When Inmigration is a New Issue: Evidence from Chile 2003 and 2017
Abstract In countries where parties have not adopted strong policy positions on immigration–and where the immigrant population is not large–popular perceptions of immigrants might not reflect the ideological divides reported in the literature for countries where immigration is a politically salient issue. We assess the association of ideological identification with the perceptions of immigrants in Chile using two comparable national polls, one from 2003, before the recent immigration wave, and one from 2017, in the middle of an immigration wave, but before parties formally adopted policy positions on immigration. With OLS estimations, we find that, as expected, leftists had more positive views than the rest, but contrary to expectations, those on the right also had more positive views, especially in 2017. Views were more prominent in 2017 than in 2003, with those in the extreme left and extreme right displaying positive views.
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Alonso, Sonia, and Cristóbal Rovira Kaltwasser. (2015). “Spain: No country for the populist radical right?” South European Society and Politics 20 (1): 21-45.
Alonso, Sonia, and Sara Claro da Fonseca. (2012). “Immigration, left and right.” Party Politics 18 (6): 865-884.
Arias, Gonzalo, Rodrigo Moreno, and Dafne Nuñez. (2010). “Inmigración latinoamericana en Chile: Analizando perfiles y patrones de localización de la comunidad peruana en el área metropolitana de Santiago (AMS)”. Tiempo y Espacio 25.
Brader, Ted, Nicholas Valentino, and Elizabeth Suhay. (2008). “What Triggers Public Opposition to Immigration? Anxiety, Group Cues, and Immigration Threat.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (4): 959-978.
Bravo Acevedo, Guillermo and Carmen Norambuena Carrasco. (2018). Procesos migratorios en Chile: Una mirada histórica-normativa. ANEPE #43. Santiago: Academia Nacional de Estudios Políticos y Estratégicos.
Burns, Peter, and James Gimpel. (2000). “Economic Insecurity, Prejudicial Stereotypes, and Public Opinion on Immigration Policy.” Political Science Quarterly 115 (2): 201-225.
Burscher, Bjorn, Joost Van Spanje, and Claes De Vreese. (2015). “Owning the Issues of Crime and Immigration: The Relation Between Immigration and Crime News and Anti-Immigrant Voting in 11 Countries.” Electoral Studies 38: 59-69.
Carvacho, Héctor. 2010. “Ideological configurations and prediction of attitudes toward immigrants in Chile and Germany.” International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV) 4.2: 220-233.
Carvalho, J., and Ruedin, D. 2020. The positions mainstream left parties adopt on immigration: A cross-cutting cleavage? Party Politics 26(4), 379-389.
Cea D’Ancona, María A. 2016. “Immigration as a threat: Explaining the changing pattern of xenophobia in Spain”. Journal of International Migration and Integration 17(2): 569-591.
Cea D’Ancona, María Á. 2002. “La medición de las actitudes ante la inmigración: evaluación de los indicadores tradicionales del racismo.” Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 99: 87-111.
CEP (Centro de Estudios Públicos). 2003. Estudio Nacional de Opinión Pública N° 46. Diciembre 2003. Santiago: Centro de Estudios Públicos. https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/encuestas-cep/encuestas-2010-2019/estudio-nacional-de-opinion-publica-abril-mayo-2017 (accessed on February 2, 2022).
CEP (Centro de Estudios Públicos). 2017. Estudio Nacional de Opinión Pública N°79, Abril-Mayo 2017. Santiago: Centro de Estudios Públicos.
https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/encuestas-cep/encuestas-2010-2019/estudio-nacional-de-opinion-publica-abril-mayo-2017 (accessed on February 2, 2022)
Ceron, Andrea. 2012. “Bounded oligarchy: How and when factions constrain leaders in party position taking.” Electoral Studies 31: 689-701.
Cohrs, J. C., and Stelzl, M. 2010. How ideological attitudes predict host society members attitudes toward immigrants: Exploring cross national differences. Journal of Social Issues, 66 (4), 673-694.
Creighton, Mathew J., Amaney Jamal, and Natalia C. Malancu. 2015. “Has opposition to immigration increased in the United States after the economic crisis? An experimental approach” International Migration Review 49 (3): 727-756.
