Effects of a Proactive Intervention on Reading Skills and Difficulties Using an Online Platform
Abstract Given the diversity of students, providing an egalitarian education and adapting to individual conditions and/or needs represents a significant challenge for the educational system. Reading acquisition is particularly relevant, directly impacting academic success and student inclusion. Low socioeconomic status—whether associated with immigration or not—and learning difficulties are two major risk factors for reading development. This study implemented a continuous assessment system over three academic years (ages 5 to 7). In alignment with Response to Intervention (RtI) models, children were assessed three times a year on five key indicators related to reading acquisition: phonological awareness, phonological and visual word reading routes, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. Additionally, 191 students received a universal prevention program focused on phonemic awareness, delivered by classroom teachers at the age of five. The remaining 189 students constituted the control group. The results showed that the intervention significantly improved all five indicators, with effects persisting two years after the program implementation. Moreover, the intervention significantly impacted different socioeconomic levels, with the most potent effects observed in students from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and those at higher risk of reading difficulties. A proactive, evidence-based approach, supported by technological tools and implemented by general education teachers, can significantly improve educational outcomes and foster equity and inclusion within the educational system.
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Björn, P. M., Aro, M., Koponen, T., Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2018). Response-to-intervention in Finland and United States: Mathematics learning support as an example. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 800. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00800
Campbell, J. R., Kelly, D. L., Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., & Sainsbury, M. (2001). Framework and Specifications for PIRLS Assessment 2001 (2nd ed.). Boston College.
Catts, H. W., & Hogan, T. P. (2020). Dyslexia: An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of diagnosis and treatment. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/nvgje
Catts, H. W., & Petscher, Y. (2022). A cumulative risk and resilience model of dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(3), 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221942110370
Echeita Sarrionandia, G. (2008). Inclusión y exclusión educativa. "Voz y quebranto". Revista Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación, 6(2), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.15366/reice2008.6.2.001
Ehri, L., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., & Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2
Fletcher, J., & Vaughn, S. (2009). Response to intervention: Preventing and remediating academic difficulties. Child Development Perspectives, 3(1), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00072.x
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93-99. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.41.1.4
Giménez, A., Bordoy, S., Sánchez, A., López-Zamora, M., Sopena, J. M., & Luque, J. L. (2021). A supplemental computer-assisted intervention programme to prevent early reading difficulties in Spanish learners: A stratified random control trial. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(2), 510-520. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12504
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Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104
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Hattie, J. (2023). Visible learning: The sequel: A synthesis of over 2,100 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003380542
Hederich Martínez, C., Martínez Bernal, J., & Rincón Camacho, L. (2014). Hacia una educación basada en la evidencia. Revista Colombiana de Educación, 66, 19-54. https://doi.org/10.17227/01203916.66rce19.54
Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2, 127-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00401799
Jiménez, J. E., Rodríguez, C., Crespo, P., González, D., Artiles, C., & Alfonso, M. (2010). Implementation of Response to Intervention (RtI) Model in Spain: An example of a collaboration between Canarian universities and the Department of Education of the Canary Islands. Psicothema, 22(4), 935-942.
Lawlor, J., Mills, K., Neal, Z., Neal, J. W., Wilson, C., & McAlindon, K. (2019). Approaches to measuring use of research evidence in K-12 settings: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 27, 218-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.002
Linnakylä, P., & Välijärvi, J. (2006). Rendimiento de los estudiantes finlandeses en PISA: Las claves del éxito en lectura. Revista de Educación, (Nº Extra 1), 227-235.
Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. (2010). The improvement of reading skills of L1 and ESL children using a Response to Intervention (RtI) Model. Psicothema, 22(4), 963-969.
Luque, J. L., Giménez, A., Sánchez-Gómez, A., & Rodríguez-Moreno, M. (2022). La tecnología al servicio de la dislexia evolutiva. En J. Quintanal & J. C. Sánchez-Huete (Eds.), La dislexia: conocer y afrontar su problemática (pp. 45-72). UNED.
