Development of Complex Thinking in Entrepreneurship Training: A Gender Approach
Abstract This article aims to approach students’ perception of mastery of the reasoning-for-complexity competency and its sub-competencies (scientific, systemic, and critical thinking) in a sample group at a Latin American university. The intention was to identify whether there are statistically significant differences in a population of men and women in a training program in entrepreneurship, assessing whether gender could be a factor to consider by educational institutions offering these specialties. The present exploratory study applies the validated E-Complexity instrument to measure the perception of a convenience sample of 116 students from a private university in Mexico. Statistically, the overall mean and the means for each item were calculated for the students’ perception of their mastery of the reasoning-for-complexity competency. From the results, we can confirm that no statistically significant evidence demonstrates differences between men and women in their perceived mastery of the reasoning-for-complexity competency in general. However, analyzing the results by sub-competencies shows that women tend to have a higher perception than their male counterparts. Thus, this article shows the need to develop environments beyond academia and theory, guaranteeing an actual follow-through to equality promoted within educational institutions.
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Baeza, A., & Lamadrid, S. (2019). ¿Igualdad en la academia? Barreras de género e iniciativas en una universidad pública (2013-2018). Pensamiento Educativo, 56(1), 1–17. 10.7764/PEL.56.1.2019.9
Bian, I., Almaududi, A., Risdwiyanto, A., Sondari, S., & Khootimah, H. (2023). Analysing the Relationship between Entrepreneurship Education, Self-Efficacy, and Entrepreneurial Performance. Journal on Education, 5(4). 10.31004/joe.v5i4.2106
Castillo-Martínez, I. M., & Ramírez-Montoya, M. S. (2022). Instrumento eComplexity: Medición de la percepción de estudiantes de educación superior acerca de su competencia de razonamiento para la complejidad. https://d66z.short.gy/3r34uE
Castillo-Martínez, I. M., Argüelles, A. J., Piñal, O. E., Glasserman-Morales, L. D., Ramírez-Montoya, M.S. & Carreon-Hermosillo, A. (2023). Towards the development of complex thinking in university students: Mixed methods with ideathon and artificial intelligence. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, 100186. 10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100186
Cheung, C., & Wong, S. (2018). Entrepreneurship education in higher education: A systematic review and research agenda. Education and Training, 60(9), 949–968. 10.1108/ET-02-2018-0037
Cui, L., Zhu, Y., Qu, J., Tie, L., Wang, Z., & Qu, B. (2021). Psychometric properties of the critical thinking disposition assessment test amongst medical students in China: a cross-sectional study. BMC Medical Education, 1–8. 10.1186/s12909-020-02437-2
Di Tullio, I. (2019). Gender Equality in STEM: Exploring Self-Efficacy Through Gender Awareness. Italian Journal of Sociology of Education, 11(3), 226–245. 10.14658/pupj-ijse-2019-3-13
Elliot, C., Mantler, J., & Huggins, J. (2021). Exploring the gendered entrepreneurial identity gap: implications for entrepreneurship education. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 50–74. 10.1108/IJGE-04-2020-0048
Elliott, C., Mavriplis, C., & Anis, H. (2020). An entrepreneurship education and peer mentoring program for women in STEM: mentors' experiences and perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intent. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 16, 43–67. 10.1007/s11365-019-00624-2
Entrialgo, M., & Iglesias, V. (2018). Are the Intentions to Entrepreneurship of Men and Women Shaped Differently? The Impact of Entrepreneurial Role-Model Exposure and Entrepreneurship Education. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 8(1). 10.1515/erj-2017-0013
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García-Peñalvo, F. J., Corell, A., Abella-García, V., & Grande-de-Prado, M. (2020). Online Assessment in Higher Education in the Time of COVID-19. Education in the Knowledge Society, 21, 12. 10.14201/eks.23013