Damstra, Alyt, Laura Jacobs, Mark Boukes and Rens Vliegenthart. 2021. “The impact of immigration news on anti-immigrant party support: unpacking agenda-setting and issue ownership effects over time”. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 31:1, 97-118, DOI:10.1080/17457289.2019.1607863.
Dennison, J., and Geddes, A. 2019. A rising tide? The salience of immigration and the rise of anti immigration political parties in Western Europe. The political quarterly 90(1), 107-116.
Dennison, James, and Matthew Goodwin. 2015. “Immigration, issue ownership and the rise of UKIP.” Parliamentary Affairs 68 (1): 168-187.
d’Hombres, Béatrice, and Luca Nunziata. 2016. “Wish you were here? Quasi experimental evidence on the effect of education on self-reported attitude toward immigrants.” European Economic Review 90: 201-224.
Doña Reveco, Cristián, and Brendan Mullan. 2014. “Migration Policy and Development in Chile.” International Migration 52 (5): 1-14.
Harteveld, Eelco, Andrej Kokkonen and Stefan Dahlberg. 2017. “Adapting to party lines: the effect of party affiliation on attitudes to immigration” West European Politics 40(6): 1177-1197, DOI: 10.1080/01402382.2017.1328889.
Ellis, Christopher, and James A. Stimson. 2012. Ideology in America. Cambridge University Press.
Enns, Peter K., and José T. Sanchez Gomez, 2019. “The Polls—Trends Economic Evaluations and Political Change in Chile, 1966 to 2018.” Public Opinion Quarterly 83(3): 627-639.
Finn, Victoria, and Sebastián Umpierrez de Reguero. 2020. “Inclusive Language for Exclusive Policies: Restrictive Migration Governance in Chile, 2018” Latin American Policy 11(1): 42–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/lamp.12176.
Fussell, Elizabeth. 2014. “Warmth of the Welcome: Attitudes Toward Immigrants and Immigration Policy in the United States.” Annual Review of Sociology 40: 479-498.
Givens, Terri E. 2012. “Effects of Migration: Political Parties.” In Marc Rosenblum and Daniel Tichenor (eds) Oxford Handbook of the Politics of International Migration. Oxford University Press, pp 153-170.
Givens, Terri, and Adam Luedtke. 2005. “European immigration policies in comparative perspective: Issue salience, partisanship and immigrant rights.” Comparative European Politics 3 (1): 1-22.
Golder, Matt. 2003. “Explaining variation in the success of extreme right parties in Western Europe” Comparative Political Studies 36 (4): 432-466.
Hainmueller, Jens, and Daniel Hopkins. 2014. “Public Attitudes Toward Immigration”. Annual Review of Political Science 17 (1): 225-249.
Hainmueller, Jens, and Daniel Hopkins. 2015. “The Hidden American Immigration Consensus: A Conjoint Analysis of Attitudes toward Immigrants”. American Journal of Political Science (3): 529-548.
Hainmueller, Jens, and M.J. Hiscox. 2010. “Attitudes toward highly skilled ad low skilled immigration: evidence from a survey experiment.” American Political Science Review 104 (1): 61-84.
Haubert, Jeannie, and Elizabeth Fussell. 2006. “Explaining Pro Immigrant Sentiment in the U.S.: Social Class, Cosmopolitanism, and Perceptions of Immigrants”. International Migration Review 40 (3): 489-507.
Igartúa, Juan José, and Lifen Cheng. 2009. “Moderating Effect of Group Cue while Processing News on Immigration: Is the Framing Effect a Heuristic Process?” Journal of Communication 59 (4): 726-749.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística. 2017. Chile: Proyecciones y Estimaciones de Población. Total País: 1950-2050. Santiago: Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas.
Kiehne, E., and Ayon, C. 2016. Friends or Foes: The Impact of Political Ideology and Immigrant Friends on Anti Immigrant Sentiment. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 43:135–54.
Laurence, James, and Lee Bentley. 2018. “Countervailing contact: Community ethnic diversity, antiimmigrant attitudes and mediating pathways of positive and negative inter ethnic contact in European societies”. Social Science Research 69: 83-110.
Lawrence, Duncan. 2015. “Crossing the Cordillera: immigrant attributes and Chilean attitudes.” Latin American Research Review 50,4: 154-177.
