Same same…but different?
Support for the ideal of democracy vs. solid democratic support
Abstract Measurement of citizen support for democracy has been problematic, as most research on the topic has focused on assessing support for an abstract concept: the “ideal” of democracy. This article proposes a different conception of democratic support, labeled “solid democratic support”, which combines multiple items tapping attitudes towards various essential attributes of democratic rule. Using data from the AmericasBarometer surveys, the “solid support” measure is compared to a traditional measure of support for the ideal of democracy in Chile and Venezuela. Important differences are found in the levels of the two indicators and in their correlates, demonstrating that they are in fact different concepts. As well, substantial differences are found between the two countries, suggesting that analyses of democratic support that do not consider the country-specific political context may be flawed.
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Almond, G., & Verba, S. (1963). The Civic Culture. Princeton University Press.
Altman, D., & Pérez-Liñán, A. (2002). Assessing the Quality of Democracy: Freedom, Competitiveness and Participation in Eighteen Latin American Countries. Democratization, 9(2), 85-100. https://doi.org/10.1080/714000256
Alvarez, M., Cheibub, J. A., Limongi, F., & Przeworski, A. (1996). Classifying Political Regimes. Studies in Comparative International Development, 31(2), 3-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02719326
Anderson, C., Blais, A., Bowler, S., Donovan, T., & Listhaug, O. (2005). Losers’ consent: Elections and democratic legitimacy. Oxford University Press.
Anderson, C., & Tverdova, Y. (2001). Winners, Losers, and Attitudes about Government in Contemporary Democracies. International Political Science Review, 22(4), 321-338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512101022004003
Baker, P. J., & Koesel, K. J. (2001). Measuring “Polyarchy Plus”: Tracking the Quality of Democratization in Eastern Europe, 1992–2000 [Prepared for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association].
Baviskar, S., & Malone, M. (2004). What Democracy Means to Citizens – and Why It Matters. European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 76, 3-23. https://doi.org/10.18352/erlacs.9682
Booth, J. A., & Seligson, M. A. (2009). The Legitimacy Puzzle in Latin America: Political Support and Democracy in Eight Nations. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818431
Bratton, M. (2002). Wide but Shallow: Popular Support for Democracy in Africa. En E. R. McMahon & T. A. P. Sinclair (Eds.), Democratic Institution Performance: Research and Policy Perspectives (pp. 39-62). Praeger Publishers.
Bratton, M., & Mattes, R. (2001). Support for Democracy in Africa: Intrinsic or Instrumental? British Journal of Political Science, 31(3), 447-474. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123401000175
Canache, D. (2002). Venezuela: Public opinion and protest in a fragile democracy. North-South Center Press.
Carlin, R. E., & Singer, M. M. (2011). Support for Polyarchy in the Americas. Comparative Political Studies, 44(11), 1500-1526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414011407471
Carrión, J. F. (2008). Illiberal democracy and normative democracy: How is democracy defined in the Americas? En M. A. Seligson (Ed.), Challenges to democracy in Latin America and the Caribbean: Evidence from the AmericasBarometer (pp. 21-46). U. S. Agency for International Development.
Citrin, J. (1974). Comment: The Political Relevance of Trust in Government. The American Political Science Review, 68(3), 973-988. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959141
Collier, D., & Levitsky, S. (1997). Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research. World Politics, 49(3), 430-451. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.1997.0009
Coppedge, M. (2005). Explaining Democratic Deterioration in Venezuela through Nested Inference. En F. Hagopian & S. Mainwaring (Eds.), The Third Wave of Democratization in Latin America: Advances and Setbacks (pp. 289-316). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791116.011
Coppedge, M., Alvarez, A., & Maldonado, C. (2008). Two Persistent Dimensions of Democracy: Contestation and Inclusiveness. Journal of Politics, 70(3), 632-647. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381608080663
Coppedge, M., & Reinicke, W. H. (1990). Measuring polyarchy. Studies in Comparative International Development, 25(1), 51-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02716905
Dahl, R. A. (1971). Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. Yale University Press.