Lustosa de Oliveira Barbosa, M., Marín-Suelves, D., Esteve, M. I. V., & Méndez, V. G. (2024). Mapeo de la investigación sobre la práctica basada en la evidencia en educación: un análisis mixto. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED), 24(77). https://doi.org/10.6018/red.576211
McMaster, K., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L., & Compton, D. (2005). Responding to nonresponders: An experimental field trial of identification and intervention methods. Exceptional Children, 71(4), 445-463. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290507100404
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Instituto de Evaluación. (2000). PISA 2000: Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE. Informe español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Instituto de Evaluación. (2009). PISA 2009: Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE. Informe español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Instituto de Evaluación. (2015). PISA 2015: Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE. Informe español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. (2012). La atención al alumno con dislexia en el sistema educativo en el contexto de las necesidades específicas de apoyo educativo. Colección Eurydice, España-REDIE.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/
O’Connor, R. E., Harty, K. R., & Fulmer, D. (2005). Tiers of intervention in kindergarten through third grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), 532-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194050380060901
OECD. (2009). PISA 2009. Assessment framework – key competencies in reading, mathematics and science. OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2010). PISA 2009 results: What students know and can do – student performance in reading, mathematics and science (Volume 1). OECD Publishing.
Perfetti, C. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357-383. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701530730
Raven, J., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. C. (2011). RAVEN: Matrices progresivas: Escalas color (CPM), general (SPM), superior (APM): Manual (3ª ed.). Pearson.
Reynolds, C. R., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2009). Response to Intervention: Ready or not? Or, from wait-to-fail to watch-them-fail. School Psychology Quarterly, 24(2), 130-145. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016158
Richardson, U., & Lyytinen, H. (2014). The GraphoGame method: The theoretical and methodological background of the technology-enhanced learning environment for learning to read. Human Technology: An Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans, 10(1), 39-60. https://doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.201501071031
Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department of Education & Skills, https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/5551/2/report.pdf
Sánchez, A., Cobo, M. A., Vilaseca, J. L. L., & Giménez, A. (2018). Fase de prevención del proyecto LEEDUCA: Un enfoque proactivo en la enseñanza de la lectura. Cuadernos de Pedagogía, 490, 32-37.
Sandoval, M., & Waitoller, F. (2022). Ampliando el concepto de participación en la educación inclusiva: Un enfoque de justicia social. Revista Española de Discapacidad, 10(2), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.5569/2340-5104.10.02.01
Scholvink, M., & Janssen, L. (2014). Basisboek RTI. Groei meten voor passend onderwijs [RTI Measuring Learning Growth in Inclusive Education]. Uitgeverij Pica.
Schubert, F., & Becker, R. (2010). Social inequality of reading literacy. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 28(1), 109-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2009.12.007
Shaywitz, S. E., Morris, R., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2008). The education of dyslexic children from childhood to young adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 451-475. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093633
Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2020). The American experience: Towards a 21st century definition of dyslexia. Oxford Review of Education, 46(4), 454-471. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2020.1793545
Shaywitz, S. E., Holahan, J. M., Kenney, B., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2020). The Yale outcome study: Outcomes for graduates with and without dyslexia. Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology, 6, 189-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-020-00094-3
Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2012). Interventions for children’s language and literacy difficulties. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 47(1), 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00081.x
Torgesen, J. K. (2009). The response to intervention instructional model: Some outcomes from a large-scale implementation in Reading First schools. Child Development Perspectives, 3(1), 38-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00073.x
Unesco. (2017). Guía para asegurar la inclusión y la equidad en la educación. Unesco.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Small, S., & Fanuele, D. P. (2006). Response to intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between children with and without reading disabilities: Evidence for the role of kindergarten and first-grade interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 157-169. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390020401
Björn, P. M., Aro, M. T., Koponen, T. K., Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. H. (2016). The many faces of special education within RTI frameworks in the United States and Finland. Learning Disability Quarterly, 39(1), 58-66. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948715594787
Björn, P. M., Aro, M., Koponen, T., Fuchs, L. S., & Fuchs, D. (2018). Response-to-intervention in Finland and United States: Mathematics learning support as an example. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 800. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00800
Campbell, J. R., Kelly, D. L., Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., & Sainsbury, M. (2001). Framework and Specifications for PIRLS Assessment 2001 (2nd ed.). Boston College.