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Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. (2021). Women's Entrepreneurship 2020/21 Thriving Through Crisis. https://d66z.short.gy/9G7L6k
Granados, C. (2020). The huge gender gap in entrepreneurship: Why and its consequences? Forbes México. https://d66z.short.gy/6Vu5ZT
Gutiérrez Vargas, J. R. (2022). Género y mirada: la invisibilización del conocimiento producido por las mujeres en México. Iztapalapa. Revista de Ciencias sociales y Humanidades, 43(92), 157–188. 10.28928/ri/922022/aot1/gutierrezvargasj
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Heybach, J., & Pickup, A. (2017). Whose STEM? Disrupting the Gender Crisis Within STEM. Educational Studies, 53, 614–627. 10.1080/00131946.2017.1369085
Jaaron, A., & Backhouse, C. (2018). Operationalisation of service innovation: a systems thinking approach. The Service Industries Journal(38), 561–583. 10.1080/02642069.2017.1411480
Janusz, B., Józefik, B., & Peräkylä, A. (2018). Gender-related Issues in Couple Therapists' Internal Voices and Interactional Practices. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 39(4), 436–449. 10.1002/anzf.1331
Koerber, S., & Osterhaus, C. (2019). Individual Differences in Early Scientific Thinking: Assessment, Cognitive Influences, and Their Relevance for Science Learning. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20(4), 510–533. 10.1080/15248372
Langowitz, N., & Minniti, M. (2007). The entrepreneurial propensity of women. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 31(3), 341–364. 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00177.x
Liu, T., Walley, K., Pugh, G., & Adkins, P. (2020). Entrepreneurship education in China: Evidence from a preliminary scoping study of enterprising tendency in Chinese university students. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(2), 305–326. 10.1108/JEEE-01-2019-0006
Marmo, C., & Célica, E. (2017). Women, the cultural labyrinth and the assumption of critical thinking. UPGTO Management Review, 2(2), 1–9.
McKinsey & Company. (2021). COVID-19 and gender equality: Countering the regressive effects. https://d66z.short.gy/WXAuWa
Menzies, T., & Tatroff, H. (2006). The Propensity of Male vs. Female Students to Take Courses and Degree Concentrations in Entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 19(2), 203–223. 10.1080/08276331.2006.10593367
Mesalles, N. (1 de agosto de 2021). Report: The Latin American Startup Ecosystem. EKA. https://d66z.short.gy/ruqpQh
Meurer, M. M., Waldkirch, M., Schou, P. K., Bucher, E. L., & Burmeister-Lamp, K. (2022). Digital affordances: how entrepreneurs access support in online communities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 637–663. 10.1007/s11187-021-00540-2
Monterroso, O., Bailey, C., Peñate, L., García, J., & Véliz, R. (2017). Systemic thinking to strengthen professional competencies of analysis and synthesis in the Environmental and Agricultural Sciences curricula. Cultura de Guatemala, 1(38), 49–72.
Morin, E. (1990). Introducción al pensamiento complejo. Gedisa.
Nagahi, M., Ibne, N., & Jaradat, R. (2019). Gender differences in practitioners' preferences for systems-thinking skills. Proceedings of the International Annual Conference of the American Society for Engineering Management. American Society for Engineering Management.
Nowinski, W., Haddoud, M., Lancaric, D., Egerova, D., & Czegledi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44, 361–379. 10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359
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Passig, D., & Cohen, L. (2014). Measuring the style of innovative thinking among engineering students. Research in Science & Technological Education, 32(1), 56–77. 10.1080/02635143.2013.878328
Peterson, R., & Limbu, Y. (2010). Student characteristics and perspectives in entrepreneurship courses: a profile. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 13(1), 65–83.
Ramírez-Montoya, M. S., Basabe, F. E., Carlos Arroyo, M., Patiño Zúñiga, I. A., & Portuguez-Castro, M. (2024). Modelo abierto de pensamiento complejo para el futuro de la educación. Octaedro.