Lucassen, Geertje, and Marcel Lubbers. 2012. “Who fears what? Explaining far. right wing preference in Europe by distinguishing perceived cultural and economic ethnic threats.” Comparative Political Studies 45.5: 547-574.
Mainwaring, Scott, Mariano Torcal and Nicolás Somma. 2015. “The Left and the Mobilization of Class Voting in Latin America” in Ryan E. Carlin, Matthew M. Singer, and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister, eds. The Latin American voter: Pursuing representation and accountability in challenging contexts. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 68-98.
Manzi, Jorge, Ellen Helsper, Soledad Ruiz, Mariane Krause, and Edmundo Kronmüller. 2003. “El pasado que nos pesa: la memoria colectiva del 11 de Septiembre de 1973” Revista de ciencia política 23,2: 177-214.
Meuleman, Bart, Eldad Davidov, and Jaak Billiet. 2009. “Changing attitudes toward immigration in Europe, 2002-2007: A dynamic group conflict theory approach”. Social Science Research 38 (2): 352-365.
Meyer, Thomas M., and Markus Wagner. 2020. “Perceptions of parties’ left right positions: The impact of salience strategies.” Party Politics 26,5: 664-674.
Morandé Lavín, José, Miguel Angel López, Peter Murphy Lewis, Roberto Durán Sepúlveda, Lorena Oyarzún Serrano, Juan Pablo Luna. 2009. Chile, las Américas y el mundo: opinión pública y política exterior 2008. Santiago: Instituto de Estudios Internacionales, Universidad de Chile. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34720/7myd-f570.
Moreno, Alejandro. 2016. “Value cleavage revisited” in Richard Gunther, Paul A. Beck, Pedro Magalhães and Alejandro Moreno, eds. Voting in Old and New Democracies. New York: Routledge, pp. 99-149.
Muste, Christopher. 2013. “The Dynamics of Immigration Opinion in the United States, 1992-2012”. Public Opinion Quarterly 77(1): 398-416.
Navia, Patricio, and Rodrigo Osorio. 2019. “Attitudes toward democracy and authoritarianism before, during and after military rule. The case of Chile, 1972–2013.” Contemporary Politics 25 (2): 190-212.
Navia, Patricio and Sergio Verdugo. 2020. “Chilean Presidential Candidates Platforms 1989-2017”. Harvard Dataverse, V1. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/NPQYLD
O’Rourke, Kevin, and Richard Sinnott. 2006. “The determinants of individual attitudes toward immigration”. European Journal of Political Economy 22 (4): 838-861.
Ortega, Francesc, and Javier Polavieja. 2012. “Labor Market Exposure as a Determinant of Attitudes toward Immigration”. Labour Economics 19 (3): 298-311.
Pérez, Efrén O. 2010. “Explicit Evidence on the Import of Implicit Attitudes: The IAT and Immigration Policy Judgments.” Political Behavior 32 (4): 517-545.
Petrocik, John R., William L. Benoit, and Glenn J. Hansen. 2005. “Issue ownership and presidential campaigning, 1952-2000”. Political Science Quarterly 118 (4): 599-626.
Plumb, David. “El Partido por la Democracia: The birth of Chile’s postmaterialist catch all left.” 1998. Party Politics 4(1): 93-106.
Saxton, Gregory, and Michelle Benson. 2003. “The Origins of Socially and Politically Hostile Attitudes Toward Immigrants and Outgroups: Economics, Ideology, or National Context?”. Journal of Political Science 31: 101-137.
Schalk-Soekar, S. R., F. J. Van de Vijver, and M. Hoogsteder. 2004. “Migrants’ and majority members’ orientations toward multiculturalism in the Netherlands”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28: 533-550.
Segovia, Francine, and Renatta Defever. 2010. “American Public Opinion on Immigrants and Immigration Policy”. Public Opinion Quarterly 75 (2): 375-394.
Shapiro, R. 2011. “Public opinion and American democracy.” Public Opinion Quarterly 75 (5): 982-1017.
Shin, Hyeyoung, and John Dovidio. 2016. “Cultural Differences in the Role of Economic Competitiveness in Prejudice toward Immigrants ad Foreing Workers”. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 17 (1): 8-32.