Dalton, R. J. (2004). Democratic Challenges, Democratic Choices: The Erosion of Political Support in Advanced Industrial Democracies. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268436.001.0001
Diamond, L., & Morlino, L. (2004). The Quality of Democracy: An Overview. Journal of Democracy, 15(4), 20-31. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2004.0060
Diamond, L., & Plattner, M. F. (Eds.). (2008). How people view democracy. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Easton, D. (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life. Wiley.
Easton, D. (1975). A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support. British Journal of Political Science, 5(4), 435-457. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400008309
Easton, D., & Dennis, J. (1967). The child’s acquisition of regime norms: Political efficacy. The American Political Science Review, 61(1), 25-38. https://doi.org/10.2307/1953873
Evans, G., & Whitefield, S. (1995). The Politics and Economics of Democratic Commitment: Support for Democracy in Transition Societies. British Journal of Political Science, 25(4), 485-514. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007328
Ferrín, M. (2012). What is Democracy to Citizens? Understanding Perceptions and Evaluations of Democratic Systems in Contemporary Europe [Doctoral Thesis, European University Institute]. https://doi.org/10.2870/70720
Filmer, D., & Pritchett, L. H. (2001). Estimating Wealth Effects without Expenditure Data-or Tears: An Application to Educational Enrollments in States of India. Demography, 38(1), 115-132. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088292
Frank, M. (2010). Democracia delegativa y Chavismo ¿Pueden existir juntos? Revista de Ciencia Política, 9. https://www.revcienciapolitica.com.ar/num9art9.php
Freedom House. (2015a). Freedom in the World 2015—Methodology report. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Methodology_FIW_2015.pdf
Freedom House. (2015b). Freedom in the World—Individual country ratings and status, FIW 1973-2015 (EXCEL). https://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world
Fuchs, D., Guidorossi, G., & Svensson, P. (1995). Support for the Democratic System. En H.-D. Klingemann & D. Fuchs (Eds.), Citizens and the State (pp. 323-353). Oxford University Press.
Gallie, W. B. (1956). Essentially contested concepts. Proceedings of the aristotelian society, 56, 167-198. https://doi.org/10.1093/aristotelian/56.1.167
Gastil, R. D. (1991). The Comparative Survey of Freedom: Experiences and suggestions. En A. Inkeles (Ed.), On Measuring Democracy: Its Consequences and Concomitants (pp. 21-46). Transaction Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315125619
Ghalib, A. K. (2011). Estimating the Depth of Microfinance Programme Outreach: Empirical Findings from Rural Pakistan. Brooks World Poverty Institute Working Paper, 154. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1895295
Goertz, G. (2006). Social science concepts: A user’s guide. Princeton University Press.