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Alvarez, I., Melandet, J., & Núñez, M. (2021). Social Entrepreneurs as Role Models for Innovative Professional Career Developments. Sustainability, 13(23), 13044. 10.3390/su132313044
Arredondo, F., Vázquez, J. C., & Velazquez, L. (2019). STEM and Gender Gap in Latin America. Revista de El Colegio de San Luis, 9(18), 137–158. 10.21696/rcsl9182019947
Arfken, G. B., & Harris, F. E. (2013). Student T Distribution. Elsevier
Baeza, A., & Lamadrid, S. (2019). ¿Igualdad en la academia? Barreras de género e iniciativas en una universidad pública (2013-2018). Pensamiento Educativo, 56(1), 1–17. 10.7764/PEL.56.1.2019.9
Bian, I., Almaududi, A., Risdwiyanto, A., Sondari, S., & Khootimah, H. (2023). Analysing the Relationship between Entrepreneurship Education, Self-Efficacy, and Entrepreneurial Performance. Journal on Education, 5(4). 10.31004/joe.v5i4.2106
Castillo-Martínez, I. M., & Ramírez-Montoya, M. S. (2022). Instrumento eComplexity: Medición de la percepción de estudiantes de educación superior acerca de su competencia de razonamiento para la complejidad. https://d66z.short.gy/3r34uE
Castillo-Martínez, I. M., Argüelles, A. J., Piñal, O. E., Glasserman-Morales, L. D., Ramírez-Montoya, M.S. & Carreon-Hermosillo, A. (2023). Towards the development of complex thinking in university students: Mixed methods with ideathon and artificial intelligence. Computers and Education: Artificial Intelligence, 5, 100186. 10.1016/j.caeai.2023.100186
Cheung, C., & Wong, S. (2018). Entrepreneurship education in higher education: A systematic review and research agenda. Education and Training, 60(9), 949–968. 10.1108/ET-02-2018-0037
Cui, L., Zhu, Y., Qu, J., Tie, L., Wang, Z., & Qu, B. (2021). Psychometric properties of the critical thinking disposition assessment test amongst medical students in China: a cross-sectional study. BMC Medical Education, 1–8. 10.1186/s12909-020-02437-2
Di Tullio, I. (2019). Gender Equality in STEM: Exploring Self-Efficacy Through Gender Awareness. Italian Journal of Sociology of Education, 11(3), 226–245. 10.14658/pupj-ijse-2019-3-13
Elliot, C., Mantler, J., & Huggins, J. (2021). Exploring the gendered entrepreneurial identity gap: implications for entrepreneurship education. International Journal of Gender and Entrepreneurship, 13(1), 50–74. 10.1108/IJGE-04-2020-0048
Elliott, C., Mavriplis, C., & Anis, H. (2020). An entrepreneurship education and peer mentoring program for women in STEM: mentors' experiences and perceptions of entrepreneurial self-efficacy and intent. International Entrepreneurship and Management Journal, 16, 43–67. 10.1007/s11365-019-00624-2
Entrialgo, M., & Iglesias, V. (2018). Are the Intentions to Entrepreneurship of Men and Women Shaped Differently? The Impact of Entrepreneurial Role-Model Exposure and Entrepreneurship Education. Entrepreneurship Research Journal, 8(1). 10.1515/erj-2017-0013
Ferreras, R., Hernández, A., & Serradell, E. (2021). Gender and learning results: a study on their relationship in entrepreneurship education and business plans. Studies in Higher Education, 46, 2355–2370. 10.1080/03075079.2020.1723525
Fidalgo-Blanco, Á., Sein-Echaluce, M. L., & García-Peñalvo, F. J. (2022). Education 4.0-based Method to Improve Learning: Lessons Learned from COVID-19. RIED. Revista Iberoamericana de Educación a Distancia, 25(2), 49–72. 10.5944/ried.25.2.32320
Fiore, E., Sansone, G., & Paolucci, E. (2019). Entrepreneurship Education in a Multidisciplinary Environment: Evidence from an Entrepreneurship Programme Held in Turin. Administrative Sciences, 9(1), 28. 10.3390/admsci9010028
García-Peñalvo, F. J., Corell, A., Abella-García, V., & Grande-de-Prado, M. (2020). Online Assessment in Higher Education in the Time of COVID-19. Education in the Knowledge Society, 21, 12. 10.14201/eks.23013
