The Golden Rain, Danae and the Invisible Rapes
Abstract Considering the concept rape culture coined by feminists in the 1970’s, this paper provides three analytical frameworks. They include: superhuman genital raids against mortal and immortal women as a common topic in ancient mythology; the role of Hyginus’s Fables in Roman society (1st century BC - 1st century AD) and in current Italian high schools; an overview, trough academic research, about strategies of the representation of Danae from classical to contemporary western art. The tale of young maiden impregnated by the king of the Gods in form of a golden shower hints, among others, or at a most erotic spectacular relationship or at a divine miracle or an illicit act. Unravelling some of these strands maybe helps us to understand the patterns of the ancient myths toward sexualized violence and decipher the underlying educational ideology that, not only in the past, had governed works of didactic-literature and artistic activities.
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Arafat, K. W. (2002). «State of the art-art of the State. Sexual violence and politics in late Archaic and early Classical vase-painting». In S. Deacy e K. F. Pierce, Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds (pp. 97-121). Londra: Duckworth.
Ashmore, M. (2015). Rape Culture in Ancient Rome (Classics Honors Papers). New London (Connecticut): Connecticut College. Recuperato il 18 marzo 2022, in https://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/classicshp/3/.
Ayres, S. (2014). «Staging the Female Look: A Viennese Context of Display for Klimt’s Danae». Oxford Art Journal, vol. 37, pp. 227-244.
Baert, B. (2021). Petrifying Gazes: Danae and Uncanny Space. Lovanio: Peeters Publishing.
Baines, B. J. (1998). «Effacing Rape in Early Modern Representation». English Literary History, vol. 65, n. 1, pp. 69-98.
Barron, L.; Straus, M. A. e Jaffee, D. (1988). «Legitimate Violence, Violent Attitudes, and Rape: A Test of the Cultural Spillover. Theory». Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 528, pp.79-110.
Bassani, M. e Pedersoli A. (2020-2021). «Danae. Bagliori del mito». La rivista di Engramma, n. 178, pp.7-11.
Baxi, P. (2014). «Sexual Violence and Its Discontents». Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 43, pp. 139-154.
Bremmer, J. N. (2021). Becoming man in ancient Greece and Rome. Essays on Myths and Rituals of Initiation. Tubinga: Mohr Siebeck.
Calame, C. (2019 [1977]). Les Chœurs de jeunes filles en Grèce ancienne. Morphologie, fonction religieuse et sociale. Parigi: Les Belles Lettres.
Canterella, E. (2007). L’amore è un dio. Il sesso e la polis. Milano: Feltrinelli.
Calvino, I. (1988). Lezioni Americane. Sei proposte per il prossimo millennio. Milano: Garzanti.
Carey, C. (1995). «Rape and Adultery in Athenian Law». The Classical Quarterly, vol. 45, n. 2, pp. 407-417.
Cohen, A. (1996). «Portrayals of abduction in Greek Art. Rape or Metaphor?». In N. Kampen (a cura di), Sexuality in Ancient Art: Near East, Egypt, Greece, and Italy (pp. 117-135). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Conley, C. A. (2014). «Sexual Violence in Historical Perspective». In R. Gartner e B. McCarthy (a cura di), The Oxford Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Crime (pp. 207-224). Oxford: Oxford Academic.
Conte, G. (2013). Rapimenti erotici nella tradizione mitica della Grecia antica: Divinità e mortali uniti in amore. Roma: Europa Edizioni.
Corboz, A. (2000). «La Danae di Mabuse (1527) come testimonianza del’idea di Sancta Antiquitas». Artibus et historiae, vol. 21, n. 42, pp. 9-29.
Deacy, S. e Pierce, K. F. (2002). Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Londra: Duckworth.
Dowden, K. (2003). L’iniziazione femminile nella mitologia greca. Genova: ecig.