Sirlopú, David, Roberto Melipillán, Alejandro Sánchez, and Cristián Valdés. 2015. “¿Malos Para Aceptar la Diversidad? Predictores Socio-Demográficos y Psicológicos de las Actitudes Hacia el Multiculturalismo en Chile”. Psykhe 24 (2): 1-13.
Slothuus, Rune. 2016. “Assessing the Influence of Political Parties on Public Opinion: The Challenge from Pretreatment Effects”. Political Communication 33: 302-327.
Stang, María Fernanda, Antonia Lara Edwards and Marcos Andrade Moreno. 2020. “Retórica humanitaria y expulsabilidad: migrantes haitianos y gobernabilidad migratoria en Chile” Si Somos Americanos. Revista de Estudios Transfronterizos 20(1), 176–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0719-09482020000100176
Stephan, Walter, Lausanne Renfro, Victoria Esses, Cookie Stephan, and Tim Martin. 2005. “The effects of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 29: 1-19.
Stockemer, D. 2016. Structural data on immigration or immigration perceptions? What accounts for the electoral success of the radical right in Europe? JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 54(4): 999-1016.
Stockemer, Daniel. 2016. “Structural data on immigration or immigration perceptions? What accounts for the electoral success of the radical right in Europe?” Journal of Common Market Studies 54 (4): 999-1016.
United Nations. 2017. International Migration Report 2017 (ST/ESA/SER.A/404). New York: United States.
Urzúa, Alfonso, José Leiva and Alejandra Caqueo Urízar. 2020. “Effect of Positive Social Interaction on the Psychological Well being in South American Immigrants in Chile”. Journal of International Migration and Integration 21(1): 295-306.
Van Spanje, Joost. 2010. “Contagious parties: Anti immigration parties and their impact on other parties’ immigration stances in contemporary Western Europe”. Party Politics 16 (5): 563-586.
Visconti, Giancarlo. 2021. “Reevaluating the Role of Ideology in Chile.” Latin American Politics and Society 63(2): 1-25.
Ward, Colleen, and Anne Marie Masgoret. 2008. “Attitudes toward Immigrants, Immigration, and Multiculturalism in New Zealand: A Social Psychological Analysis”. International Migration Review 42 (1): 227-248.
Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origin of Mass Opinion. Cambridge University Press.
Alonso, Sonia, and Sara Claro da Fonseca. (2012). “Immigration, left and right.” Party Politics 18 (6): 865-884.
Arias, Gonzalo, Rodrigo Moreno, and Dafne Nuñez. (2010). “Inmigración latinoamericana en Chile: Analizando perfiles y patrones de localización de la comunidad peruana en el área metropolitana de Santiago (AMS)”. Tiempo y Espacio 25.
Brader, Ted, Nicholas Valentino, and Elizabeth Suhay. (2008). “What Triggers Public Opposition to Immigration? Anxiety, Group Cues, and Immigration Threat.” American Journal of Political Science 52 (4): 959-978.
Bravo Acevedo, Guillermo and Carmen Norambuena Carrasco. (2018). Procesos migratorios en Chile: Una mirada histórica-normativa. ANEPE #43. Santiago: Academia Nacional de Estudios Políticos y Estratégicos.
Burns, Peter, and James Gimpel. (2000). “Economic Insecurity, Prejudicial Stereotypes, and Public Opinion on Immigration Policy.” Political Science Quarterly 115 (2): 201-225.
Burscher, Bjorn, Joost Van Spanje, and Claes De Vreese. (2015). “Owning the Issues of Crime and Immigration: The Relation Between Immigration and Crime News and Anti-Immigrant Voting in 11 Countries.” Electoral Studies 38: 59-69.
Carvacho, Héctor. 2010. “Ideological configurations and prediction of attitudes toward immigrants in Chile and Germany.” International Journal of Conflict and Violence (IJCV) 4.2: 220-233.
Carvalho, J., and Ruedin, D. 2020. The positions mainstream left parties adopt on immigration: A cross-cutting cleavage? Party Politics 26(4), 379-389.
Cea D’Ancona, María A. 2016. “Immigration as a threat: Explaining the changing pattern of xenophobia in Spain”. Journal of International Migration and Integration 17(2): 569-591.