García-Peñalvo, F. J., Llorens-Largo, F., & Vidal, J. (2024). The new reality of education in the face of advances in generative artificial intelligence. RIED: revista iberoamericana de educación a distancia, 27(1), 9–39. 10.5944/ried.27.1.37716
Global Entrepreneurship Monitor. (2021). Women's Entrepreneurship 2020/21 Thriving Through Crisis. https://d66z.short.gy/9G7L6k
Granados, C. (2020). The huge gender gap in entrepreneurship: Why and its consequences? Forbes México. https://d66z.short.gy/6Vu5ZT
Gutiérrez Vargas, J. R. (2022). Género y mirada: la invisibilización del conocimiento producido por las mujeres en México. Iztapalapa. Revista de Ciencias sociales y Humanidades, 43(92), 157–188. 10.28928/ri/922022/aot1/gutierrezvargasj
Handayani, E., & Naibaho, L. (2019). The urgency of entrepreneurship learning in the industrial age of 4.0. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. International Conference on Education, Science and Technology, 1387, 13–16. 10.1088/1742-6596/1387/1/012032
Heybach, J., & Pickup, A. (2017). Whose STEM? Disrupting the Gender Crisis Within STEM. Educational Studies, 53, 614–627. 10.1080/00131946.2017.1369085
Jaaron, A., & Backhouse, C. (2018). Operationalisation of service innovation: a systems thinking approach. The Service Industries Journal(38), 561–583. 10.1080/02642069.2017.1411480
Janusz, B., Józefik, B., & Peräkylä, A. (2018). Gender-related Issues in Couple Therapists' Internal Voices and Interactional Practices. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Family Therapy, 39(4), 436–449. 10.1002/anzf.1331
Koerber, S., & Osterhaus, C. (2019). Individual Differences in Early Scientific Thinking: Assessment, Cognitive Influences, and Their Relevance for Science Learning. Journal of Cognition and Development, 20(4), 510–533. 10.1080/15248372
Langowitz, N., & Minniti, M. (2007). The entrepreneurial propensity of women. Entrepreneurship theory and practice, 31(3), 341–364. 10.1111/j.1540-6520.2007.00177.x
Liu, T., Walley, K., Pugh, G., & Adkins, P. (2020). Entrepreneurship education in China: Evidence from a preliminary scoping study of enterprising tendency in Chinese university students. Journal of Entrepreneurship in Emerging Economies, 12(2), 305–326. 10.1108/JEEE-01-2019-0006
Marmo, C., & Célica, E. (2017). Women, the cultural labyrinth and the assumption of critical thinking. UPGTO Management Review, 2(2), 1–9.
McKinsey & Company. (2021). COVID-19 and gender equality: Countering the regressive effects. https://d66z.short.gy/WXAuWa
Menzies, T., & Tatroff, H. (2006). The Propensity of Male vs. Female Students to Take Courses and Degree Concentrations in Entrepreneurship. Journal of Small Business & Entrepreneurship, 19(2), 203–223. 10.1080/08276331.2006.10593367
Mesalles, N. (1 de agosto de 2021). Report: The Latin American Startup Ecosystem. EKA. https://d66z.short.gy/ruqpQh
Meurer, M. M., Waldkirch, M., Schou, P. K., Bucher, E. L., & Burmeister-Lamp, K. (2022). Digital affordances: how entrepreneurs access support in online communities during the COVID-19 pandemic. Small Business Economics, 58(2), 637–663. 10.1007/s11187-021-00540-2
Monterroso, O., Bailey, C., Peñate, L., García, J., & Véliz, R. (2017). Systemic thinking to strengthen professional competencies of analysis and synthesis in the Environmental and Agricultural Sciences curricula. Cultura de Guatemala, 1(38), 49–72.
Morin, E. (1990). Introducción al pensamiento complejo. Gedisa.
Nagahi, M., Ibne, N., & Jaradat, R. (2019). Gender differences in practitioners' preferences for systems-thinking skills. Proceedings of the International Annual Conference of the American Society for Engineering Management. American Society for Engineering Management.
