Quarterly Journal of Economics, (w7155):847-904.
Anderson, C. J. and Paskeviciute, A. (2006). How Ethnic and Linguistic Heterogene- ity Influence the Prospects for Civil Society: A Comparative Study of Citizenship Behavior. The Journal of Politics, 68(4):783-802. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00470.x
Bafumi, J. and Herron, M. C. (2010). Leapfrog representation and extremism: A study of american voters and their members in congress. The American Political Science Review, 104(3):519-542. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055410000316
Barabas, J., Jerit, J., Pollock, W., and Rainey, C. (2014). The Question(s) of Political Knowledge. The American Political Science Review, 108(4):840-855. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055414000392
Batista Pereira, F. (2019). Gendered Political Contexts: The Gender Gap in Political Knowledge. The Journal of Politics, 81(4):1480-1493. - https://doi.org/10.1086/704599
Benz, M. and Stutzer, A. (2004). Are Voters Better Informed When They Have a Larger Say in Politics? Evidence for the European Union and Switzerland. Public Choice, 119(1-2):31-59. - https://doi.org/10.1023/B:PUCH.0000024161.44798.ef
Berggren, H. M. (2001). Institutional Context and Reduction of the Resource Bias in Political Sophistication. Political Research Quarterly, 54(3):531-552. - https://doi.org/10.1177/106591290105400303
Blais, A. and Gidengil, E. (1993). Things Are Not Always What They Seem: French-English Differences and the Problem of Measurement Equivalence. Cana- dian Journal of Political Science, 26(3):541-555. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423900003449
Borjas, G. J. and Sueyoshi, G. T. (1994). A two-stage estimator for probit models with structural group effects. Journal of Econometrics, 64:165-182. - https://doi.org/10.1016/0304-4076(94)90062-0
Bowler, S. and Donovan, T. (2002). Democracy, Institutions and Attitudes about Citizen Influence on Government. British Journal of Political Science, 32(2):371- 390. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123402000157
Carey, J. M. and Hix, S. (2011). The Electoral Sweet Spot: Low-Magnitude Propor- tional Electoral Systems. American Journal of Political Science, 55(2):383-397. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2010.00495.x
Castells, M. (1996). The Rise of the Network Society. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex, UK.
Clinton, J., Jackman, S., and Rivers, D. (2004). The Statistical Analysis of Roll Call Data. The American Political Science Review, 98(2):355-370. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055404001194
Costello, A. B. and Osborne, J. W. (2005). Best Practices in Exploratory Factor Analysis: Four Recommendations for Getting the Most From Your Analysis. Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 10(7):1-9.
Dassonneville, R. and McAllister, I. (2018). Gender, Political Knowledge, and Descriptive Representation: The Impact of Long-Term Socialization. American Journal of Political Science, 62(2):249-265. - https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12353
Davidov, E., Dulmer, H., Cieciuch, J., Kuntz, A., Sedig, D., and Schmidt, P. (2018). Explaining Measurement Nonequivalence Using Multilevel Structural Equation Modeling: The Case of Attitudes Toward Citizenship Rights. Sociological Methods and Research, 47(4):729-760. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124116672678
DeBell, M. (2013). Harder Than It Looks: Coding Political Knowledge on the ANES. Political Analysis, 21:393-406. - https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt010
Delli Carpini, M. X. and Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans Know About Politics and Why It Matters. Yale University Press, New Haven.
Elff, M. (2009). Political Knowledge in Comparative Perspective: The Problem of Cross-National Equivalence of Measurement. Paper presented at the MPSA 2009 Annual National Conference.
Embretson, S. E. and Reise, S. P. (2000). Item Response Theory For Psychologists. Lawrence Earlbaum Associates, New Jersey.
Fortin-Rittberger, J. (2016). Cross-National Gender Gaps in Political Knowledge: How Much is Due to Context? Political Research Quarterly, 69(3):391-402. - https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912916642867
Fortin-Rittberger, J. (2019). Political Knowledge: Assessing the Stability of Gen- der Gaps Cross-Nationally. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, edz005:1-20. - https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz005
Fraile, M. (2013). Do information-rich contexts reduce knowledge inequalities? The contextual determinants of political knowledge in Europe. Acta Politica, 48(2):119-143. - https://doi.org/10.1057/ap.2012.34
Gallagher, M. (1991). Proportionality, Disproportionality, and Electoral Systems. Electoral Studies, 10(1):33-51. - https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(91)90004-C
Gibson, J. L. and Caldeira, G. A. (2009). Knowing the Supreme Court? A Re- consideration of Public Ignorance of the High Court. The Journal of Politics, 71(2):429-441. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609090379
Gordon, S. B. and Segura, G. M. (1997). Cross-National Variation in the Political Sophistication of Individuals: Capability or Choice? The Journal of Politics, 59(1):126-147. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2998218
Gronlund, K. and Milner, H. (2006). The Determinants of Political Knowledge in Comparative Perspective. Scandinavian Political Studies, 29(4):386-406. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9477.2006.00157.x
Iyengar, S. (1976). Assessing Linguistic Equivalence in Multilingual Surveys. Com- parative Politics, 8(4):577-589. Iyengar, S., Curran, J., Lund, A. B., Salovaara-Moring, I., Hahn, K. S., and Coen,
https://doi.org/10.2307/421544
S. (2010). Cross-National versus Individual-Level Differences in Political Infor- mation: A Media Systems Perspective. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion, and Parties, 20(3):291-309. - https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2010.490707
Iyengar, S., Hahn, K. S., Bonfadelli, H., and Marr, M. (2009). "Dark Areas of Ignorance" Revisited: Comparing International Affairs Knowledge in Switzerland and the United States. Communication Research, 36(3):341-358. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0093650209333024
Jackman, S. (2009). Bayesian Analysis for the Social Sciences. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex, UK. - https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470686621
Johnson, V. E. and Albert, J. H. (1999). Ordinal Data Modelling. Springer, New York.