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Inglehart, R. (2003). How Solid is Mass Support for Democracy—And How Can We Measure It? PS: Political Science & Politics, 36(1), 51-57. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096503001689
Kaase, M. (1988). Political alienation and protest. En M. Dogan (Ed.), Comparing Pluralist Democracies: Strains on Legitimacy. Westview Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429036620
Klingemann, H.-D. (1999). Mapping Political Support in the 1990s: A Global Analysis. En P. Norris (Ed.), Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (pp. 31-56). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198295685.003.0002
Kriesi, H., Saris, W., & Moncagatta, P. (2016). The Structure of Europeans’ Views of Democracy: Citizens’ Models of Democracy. En M. Ferrín & H. Kriesi (Eds.), How Europeans View and Evaluate Democracy (pp. 64-89). Oxford University Press. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/40725
Lagos, M. (2003). Support for and Satisfaction with Democracy. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 15(4), 471-487. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/15.4.471
Lagos, M. (2008). Latin America’s Diversity of Views. Journal of Democracy, 19(1), 111-125. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2008.0010
Linde, J., & Ekman, J. (2003). Satisfaction with democracy: A note on a frequently used indicator in comparative politics. European Journal of Political Research, 42(3), 391-408. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00089
Linz, J. J. (1978). The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown and Reequilibration. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. C. (1996a). Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. C. (1996b). Toward Consolidated Democracies. Journal of democracy, 7(2), 14-33. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1996.0031
Lipset, S. M. (1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy. The American Political Science Review, 53(1), 69-105. https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Luna, J. P. (2020, junio 30). Anomia. CIPER Chile. https://www.ciperchile.cl/2020/06/30/anomia-abc1/
Marshall, M. G., & Jaggers, K. (2002). Polity IV project: Political regime characteristics and transitions, 1800-2002. http://www3.nd.edu/~mcoppedg/crd/PolityIVUsersManualv2002.pdf
Mattes, R., & Bratton, M. (2007). Learning about Democracy in Africa: Awareness, Performance, and Experience. American Journal of Political Science, 51(1), 192-217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00245.x
McClintock, C., & Lebovic, J. H. (2006). Correlates of Levels of Democracy in Latin America During the 1990s. Latin American Politics and Society, 48(2), 29-59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2006.tb00346.x
Miller, A. H. (1974). Political Issues and Trust in the Government: 1964-1970. The American Political Science Review, 68(3), 951-972. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959140
Mishler, W., & Rose, R. (2001). Political Support for Incomplete Democracies: Realist vs. Idealist Theories and Measures. International Political Science Review, 22(4), 303-320. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512101022004002
Moncagatta, P. (2013). Support for democracy in Venezuela: Does trust in Hugo Chávez play any role? Revista Latinoamericana de Opinión Pública, 3, 113-141. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.22292
Munck, G. L., & Verkuilen, J. (2002). Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices. Comparative Political Studies, 35(1), 5-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041400203500101
Norris, P. (1999). Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance. Oxford University Press.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making Democracy Work. Princeton University Press.
Roberts, K. M. (2003). Social Correlates of Party System Demise and Populist Resurgence in Venezuela. Latin American Politics and Society, 45(3), 35-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00249.x
Rose, R., & Mishler, W. (1996). Testing the Churchill hypothesis: Popular support for democracy and its alternatives. Journal of public policy, 16, 29-58. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X00007856
Rose, R., Mishler, W., & Haerpfer, C. (1998). Democracy and its alternatives: Understanding post-communist societies. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Sarsfield, R., & Echegaray, F. (2006). Opening the Black Box: How Satisfaction with Democracy and its Perceived Efficacy Affect Regime Preference in Latin America. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18(2), 153-173. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edh088
Schedler, A., & Sarsfield, R. (2007). Democrats with adjectives: Linking direct and indirect measures of democratic support. European Journal of Political Research, 46(5), 637-659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2007.00708.x
Schmitter, P., & Karl, T. (1991). What democracy is... And is not. Journal of Democracy, 2(3), 75-88. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1991.0033
Schneider, C. (2008). The Consolidation of Democracy: Comparing Europe and Latin America. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203886779
Singh, S., Lago, I., & Blais, A. (2011). Winning and Competitiveness as Determinants of Political Support. Social Science Quarterly, 92(3), 695-709. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2011.00788.x
Tilly, C. (2007). Democracy. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804922
Torcal, M., & Mainwaring, S. (2003). The Political Recrafting of Social Bases of Party Competition: Chile, 1973–95. British Journal of Political Science, 33(1), 55-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123403000036
Valenzuela, A. (1977). Political brokers in Chile: Local government in a centralized polity. Duke University Press.