Duffy, W. S. (2020). «Medusa as Victim and Tool of Male Aggression». Verbum Incarnatum: An Academic Journal of Social Justice, vol. 7. Recuperato il 2 marzo 2022, in https://athenaeum.uiw.edu/verbumincarnatum/vol7/iss1/1/.
Fabularum Hygini per Capita Index. In F. Gasti (2017). Igino, Miti del mondo classico. Santarcangelo di Romagna: Rusconi Libri.
Fényes, G. (2020-2021). «A Terracotta Mould from Aquincum depicting Story of Danae». La Rivista di Engramma, n. 178, pp. 117-128. Recuperato il 3 febbraio 2022, in https://www.engramma.it/eOS/index.php?id_articolo=4044.
Fonow, M. M.; Richardson. L. e Wemmerus, V. A. (1992). «Feminist Rape Education: Does It Work?». Gender and Society, vol. 6, n. 1, pp.108-121.
Gasti, F. (2017). Igino, Miti del mondo classico. Santarcangelo di Romagna: Rusconi Libri.
Giallongo, A. (2013). La donna serpente Storie di un enigma dall’antichità al xxi secolo. Bari: Dedalo.
Giallongo, A. (2015). Historia de un enigma desde la antiguidad hasta el siglo xxi. Sevilla: Benilde Ediciones.
Holden, A. (2008). «The Abduction of the Sabine Women in Context: The Iconography on Late Antique. Contorniate Medallions». American Journal of Archeology, vol. 112, pp. 121-142.
Karakantza, E. D. (2004). «Literary Rapes Revisited. A Study in Literary Conventions and Political Ideologis». Metis, n. 2, pp. 29-45.
Lewin, K. (1980 [1948]). I conflitti sociali. Milano: Franco Angeli Editori.
Lissarague, F. (1996). «Danaé. Métamorphoses d’un myth». In S. Georgoud e J. P. Vernant (a cura di), Mythes grecs au figure: de l’antiquité au baroque (pp. 105-134). Parigi: Gallimard.
Marrou, H. I. (2016 [1948]). Storia dell’educazione nell’antichità. Roma: Studium.
Mazzoldi, S. (2001). Cassandra, la vergine e l’indovina. Identità di un personaggio da Omero all’Ellenismo. Pisa/Roma: Istituti editoriali e poligrafici internazionali.
Minner, K. M. (1978). «Danae, Virtuous, Voluptuous, Venal Women». The Art Bulletin, vol. 60, n. 1, pp. 43-55.
Moschin, M. (2022). Le Metamorfosi di Ovidio nell’arte. Roma: Edizioni Espera.
Nguyen, L. N. (2006). Roman Rape: An Overview of Roman Rape Laws from the Republican Period to Justinian’s Reign. Londra: D. Polk & Wardwell.
Nichols, K. (2016). «Arthur Hacker’s Syrinx (1892): Paint, classics and the culture of rape». Feminist Theory, vol. 17, n. 1, pp. 107-126. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
Plauto (2004). Miles Gloriosus. Milano: Mondadori.
Russell, M. (1977). «The Iconography of Rembrandt’s. Rape of Ganymede». Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, vol. 9, n. 1, pp. 5-18.
Sanday, P. R. (1990). Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood and Privilege on Campus. New York: New York University Press.
Santore, C. (1991). «Danaë: The Renaissance Courtesan’s Alter Ego». Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, vol. 54, pp. 412-427.
Sluijter, E. J. (1999). «Emulating sensual beauty: representations of Danaë from Gossaert to Rembrandt». Simiolus. Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, vol. 27, pp. 4-45.
Senofonte (1989). Simposio. Milano: Rizzoli.
Sofocle (2013). Antigone. Milano: Feltrinelli.
Tomaselli, S. e Porter, R. (1986). Rape. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
van Nijf, O. (2005). «Aristos Hellenôn: succès sportif et identité grecque dans la Grèce romaine». Metis, n. 3, pp. 280-291.