King, G., Keohane, R. O., and Verba, S. (1994). Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton University Press, Princeton. - https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400821211
Knack, S. and Keefer, P. (1997). Does Social Capital Have an Economic Payoff? A Cross-Country Investigation. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 112(4):1251-1288. - https://doi.org/10.1162/003355300555475
Kuklinski, J. H., Quirk, P. J., Jerit, J., and Rich, R. F. (2001). The Political Environment and Citizen Competence. American Journal of Political Science, 45(2):410-424. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2669349
Lau, R. R. and Redlawsk, D. P. (2001). Advantages and Disadvantages of Cognitive Heuristics in Political Decision Making. American Journal of Political Science, 45(4):951-971. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2669334
Lewis, J. B. and Linzer, D. A. (2005). Estimating Regression Models in Which the Dependent Variable Is Based on Estimates. Political Analysis, 13:345-364. - https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpi026
Lipset, S. M. (1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy. The American Political Science Review, 53(1):69-105. - https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Lo, J., Proksch, S.-O., and Gschwend, T. (2014). A Common Left-Right Scale for Voters and Parties in Europe. Political Analysis, 22:205-223. - https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpt028
Luskin, R. C. (1987). Measuring Political Sophistication. American Journal of Political Science, 31(4):856-899. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2111227
Luskin, R. C. and Bullock, J. G. (2011). "Don't Know" Means "Don't Know": DK Responses and the Public's Level of Political Knowledge. The Journal of Politics, 73(1):547-557. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381611000132
Milner, H. (2002). Civic Literacy: How Informed Citizens Make Democracy Work. University Press of New England, Hanover and London.
Mondak, J. J. (1999). Reconsidering the Measurement of Political Knowledge. Political Analysis, 8(1):57-82. - https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029805
Mondak, J. J. and Anderson, M. R. (2004). The Knowledge Gap: A Reexamination of Gender-Based Differences in Political Knowledge. The Journal of Politics, 66(2):492-512. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2004.00161.x
Mondak, J. J. and Canache, D. (2004). Knowledge Variables in Cross-National Social Inquiry. Social Science Quarterly, 85(3):539-558. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0038-4941.2004.00232.x
Neuman, W. R. (1981). Differentiation and Integration: Two Dimensions of Political Thinking. American Journal of Sociology, 86(6):1236-1268. - https://doi.org/10.1086/227384
Pérez, E. O. (2009). Lost in Translation? Item Validity in Bilingual Political Surveys. The Journal of Politics, 71(4):1530-1548. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381609990156
Prior, M. and Lupia, A. (2008). Money, Time, and Political Knowledge: Distin- guishing Quick Recall and Political Learning Skills. American Journal of Political Science, 52(1):169-183. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00306.x
Przeworski, A. and Teune, H. (1966-1967). Equivalence in Cross-National Research. Public Opinion Quarterly, 30(4):551-568. - https://doi.org/10.1086/267455
Rainey, C. (2015). Strategic mobilization: Why proportional representation de- creases voter mobilization. Electoral Studies, 37:86-98. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2014.10.008
Robison, J. (2015). Who Knows? Question Format and Political Knowledge. In- ternational Journal of Public Opinion Research, 27(1):1-21. - https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edu019
Schoonvelde, M. (2013). Media freedom and the institutional underpinnings of political knowledge. Political Science Research and Methods, (FirstView):1-16.
Sniderman, P. M. and Levendusky, M. S. (2007). An institutional theory of political choice. In Dalton, R. J. and Klingemann, H.-D., editors, Oxford Handbook of Political Behavior, Chapter 23, pages 437-456. Oxford. - https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199270125.003.0023
Tausanovitch, C. and Warshaw, C. (2013). Measuring Constituent Policy Preferences in Congress, State Legislatures, and Cities. The Journal of Politics, 75(2):330-342. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381613000042
Toka, G. (2008). Citizen information, election outcomes and good governance. Electoral Studies, 27:31-44. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2007.11.006
Verba, S. (1993). The Uses of Survey Research in the Study of Comparative Politics: Issues and Strategies. Historical Social Research, 18(2):55-103.
Zechmeister, E. J. and Corral, M. (2013). Individual and Contextual Constraints on Ideological Labels in Latin America. Comparative Political Studies, 46(6):675- 701. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414012463880
Zeller, R. A. and Carmines, E. G. (1980). Measurement in the social sciences: The link between theory and data. Cambridge University Press.
Batista Pereira, F. (2020). Assessing Political Knowledge Scales Across Countries: Evidence from Latin America. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 9(1), 37–66. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.22687
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