Vanhanen, T. (2003). Democratization: A Comparative Analysis of 170 Countries. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203614501
Vyas, S., & Kumaranayake, L. (2006). Constructing socio-economic status indices: How to use principal components analysis. Health Policy and Planning, 21(6), 459-468. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czl029
Whitefield, S., & Evans, G. (1999). Political Culture Versus Rational Choice: Explaining Responses to Transition in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. British Journal of Political Science, 29(01), 129-154. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712349900006X
Altman, D., & Pérez-Liñán, A. (2002). Assessing the Quality of Democracy: Freedom, Competitiveness and Participation in Eighteen Latin American Countries. Democratization, 9(2), 85-100. https://doi.org/10.1080/714000256
Alvarez, M., Cheibub, J. A., Limongi, F., & Przeworski, A. (1996). Classifying Political Regimes. Studies in Comparative International Development, 31(2), 3-36. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02719326
Anderson, C., Blais, A., Bowler, S., Donovan, T., & Listhaug, O. (2005). Losers’ consent: Elections and democratic legitimacy. Oxford University Press.
Anderson, C., & Tverdova, Y. (2001). Winners, Losers, and Attitudes about Government in Contemporary Democracies. International Political Science Review, 22(4), 321-338. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512101022004003
Baker, P. J., & Koesel, K. J. (2001). Measuring “Polyarchy Plus”: Tracking the Quality of Democratization in Eastern Europe, 1992–2000 [Prepared for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association].
Baviskar, S., & Malone, M. (2004). What Democracy Means to Citizens – and Why It Matters. European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies, 76, 3-23. https://doi.org/10.18352/erlacs.9682
Booth, J. A., & Seligson, M. A. (2009). The Legitimacy Puzzle in Latin America: Political Support and Democracy in Eight Nations. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511818431
Bratton, M. (2002). Wide but Shallow: Popular Support for Democracy in Africa. En E. R. McMahon & T. A. P. Sinclair (Eds.), Democratic Institution Performance: Research and Policy Perspectives (pp. 39-62). Praeger Publishers.
Bratton, M., & Mattes, R. (2001). Support for Democracy in Africa: Intrinsic or Instrumental? British Journal of Political Science, 31(3), 447-474. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123401000175
Canache, D. (2002). Venezuela: Public opinion and protest in a fragile democracy. North-South Center Press.
Carlin, R. E., & Singer, M. M. (2011). Support for Polyarchy in the Americas. Comparative Political Studies, 44(11), 1500-1526. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414011407471
Carrión, J. F. (2008). Illiberal democracy and normative democracy: How is democracy defined in the Americas? En M. A. Seligson (Ed.), Challenges to democracy in Latin America and the Caribbean: Evidence from the AmericasBarometer (pp. 21-46). U. S. Agency for International Development.
Citrin, J. (1974). Comment: The Political Relevance of Trust in Government. The American Political Science Review, 68(3), 973-988. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959141
Collier, D., & Levitsky, S. (1997). Democracy with Adjectives: Conceptual Innovation in Comparative Research. World Politics, 49(3), 430-451. https://doi.org/10.1353/wp.1997.0009
Coppedge, M. (2005). Explaining Democratic Deterioration in Venezuela through Nested Inference. En F. Hagopian & S. Mainwaring (Eds.), The Third Wave of Democratization in Latin America: Advances and Setbacks (pp. 289-316). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511791116.011
Coppedge, M., Alvarez, A., & Maldonado, C. (2008). Two Persistent Dimensions of Democracy: Contestation and Inclusiveness. Journal of Politics, 70(3), 632-647. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381608080663
Coppedge, M., & Reinicke, W. H. (1990). Measuring polyarchy. Studies in Comparative International Development, 25(1), 51-72. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02716905
Dahl, R. A. (1971). Polyarchy: Participation and Opposition. Yale University Press.
Dalton, R. J. (2004). Democratic Challenges, Democratic Choices: The Erosion of Political Support in Advanced Industrial Democracies. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199268436.001.0001
Diamond, L., & Morlino, L. (2004). The Quality of Democracy: An Overview. Journal of Democracy, 15(4), 20-31. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2004.0060
Diamond, L., & Plattner, M. F. (Eds.). (2008). How people view democracy. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Easton, D. (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life. Wiley.