Wolfthal, D. (1999). Images of Rape: The Heroic Tradition and its Alternatives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zarucchi, J. M. (1999). «The Gentileschi Danae: A Narrative of Rape». Woman’s Art Journal, vol. 1, n. 2, pp. 13-16.
Ashmore, M. (2015). Rape Culture in Ancient Rome (Classics Honors Papers). New London (Connecticut): Connecticut College. Recuperato il 18 marzo 2022, in https://digitalcommons.conncoll.edu/classicshp/3/.
Ayres, S. (2014). «Staging the Female Look: A Viennese Context of Display for Klimt’s Danae». Oxford Art Journal, vol. 37, pp. 227-244.
Baert, B. (2021). Petrifying Gazes: Danae and Uncanny Space. Lovanio: Peeters Publishing.
Baines, B. J. (1998). «Effacing Rape in Early Modern Representation». English Literary History, vol. 65, n. 1, pp. 69-98.
Barron, L.; Straus, M. A. e Jaffee, D. (1988). «Legitimate Violence, Violent Attitudes, and Rape: A Test of the Cultural Spillover. Theory». Annals of The New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 528, pp.79-110.
Bassani, M. e Pedersoli A. (2020-2021). «Danae. Bagliori del mito». La rivista di Engramma, n. 178, pp.7-11.
Baxi, P. (2014). «Sexual Violence and Its Discontents». Annual Review of Anthropology, vol. 43, pp. 139-154.
Bremmer, J. N. (2021). Becoming man in ancient Greece and Rome. Essays on Myths and Rituals of Initiation. Tubinga: Mohr Siebeck.
Calame, C. (2019 [1977]). Les Chœurs de jeunes filles en Grèce ancienne. Morphologie, fonction religieuse et sociale. Parigi: Les Belles Lettres.
Canterella, E. (2007). L’amore è un dio. Il sesso e la polis. Milano: Feltrinelli.
Calvino, I. (1988). Lezioni Americane. Sei proposte per il prossimo millennio. Milano: Garzanti.
Carey, C. (1995). «Rape and Adultery in Athenian Law». The Classical Quarterly, vol. 45, n. 2, pp. 407-417.
Cohen, A. (1996). «Portrayals of abduction in Greek Art. Rape or Metaphor?». In N. Kampen (a cura di), Sexuality in Ancient Art: Near East, Egypt, Greece, and Italy (pp. 117-135). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Conley, C. A. (2014). «Sexual Violence in Historical Perspective». In R. Gartner e B. McCarthy (a cura di), The Oxford Handbook of Gender, Sex, and Crime (pp. 207-224). Oxford: Oxford Academic.
Conte, G. (2013). Rapimenti erotici nella tradizione mitica della Grecia antica: Divinità e mortali uniti in amore. Roma: Europa Edizioni.
Corboz, A. (2000). «La Danae di Mabuse (1527) come testimonianza del’idea di Sancta Antiquitas». Artibus et historiae, vol. 21, n. 42, pp. 9-29.
Deacy, S. e Pierce, K. F. (2002). Rape in Antiquity: Sexual Violence in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Londra: Duckworth.
Dowden, K. (2003). L’iniziazione femminile nella mitologia greca. Genova: ecig.
Duffy, W. S. (2020). «Medusa as Victim and Tool of Male Aggression». Verbum Incarnatum: An Academic Journal of Social Justice, vol. 7. Recuperato il 2 marzo 2022, in https://athenaeum.uiw.edu/verbumincarnatum/vol7/iss1/1/.
Fabularum Hygini per Capita Index. In F. Gasti (2017). Igino, Miti del mondo classico. Santarcangelo di Romagna: Rusconi Libri.
Fényes, G. (2020-2021). «A Terracotta Mould from Aquincum depicting Story of Danae». La Rivista di Engramma, n. 178, pp. 117-128. Recuperato il 3 febbraio 2022, in https://www.engramma.it/eOS/index.php?id_articolo=4044.