Catts, H. W., & Hogan, T. P. (2020). Dyslexia: An ounce of prevention is better than a pound of diagnosis and treatment. PsyArXiv. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/nvgje
Catts, H. W., & Petscher, Y. (2022). A cumulative risk and resilience model of dyslexia. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 55(3), 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221942110370
Echeita Sarrionandia, G. (2008). Inclusión y exclusión educativa. "Voz y quebranto". Revista Iberoamericana sobre Calidad, Eficacia y Cambio en Educación, 6(2), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.15366/reice2008.6.2.001
Ehri, L., Nunes, S. R., Willows, D. M., Schuster, B. V., & Yaghoub-Zadeh, Z. (2001). Phonemic awareness instruction helps children learn to read: Evidence from the National Reading Panel’s meta-analysis. Reading Research Quarterly, 36(3), 250-287. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.36.3.2
Fletcher, J., & Vaughn, S. (2009). Response to intervention: Preventing and remediating academic difficulties. Child Development Perspectives, 3(1), 30–37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2008.00072.x
Fuchs, D., & Fuchs, L. S. (2006). Introduction to response to intervention: What, why, and how valid is it? Reading Research Quarterly, 41(1), 93-99. https://doi.org/10.1598/RRQ.41.1.4
Giménez, A., Bordoy, S., Sánchez, A., López-Zamora, M., Sopena, J. M., & Luque, J. L. (2021). A supplemental computer-assisted intervention programme to prevent early reading difficulties in Spanish learners: A stratified random control trial. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 37(2), 510-520. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12504
Gobierno de España. (2020). Ley Orgánica 3/2020, de 29 de diciembre, por la que se modifica la Ley Orgánica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educación. (BOE-A-2020-17264). Madrid, España: Agencia Estatal Boletín Oficial del Estado Retrieved from https://d66z.short.gy/ETTLPr.
Gough, P. B., & Tunmer, W. E. (1986). Decoding, reading, and reading disability. Remedial and Special Education, 7(1), 6-10. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193258600700104
Hargreaves, D. H. (1996). Teaching as a research-based profession: Possibilities and prospects. Teacher Training Agency Annual Lecture.
Hattie, J. (2023). Visible learning: The sequel: A synthesis of over 2,100 meta-analyses relating to achievement. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003380542
Hederich Martínez, C., Martínez Bernal, J., & Rincón Camacho, L. (2014). Hacia una educación basada en la evidencia. Revista Colombiana de Educación, 66, 19-54. https://doi.org/10.17227/01203916.66rce19.54
Hoover, W. A., & Gough, P. B. (1990). The simple view of reading. Reading and Writing, 2, 127-160. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00401799
Jiménez, J. E., Rodríguez, C., Crespo, P., González, D., Artiles, C., & Alfonso, M. (2010). Implementation of Response to Intervention (RtI) Model in Spain: An example of a collaboration between Canarian universities and the Department of Education of the Canary Islands. Psicothema, 22(4), 935-942.
Lawlor, J., Mills, K., Neal, Z., Neal, J. W., Wilson, C., & McAlindon, K. (2019). Approaches to measuring use of research evidence in K-12 settings: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 27, 218-228. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2019.04.002
Linnakylä, P., & Välijärvi, J. (2006). Rendimiento de los estudiantes finlandeses en PISA: Las claves del éxito en lectura. Revista de Educación, (Nº Extra 1), 227-235.
Lipka, O., & Siegel, L. (2010). The improvement of reading skills of L1 and ESL children using a Response to Intervention (RtI) Model. Psicothema, 22(4), 963-969.
Luque, J. L., Giménez, A., Sánchez-Gómez, A., & Rodríguez-Moreno, M. (2022). La tecnología al servicio de la dislexia evolutiva. En J. Quintanal & J. C. Sánchez-Huete (Eds.), La dislexia: conocer y afrontar su problemática (pp. 45-72). UNED.
Lustosa de Oliveira Barbosa, M., Marín-Suelves, D., Esteve, M. I. V., & Méndez, V. G. (2024). Mapeo de la investigación sobre la práctica basada en la evidencia en educación: un análisis mixto. Revista de Educación a Distancia (RED), 24(77). https://doi.org/10.6018/red.576211
McMaster, K., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L., & Compton, D. (2005). Responding to nonresponders: An experimental field trial of identification and intervention methods. Exceptional Children, 71(4), 445-463. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440290507100404
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Instituto de Evaluación. (2000). PISA 2000: Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE. Informe español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Instituto de Evaluación. (2009). PISA 2009: Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE. Informe español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia. Instituto de Evaluación. (2015). PISA 2015: Programa para la Evaluación Internacional de Alumnos de la OCDE. Informe español. Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia.
Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y Deporte. (2012). La atención al alumno con dislexia en el sistema educativo en el contexto de las necesidades específicas de apoyo educativo. Colección Eurydice, España-REDIE.
National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. https://www.nichd.nih.gov/
O’Connor, R. E., Harty, K. R., & Fulmer, D. (2005). Tiers of intervention in kindergarten through third grade. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 38(6), 532-538. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194050380060901
OECD. (2009). PISA 2009. Assessment framework – key competencies in reading, mathematics and science. OECD Publishing.
OECD. (2010). PISA 2009 results: What students know and can do – student performance in reading, mathematics and science (Volume 1). OECD Publishing.
Perfetti, C. (2007). Reading ability: Lexical quality to comprehension. Scientific Studies of Reading, 11(4), 357-383. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888430701530730
Raven, J., Court, J. H., & Raven, J. C. (2011). RAVEN: Matrices progresivas: Escalas color (CPM), general (SPM), superior (APM): Manual (3ª ed.). Pearson.
Reynolds, C. R., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2009). Response to Intervention: Ready or not? Or, from wait-to-fail to watch-them-fail. School Psychology Quarterly, 24(2), 130-145. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016158
Richardson, U., & Lyytinen, H. (2014). The GraphoGame method: The theoretical and methodological background of the technology-enhanced learning environment for learning to read. Human Technology: An Interdisciplinary Journal on Humans, 10(1), 39-60. https://doi.org/10.17011/ht/urn.201501071031
Rose, J. (2006). Independent review of the teaching of early reading: Final report. Department of Education & Skills, https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/5551/2/report.pdf
Sánchez, A., Cobo, M. A., Vilaseca, J. L. L., & Giménez, A. (2018). Fase de prevención del proyecto LEEDUCA: Un enfoque proactivo en la enseñanza de la lectura. Cuadernos de Pedagogía, 490, 32-37.
Sandoval, M., & Waitoller, F. (2022). Ampliando el concepto de participación en la educación inclusiva: Un enfoque de justicia social. Revista Española de Discapacidad, 10(2), 7-20. https://doi.org/10.5569/2340-5104.10.02.01
Scholvink, M., & Janssen, L. (2014). Basisboek RTI. Groei meten voor passend onderwijs [RTI Measuring Learning Growth in Inclusive Education]. Uitgeverij Pica.
Schubert, F., & Becker, R. (2010). Social inequality of reading literacy. Research in Social Stratification and Mobility, 28(1), 109-133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rssm.2009.12.007
Shaywitz, S. E., Morris, R., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2008). The education of dyslexic children from childhood to young adulthood. Annual Review of Psychology, 59(1), 451-475. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093633
Shaywitz, B. A., & Shaywitz, S. E. (2020). The American experience: Towards a 21st century definition of dyslexia. Oxford Review of Education, 46(4), 454-471. https://doi.org/10.1080/03054985.2020.1793545
Shaywitz, S. E., Holahan, J. M., Kenney, B., & Shaywitz, B. A. (2020). The Yale outcome study: Outcomes for graduates with and without dyslexia. Journal of Pediatric Neuropsychology, 6, 189-197. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40817-020-00094-3
Snowling, M. J., & Hulme, C. (2012). Interventions for children’s language and literacy difficulties. International Journal of Language & Communication Disorders, 47(1), 27-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-6984.2011.00081.x
Torgesen, J. K. (2009). The response to intervention instructional model: Some outcomes from a large-scale implementation in Reading First schools. Child Development Perspectives, 3(1), 38-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1750-8606.2009.00073.x
Unesco. (2017). Guía para asegurar la inclusión y la equidad en la educación. Unesco.
Vellutino, F. R., Scanlon, D. M., Small, S., & Fanuele, D. P. (2006). Response to intervention as a vehicle for distinguishing between children with and without reading disabilities: Evidence for the role of kindergarten and first-grade interventions. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39(2), 157-169. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194060390020401
Sánchez-Gómez, A., Luque Vilaseca, J. L., Giménez-de-la-Peña, A., & López Pérez, P. J. (2025). Effects of a Proactive Intervention on Reading Skills and Difficulties Using an Online Platform. Education in The Knowledge Society, 26, e32172. https://doi.org/10.14201/eks.32172
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