Cea D’Ancona, María Á. 2002. “La medición de las actitudes ante la inmigración: evaluación de los indicadores tradicionales del racismo.” Revista Española de Investigaciones Sociológicas 99: 87-111.
CEP (Centro de Estudios Públicos). 2003. Estudio Nacional de Opinión Pública N° 46. Diciembre 2003. Santiago: Centro de Estudios Públicos. https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/encuestas-cep/encuestas-2010-2019/estudio-nacional-de-opinion-publica-abril-mayo-2017 (accessed on February 2, 2022).
CEP (Centro de Estudios Públicos). 2017. Estudio Nacional de Opinión Pública N°79, Abril-Mayo 2017. Santiago: Centro de Estudios Públicos.
https://www.cepchile.cl/cep/encuestas-cep/encuestas-2010-2019/estudio-nacional-de-opinion-publica-abril-mayo-2017 (accessed on February 2, 2022)
Ceron, Andrea. 2012. “Bounded oligarchy: How and when factions constrain leaders in party position taking.” Electoral Studies 31: 689-701.
Cohrs, J. C., and Stelzl, M. 2010. How ideological attitudes predict host society members attitudes toward immigrants: Exploring cross national differences. Journal of Social Issues, 66 (4), 673-694.
Creighton, Mathew J., Amaney Jamal, and Natalia C. Malancu. 2015. “Has opposition to immigration increased in the United States after the economic crisis? An experimental approach” International Migration Review 49 (3): 727-756.
Damstra, Alyt, Laura Jacobs, Mark Boukes and Rens Vliegenthart. 2021. “The impact of immigration news on anti-immigrant party support: unpacking agenda-setting and issue ownership effects over time”. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 31:1, 97-118, DOI:10.1080/17457289.2019.1607863.
Dennison, J., and Geddes, A. 2019. A rising tide? The salience of immigration and the rise of anti immigration political parties in Western Europe. The political quarterly 90(1), 107-116.
Dennison, James, and Matthew Goodwin. 2015. “Immigration, issue ownership and the rise of UKIP.” Parliamentary Affairs 68 (1): 168-187.
d’Hombres, Béatrice, and Luca Nunziata. 2016. “Wish you were here? Quasi experimental evidence on the effect of education on self-reported attitude toward immigrants.” European Economic Review 90: 201-224.
Doña Reveco, Cristián, and Brendan Mullan. 2014. “Migration Policy and Development in Chile.” International Migration 52 (5): 1-14.
Harteveld, Eelco, Andrej Kokkonen and Stefan Dahlberg. 2017. “Adapting to party lines: the effect of party affiliation on attitudes to immigration” West European Politics 40(6): 1177-1197, DOI: 10.1080/01402382.2017.1328889.
Ellis, Christopher, and James A. Stimson. 2012. Ideology in America. Cambridge University Press.
Enns, Peter K., and José T. Sanchez Gomez, 2019. “The Polls—Trends Economic Evaluations and Political Change in Chile, 1966 to 2018.” Public Opinion Quarterly 83(3): 627-639.
Finn, Victoria, and Sebastián Umpierrez de Reguero. 2020. “Inclusive Language for Exclusive Policies: Restrictive Migration Governance in Chile, 2018” Latin American Policy 11(1): 42–61. https://doi.org/10.1111/lamp.12176.
Fussell, Elizabeth. 2014. “Warmth of the Welcome: Attitudes Toward Immigrants and Immigration Policy in the United States.” Annual Review of Sociology 40: 479-498.
Givens, Terri E. 2012. “Effects of Migration: Political Parties.” In Marc Rosenblum and Daniel Tichenor (eds) Oxford Handbook of the Politics of International Migration. Oxford University Press, pp 153-170.
Givens, Terri, and Adam Luedtke. 2005. “European immigration policies in comparative perspective: Issue salience, partisanship and immigrant rights.” Comparative European Politics 3 (1): 1-22.
Golder, Matt. 2003. “Explaining variation in the success of extreme right parties in Western Europe” Comparative Political Studies 36 (4): 432-466.
Hainmueller, Jens, and Daniel Hopkins. 2014. “Public Attitudes Toward Immigration”. Annual Review of Political Science 17 (1): 225-249.