Fonow, M. M.; Richardson. L. e Wemmerus, V. A. (1992). «Feminist Rape Education: Does It Work?». Gender and Society, vol. 6, n. 1, pp.108-121.
Gasti, F. (2017). Igino, Miti del mondo classico. Santarcangelo di Romagna: Rusconi Libri.
Giallongo, A. (2013). La donna serpente Storie di un enigma dall’antichità al xxi secolo. Bari: Dedalo.
Giallongo, A. (2015). Historia de un enigma desde la antiguidad hasta el siglo xxi. Sevilla: Benilde Ediciones.
Holden, A. (2008). «The Abduction of the Sabine Women in Context: The Iconography on Late Antique. Contorniate Medallions». American Journal of Archeology, vol. 112, pp. 121-142.
Karakantza, E. D. (2004). «Literary Rapes Revisited. A Study in Literary Conventions and Political Ideologis». Metis, n. 2, pp. 29-45.
Lewin, K. (1980 [1948]). I conflitti sociali. Milano: Franco Angeli Editori.
Lissarague, F. (1996). «Danaé. Métamorphoses d’un myth». In S. Georgoud e J. P. Vernant (a cura di), Mythes grecs au figure: de l’antiquité au baroque (pp. 105-134). Parigi: Gallimard.
Marrou, H. I. (2016 [1948]). Storia dell’educazione nell’antichità. Roma: Studium.
Mazzoldi, S. (2001). Cassandra, la vergine e l’indovina. Identità di un personaggio da Omero all’Ellenismo. Pisa/Roma: Istituti editoriali e poligrafici internazionali.
Minner, K. M. (1978). «Danae, Virtuous, Voluptuous, Venal Women». The Art Bulletin, vol. 60, n. 1, pp. 43-55.
Moschin, M. (2022). Le Metamorfosi di Ovidio nell’arte. Roma: Edizioni Espera.
Nguyen, L. N. (2006). Roman Rape: An Overview of Roman Rape Laws from the Republican Period to Justinian’s Reign. Londra: D. Polk & Wardwell.
Nichols, K. (2016). «Arthur Hacker’s Syrinx (1892): Paint, classics and the culture of rape». Feminist Theory, vol. 17, n. 1, pp. 107-126. Birmingham: University of Birmingham.
Plauto (2004). Miles Gloriosus. Milano: Mondadori.
Russell, M. (1977). «The Iconography of Rembrandt’s. Rape of Ganymede». Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, vol. 9, n. 1, pp. 5-18.
Sanday, P. R. (1990). Fraternity Gang Rape: Sex, Brotherhood and Privilege on Campus. New York: New York University Press.
Santore, C. (1991). «Danaë: The Renaissance Courtesan’s Alter Ego». Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte, vol. 54, pp. 412-427.
Sluijter, E. J. (1999). «Emulating sensual beauty: representations of Danaë from Gossaert to Rembrandt». Simiolus. Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, vol. 27, pp. 4-45.
Senofonte (1989). Simposio. Milano: Rizzoli.
Sofocle (2013). Antigone. Milano: Feltrinelli.
Tomaselli, S. e Porter, R. (1986). Rape. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
van Nijf, O. (2005). «Aristos Hellenôn: succès sportif et identité grecque dans la Grèce romaine». Metis, n. 3, pp. 280-291.
Wolfthal, D. (1999). Images of Rape: The Heroic Tradition and its Alternatives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Zarucchi, J. M. (1999). «The Gentileschi Danae: A Narrative of Rape». Woman’s Art Journal, vol. 1, n. 2, pp. 13-16.
Giallongo, A. (2023). The Golden Rain, Danae and the Invisible Rapes. Revista De La Sociedad Española De Italianistas, 16, 55–68. https://doi.org/10.14201/rsei.31307
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