Easton, D. (1975). A Re-Assessment of the Concept of Political Support. British Journal of Political Science, 5(4), 435-457. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400008309
Easton, D., & Dennis, J. (1967). The child’s acquisition of regime norms: Political efficacy. The American Political Science Review, 61(1), 25-38. https://doi.org/10.2307/1953873
Evans, G., & Whitefield, S. (1995). The Politics and Economics of Democratic Commitment: Support for Democracy in Transition Societies. British Journal of Political Science, 25(4), 485-514. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007328
Ferrín, M. (2012). What is Democracy to Citizens? Understanding Perceptions and Evaluations of Democratic Systems in Contemporary Europe [Doctoral Thesis, European University Institute]. https://doi.org/10.2870/70720
Filmer, D., & Pritchett, L. H. (2001). Estimating Wealth Effects without Expenditure Data-or Tears: An Application to Educational Enrollments in States of India. Demography, 38(1), 115-132. https://doi.org/10.2307/3088292
Frank, M. (2010). Democracia delegativa y Chavismo ¿Pueden existir juntos? Revista de Ciencia Política, 9. https://www.revcienciapolitica.com.ar/num9art9.php
Freedom House. (2015a). Freedom in the World 2015—Methodology report. https://freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Methodology_FIW_2015.pdf
Freedom House. (2015b). Freedom in the World—Individual country ratings and status, FIW 1973-2015 (EXCEL). https://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world
Fuchs, D., Guidorossi, G., & Svensson, P. (1995). Support for the Democratic System. En H.-D. Klingemann & D. Fuchs (Eds.), Citizens and the State (pp. 323-353). Oxford University Press.
Gallie, W. B. (1956). Essentially contested concepts. Proceedings of the aristotelian society, 56, 167-198. https://doi.org/10.1093/aristotelian/56.1.167
Gastil, R. D. (1991). The Comparative Survey of Freedom: Experiences and suggestions. En A. Inkeles (Ed.), On Measuring Democracy: Its Consequences and Concomitants (pp. 21-46). Transaction Publishers. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315125619
Ghalib, A. K. (2011). Estimating the Depth of Microfinance Programme Outreach: Empirical Findings from Rural Pakistan. Brooks World Poverty Institute Working Paper, 154. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1895295
Goertz, G. (2006). Social science concepts: A user’s guide. Princeton University Press.
Huntington, S. P. (1991). The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late Twentieth Century. University of Oklahoma Press.
Inglehart, R. (2003). How Solid is Mass Support for Democracy—And How Can We Measure It? PS: Political Science & Politics, 36(1), 51-57. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096503001689
Kaase, M. (1988). Political alienation and protest. En M. Dogan (Ed.), Comparing Pluralist Democracies: Strains on Legitimacy. Westview Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429036620
Klingemann, H.-D. (1999). Mapping Political Support in the 1990s: A Global Analysis. En P. Norris (Ed.), Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance (pp. 31-56). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/0198295685.003.0002
Kriesi, H., Saris, W., & Moncagatta, P. (2016). The Structure of Europeans’ Views of Democracy: Citizens’ Models of Democracy. En M. Ferrín & H. Kriesi (Eds.), How Europeans View and Evaluate Democracy (pp. 64-89). Oxford University Press. https://hdl.handle.net/1814/40725
Lagos, M. (2003). Support for and Satisfaction with Democracy. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 15(4), 471-487. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/15.4.471
Lagos, M. (2008). Latin America’s Diversity of Views. Journal of Democracy, 19(1), 111-125. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2008.0010
Linde, J., & Ekman, J. (2003). Satisfaction with democracy: A note on a frequently used indicator in comparative politics. European Journal of Political Research, 42(3), 391-408. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00089
Linz, J. J. (1978). The Breakdown of Democratic Regimes: Crisis, Breakdown and Reequilibration. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. C. (1996a). Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation: Southern Europe, South America, and Post-Communist Europe. The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Linz, J. J., & Stepan, A. C. (1996b). Toward Consolidated Democracies. Journal of democracy, 7(2), 14-33. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1996.0031