Hainmueller, Jens, and Daniel Hopkins. 2015. “The Hidden American Immigration Consensus: A Conjoint Analysis of Attitudes toward Immigrants”. American Journal of Political Science (3): 529-548.
Hainmueller, Jens, and M.J. Hiscox. 2010. “Attitudes toward highly skilled ad low skilled immigration: evidence from a survey experiment.” American Political Science Review 104 (1): 61-84.
Haubert, Jeannie, and Elizabeth Fussell. 2006. “Explaining Pro Immigrant Sentiment in the U.S.: Social Class, Cosmopolitanism, and Perceptions of Immigrants”. International Migration Review 40 (3): 489-507.
Igartúa, Juan José, and Lifen Cheng. 2009. “Moderating Effect of Group Cue while Processing News on Immigration: Is the Framing Effect a Heuristic Process?” Journal of Communication 59 (4): 726-749.
Instituto Nacional de Estadística. 2017. Chile: Proyecciones y Estimaciones de Población. Total País: 1950-2050. Santiago: Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas.
Kiehne, E., and Ayon, C. 2016. Friends or Foes: The Impact of Political Ideology and Immigrant Friends on Anti Immigrant Sentiment. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare 43:135–54.
Laurence, James, and Lee Bentley. 2018. “Countervailing contact: Community ethnic diversity, antiimmigrant attitudes and mediating pathways of positive and negative inter ethnic contact in European societies”. Social Science Research 69: 83-110.
Lawrence, Duncan. 2015. “Crossing the Cordillera: immigrant attributes and Chilean attitudes.” Latin American Research Review 50,4: 154-177.
Lucassen, Geertje, and Marcel Lubbers. 2012. “Who fears what? Explaining far. right wing preference in Europe by distinguishing perceived cultural and economic ethnic threats.” Comparative Political Studies 45.5: 547-574.
Mainwaring, Scott, Mariano Torcal and Nicolás Somma. 2015. “The Left and the Mobilization of Class Voting in Latin America” in Ryan E. Carlin, Matthew M. Singer, and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister, eds. The Latin American voter: Pursuing representation and accountability in challenging contexts. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, pp. 68-98.
Manzi, Jorge, Ellen Helsper, Soledad Ruiz, Mariane Krause, and Edmundo Kronmüller. 2003. “El pasado que nos pesa: la memoria colectiva del 11 de Septiembre de 1973” Revista de ciencia política 23,2: 177-214.
Meuleman, Bart, Eldad Davidov, and Jaak Billiet. 2009. “Changing attitudes toward immigration in Europe, 2002-2007: A dynamic group conflict theory approach”. Social Science Research 38 (2): 352-365.
Meyer, Thomas M., and Markus Wagner. 2020. “Perceptions of parties’ left right positions: The impact of salience strategies.” Party Politics 26,5: 664-674.
Morandé Lavín, José, Miguel Angel López, Peter Murphy Lewis, Roberto Durán Sepúlveda, Lorena Oyarzún Serrano, Juan Pablo Luna. 2009. Chile, las Américas y el mundo: opinión pública y política exterior 2008. Santiago: Instituto de Estudios Internacionales, Universidad de Chile. DOI: https://doi.org/10.34720/7myd-f570.
Moreno, Alejandro. 2016. “Value cleavage revisited” in Richard Gunther, Paul A. Beck, Pedro Magalhães and Alejandro Moreno, eds. Voting in Old and New Democracies. New York: Routledge, pp. 99-149.
Muste, Christopher. 2013. “The Dynamics of Immigration Opinion in the United States, 1992-2012”. Public Opinion Quarterly 77(1): 398-416.
Navia, Patricio, and Rodrigo Osorio. 2019. “Attitudes toward democracy and authoritarianism before, during and after military rule. The case of Chile, 1972–2013.” Contemporary Politics 25 (2): 190-212.
Navia, Patricio and Sergio Verdugo. 2020. “Chilean Presidential Candidates Platforms 1989-2017”. Harvard Dataverse, V1. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/NPQYLD
O’Rourke, Kevin, and Richard Sinnott. 2006. “The determinants of individual attitudes toward immigration”. European Journal of Political Economy 22 (4): 838-861.