Nowinski, W., Haddoud, M., Lancaric, D., Egerova, D., & Czegledi, C. (2019). The impact of entrepreneurship education, entrepreneurial self-efficacy and gender on entrepreneurial intentions of university students in the Visegrad countries. Studies in Higher Education, 44, 361–379. 10.1080/03075079.2017.1365359
Onditi, F., & Odera, J. (2021). Women in Contemporary Developmental Thought. In F. Onditi, & J. Odera, Women in Contemporary Developmental Thought (pp. 35–55). Palgrave Macmillan. 10.1007/978-3-030-71095-8_3
Orsen, B., Elliot, C., & Cukier, W. (2019). Strengthening ecosystem supports for women entrepreneurs. Telfer School of Management, University of Ottawa.
Passig, D., & Cohen, L. (2014). Measuring the style of innovative thinking among engineering students. Research in Science & Technological Education, 32(1), 56–77. 10.1080/02635143.2013.878328
Peterson, R., & Limbu, Y. (2010). Student characteristics and perspectives in entrepreneurship courses: a profile. Journal of Entrepreneurship Education, 13(1), 65–83.
Ramírez-Montoya, M. S., Basabe, F. E., Carlos Arroyo, M., Patiño Zúñiga, I. A., & Portuguez-Castro, M. (2024). Modelo abierto de pensamiento complejo para el futuro de la educación. Octaedro.
Ramos, G. (2018). OCDE-INADEM Women Entrepreneurs: Reaping the Benefits of Digitalization and Globalization. Ciudad de México: OCDE.
Ratten, V. (2020). Coronavirus (Covid-19) and the entrepreneurship education community. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, 14(5), 753–764. 10.1108/JEC-06-2020-0121
Ratten, V., & Jones, P. (2021). Covid-19 and entrepreneurship education: Implications for advancing research and practice. The International Journal of Management Education, 19(1), 100432. 10.1016/j.ijme.2020.100432
Sanabria-Z, J., Alfaro-Ponce, B., González-Pérez, L. I., & Ramírez-Montoya, M. S. (2024). Reusable educational resources for developing complex thinking on open platforms. Education and Information Technologies, 29(1), 1173–1199. 10.1007/s10639-023-12316-0
Sargot, M. (2017). Feminisms, critical thinking and alternative proposals in Latin America. San José: Women’s Studies Research Center. Universidad de Costa Rica. https://d66z.short.gy/AbxUHs
Schmitt, N. (1996). Uses and Abuses of Coefficient Alpha. Psychological Assessment, 8(4), 350–353. 10.1037/1040-3590.8.4.350
Silva, C., & Iturra, C. (2021). A conceptual proposal and operational definitions of the cognitive processes of complex thinking. Thinking Skills and Creativity(39). 10.1016/j.tsc.2021.100794
Startup Genome. (2021). The Global Startup Ecosystem Report. GSER. https://d66z.short.gy/AU3oc0
Suarez-Brito, P., Vázquez-Parra, J.C., Lopez-Caudana, E., & Buenestado-Fernandez, M. (2024). Examining the level of perceived achievement of complex thinking competency in health Sciences students and its relevance to the graduate profile. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 6, 100314. 10.1016/j.ijedro.2023.100314
Suryansyah, A., Kastolani, W., & Somantri, L. (2021). Scientific thinking skills in solving global warming problems. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 683(1). 10.1088/1755-1315/683/1/012025
Tecnologico de Monterrey. (2019). Reasoning for complexity. In Tecnologico de Monterrey, Transversal Competencies. A vision from the Tec21 educational model (pp. 62–76). Tecnologico de Monterrey.
Tobón, S., & Luna, J. (2021). Complex Thinking and Sustainable Social Development: Validity and Reliability of the COMPLEX-21 Scale. Sustainability, 13(12). 10.3390/su13126591
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Vázquez-Parra, J. C., Alonso-Galicia, P., Cruz-Sandoval, M., Suarez-Brito, P., & Carlos-Arroyo, M. (2023). Social Entrepreneurship, Complex Thinking, and Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy: Correlational Study in a Sample of Mexican Students. Administrative Sciences, 13(104). 10.3390/admsci13040104
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