Lipset, S. M. (1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy. The American Political Science Review, 53(1), 69-105. https://doi.org/10.2307/1951731
Luna, J. P. (2020, junio 30). Anomia. CIPER Chile. https://www.ciperchile.cl/2020/06/30/anomia-abc1/
Marshall, M. G., & Jaggers, K. (2002). Polity IV project: Political regime characteristics and transitions, 1800-2002. http://www3.nd.edu/~mcoppedg/crd/PolityIVUsersManualv2002.pdf
Mattes, R., & Bratton, M. (2007). Learning about Democracy in Africa: Awareness, Performance, and Experience. American Journal of Political Science, 51(1), 192-217. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2007.00245.x
McClintock, C., & Lebovic, J. H. (2006). Correlates of Levels of Democracy in Latin America During the 1990s. Latin American Politics and Society, 48(2), 29-59. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2006.tb00346.x
Miller, A. H. (1974). Political Issues and Trust in the Government: 1964-1970. The American Political Science Review, 68(3), 951-972. https://doi.org/10.2307/1959140
Mishler, W., & Rose, R. (2001). Political Support for Incomplete Democracies: Realist vs. Idealist Theories and Measures. International Political Science Review, 22(4), 303-320. https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512101022004002
Moncagatta, P. (2013). Support for democracy in Venezuela: Does trust in Hugo Chávez play any role? Revista Latinoamericana de Opinión Pública, 3, 113-141. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.22292
Munck, G. L., & Verkuilen, J. (2002). Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices. Comparative Political Studies, 35(1), 5-34. https://doi.org/10.1177/001041400203500101
Norris, P. (1999). Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Governance. Oxford University Press.
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making Democracy Work. Princeton University Press.
Roberts, K. M. (2003). Social Correlates of Party System Demise and Populist Resurgence in Venezuela. Latin American Politics and Society, 45(3), 35-57. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00249.x
Rose, R., & Mishler, W. (1996). Testing the Churchill hypothesis: Popular support for democracy and its alternatives. Journal of public policy, 16, 29-58. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0143814X00007856
Rose, R., Mishler, W., & Haerpfer, C. (1998). Democracy and its alternatives: Understanding post-communist societies. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Sarsfield, R., & Echegaray, F. (2006). Opening the Black Box: How Satisfaction with Democracy and its Perceived Efficacy Affect Regime Preference in Latin America. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 18(2), 153-173. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edh088
Schedler, A., & Sarsfield, R. (2007). Democrats with adjectives: Linking direct and indirect measures of democratic support. European Journal of Political Research, 46(5), 637-659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2007.00708.x
Schmitter, P., & Karl, T. (1991). What democracy is... And is not. Journal of Democracy, 2(3), 75-88. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.1991.0033
Schneider, C. (2008). The Consolidation of Democracy: Comparing Europe and Latin America. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203886779
Singh, S., Lago, I., & Blais, A. (2011). Winning and Competitiveness as Determinants of Political Support. Social Science Quarterly, 92(3), 695-709. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-6237.2011.00788.x
Tilly, C. (2007). Democracy. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511804922
Torcal, M., & Mainwaring, S. (2003). The Political Recrafting of Social Bases of Party Competition: Chile, 1973–95. British Journal of Political Science, 33(1), 55-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123403000036
Valenzuela, A. (1977). Political brokers in Chile: Local government in a centralized polity. Duke University Press.
Vanhanen, T. (2003). Democratization: A Comparative Analysis of 170 Countries. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203614501
Vyas, S., & Kumaranayake, L. (2006). Constructing socio-economic status indices: How to use principal components analysis. Health Policy and Planning, 21(6), 459-468. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapol/czl029
Whitefield, S., & Evans, G. (1999). Political Culture Versus Rational Choice: Explaining Responses to Transition in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. British Journal of Political Science, 29(01), 129-154. https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712349900006X
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