Ortega, Francesc, and Javier Polavieja. 2012. “Labor Market Exposure as a Determinant of Attitudes toward Immigration”. Labour Economics 19 (3): 298-311.
Pérez, Efrén O. 2010. “Explicit Evidence on the Import of Implicit Attitudes: The IAT and Immigration Policy Judgments.” Political Behavior 32 (4): 517-545.
Petrocik, John R., William L. Benoit, and Glenn J. Hansen. 2005. “Issue ownership and presidential campaigning, 1952-2000”. Political Science Quarterly 118 (4): 599-626.
Plumb, David. “El Partido por la Democracia: The birth of Chile’s postmaterialist catch all left.” 1998. Party Politics 4(1): 93-106.
Saxton, Gregory, and Michelle Benson. 2003. “The Origins of Socially and Politically Hostile Attitudes Toward Immigrants and Outgroups: Economics, Ideology, or National Context?”. Journal of Political Science 31: 101-137.
Schalk-Soekar, S. R., F. J. Van de Vijver, and M. Hoogsteder. 2004. “Migrants’ and majority members’ orientations toward multiculturalism in the Netherlands”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 28: 533-550.
Segovia, Francine, and Renatta Defever. 2010. “American Public Opinion on Immigrants and Immigration Policy”. Public Opinion Quarterly 75 (2): 375-394.
Shapiro, R. 2011. “Public opinion and American democracy.” Public Opinion Quarterly 75 (5): 982-1017.
Shin, Hyeyoung, and John Dovidio. 2016. “Cultural Differences in the Role of Economic Competitiveness in Prejudice toward Immigrants ad Foreing Workers”. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 17 (1): 8-32.
Sirlopú, David, Roberto Melipillán, Alejandro Sánchez, and Cristián Valdés. 2015. “¿Malos Para Aceptar la Diversidad? Predictores Socio-Demográficos y Psicológicos de las Actitudes Hacia el Multiculturalismo en Chile”. Psykhe 24 (2): 1-13.
Slothuus, Rune. 2016. “Assessing the Influence of Political Parties on Public Opinion: The Challenge from Pretreatment Effects”. Political Communication 33: 302-327.
Stang, María Fernanda, Antonia Lara Edwards and Marcos Andrade Moreno. 2020. “Retórica humanitaria y expulsabilidad: migrantes haitianos y gobernabilidad migratoria en Chile” Si Somos Americanos. Revista de Estudios Transfronterizos 20(1), 176–201. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0719-09482020000100176
Stephan, Walter, Lausanne Renfro, Victoria Esses, Cookie Stephan, and Tim Martin. 2005. “The effects of feeling threatened on attitudes toward immigrants”. International Journal of Intercultural Relations 29: 1-19.
Stockemer, D. 2016. Structural data on immigration or immigration perceptions? What accounts for the electoral success of the radical right in Europe? JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 54(4): 999-1016.
Stockemer, Daniel. 2016. “Structural data on immigration or immigration perceptions? What accounts for the electoral success of the radical right in Europe?” Journal of Common Market Studies 54 (4): 999-1016.
United Nations. 2017. International Migration Report 2017 (ST/ESA/SER.A/404). New York: United States.
Urzúa, Alfonso, José Leiva and Alejandra Caqueo Urízar. 2020. “Effect of Positive Social Interaction on the Psychological Well being in South American Immigrants in Chile”. Journal of International Migration and Integration 21(1): 295-306.
Van Spanje, Joost. 2010. “Contagious parties: Anti immigration parties and their impact on other parties’ immigration stances in contemporary Western Europe”. Party Politics 16 (5): 563-586.
Visconti, Giancarlo. 2021. “Reevaluating the Role of Ideology in Chile.” Latin American Politics and Society 63(2): 1-25.
Ward, Colleen, and Anne Marie Masgoret. 2008. “Attitudes toward Immigrants, Immigration, and Multiculturalism in New Zealand: A Social Psychological Analysis”. International Migration Review 42 (1): 227-248.
Zaller, John. 1992. The Nature and Origin of Mass Opinion. Cambridge University Press.
Espinoza Bianchini, G., Navia, P. D., Cirano, R., & Jara Nancuente, F. (2022). When Inmigration is a New Issue: Evidence from Chile 2003 and 2017. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 11(2), 35–72. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.27287
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