Sanctions as an Instrument of coercion: how similar are the policies of the United States and the European Union towards Venezuela?
Abstract The United States and the European Union recognized Juan Guaidó as interim President of Venezuela while increasing sanctions against the government of Nicolás Maduro to force him to call for elections and begin a democratic transition. Based on the assumption that these two actors’ goals and instruments are not the same, this article analyses the similarities and differences in their policies towards Venezuela, taking into account the precedent of the Cuban case and the academic literature on sanctions.
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Ayuso, A. y Gratius, S. (2016). Votos y balas. ¿Cómo responder a la transición al autoritarismo caótico en Venezuela?. Notes Internacionals, 200. CIDOB. https://www.cidob.org/es/publicaciones/serie_de_publicacion/notes_internacionals/n1_200/votos_y_balas_como_responder_a_la_transicion_al_autoritarismo_caotico_en_venezuela
Ayuso, A. y Gratius, S. (2019). ¿Qué salida tiene el laberinto venezolano? Opinión, 565. CIDOB. https://www.cidob.org/es/publicaciones/serie_de_publicacion/opinion_cidob/america_latina/que_salida_tiene_el_laberinto_venezolano
Bahar, D., Bustos, S., Morales, J. R. y Santos, M. A. (2019). Impact of the 2017 sanctions on Venezuela: Revisiting the evidence. Policy Brief (Global Economy and Development at Brookings). https://www.brookings.edu/research/revisiting-the-evidence-impact-of-the-2017-sanctions-on-venezuela/
Barbé, E. (2014). Introducción: cambio en el sistema internacional, adversidad para la UE. Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals, 108, 7-21.
Bernal-Meza, R. (2017). Las ideas en el pensamiento de política exterior de Venezuela bajo la revolución bolivariana. Continuidades y rupturas: 1990-2016. Izquierdas, 32, 235-262.
Bessler, M., Garfield, R. y McHugh, G. (2004). Sanctions Assessment Handbook: Assessing the Humanitarian Implications of Sanctions. United Nations Inter-Agency Standing Committee. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, OCHA and the Policy Development Studies Branch.
Biersteker, T., Eckert, S. E. y Tourinho, M. (eds.). (2016). Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action. Cambridge University Press.
Biersteker, T., Eckert, S. E., Tourinho, M. y Hudáková, Z. (2013). The Effectiveness of United Nations Targeted Sanctions: Findings from the Targeted Sanctions Consortium (TSC). Graduate Institute.
Bossuyt, M. (2000, 21 de junio). The Adverse Consequences of Economic Sanctions. Economic and Social Council E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/33. https://www.globalpolicy.org/global-taxes/42501-the-adverse-consequences-of-economic-sanctions.html.
Bull, B. y Rosales, A. (2020a). The crisis in Venezuela: drivers, transitions and pathways. European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies (ERLACS), 109, 1-20.
Bull, B. y Rosales, A. (2020b). Nuevo escenario global: COVID-19 y perspectivas para una salida negociada en Venezuela. Análisis Carolina, 31, Fundación Carolina. https://www.fundacioncarolina.es/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/AC-31.-2020.pdf
Camague, S., Gómez, C. y Matelly, S. (2017). Performance des Sanctions Internationales. Institute des Relations Internationales et Stratégiques.
Camerón, I. (ed.). (2013). EU Sanctions: Law and Policy Issues Concerning Restrictive Measures. Intersentia.
Carrillo Salcedo, J. A. (2005). Permanencia y cambios en derecho internacional. Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas.
Colmenares, A. (2018). Las relaciones de Venezuela con Estados Unidos en la era de Trump. Foreign Affairs Latinoamérica, 18(1), 17-24.
Consultores 21. (2019). Perfil 21: Servicio de Análisis de Entorno, 158 (3er Trimestre).
Díez de Velasco, M. y Escobar, C. (2013, 18 edición). Instituciones de Derecho Internacional Público. Tecnos.
Dreyer, I. y Luengo-Cabrera, J. (2015). On target? EU sanctions as a security policy tool. Issue Report, 22. EUISS (EU Institute for Security Studies). https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/target-eu-sanctions-security-policy-tools
Drezner, D. W. (2011). Sanctions Sometimes Smart: Targeted Sanctions in Theory and Practica. International Studies Review, 13, 96-108.
Geranmayeh, E. y Lafont, M. (2019). Meeting the challenge of secondary sanctions. European Council for International Relations. https://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/4_Meeting_the_challenge_of_secondary_sanctions.pdf.
Giumelli, F. (2011). Coercing, Constraining and Signalling: Explaining UN and EU Sanctions after the Cold War. ECPR Press.
Gratius, S. (2019, 8 de agosto). De sanciones inteligentes a embargo. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/08/08/actualidad/1565286905_125870.html
Gratius, S. y Puente, J. M. (2019). Las Claves de la Crisis Venezolana. Foreign Affairs Latinoamérica, 19(2), 5-15.
Gratius, S. y Rodríguez Pinzón, E. (2020). Entre Seguridad humana y estatal: ¿Ofrece la UE una respuesta coherente a los desafíos de seguridad en Centroamérica, Colombia y Venezuela? Colombia Internacional, 100 (en proceso de revisión).
Hausmann, R. y Muci, F. (2019, 1 de mayo). Don’t blame Washington for Venezuela’s oil woes: a rebuttal, Americas Quarterly. https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/dont-blame-washington-for-venezuelas-oil-woes-a-rebuttal/
Herrera Guerra, J. (1998). Las sanciones del derecho internacional. Agenda Internacional, 4(10), 113-143.
Hill, C. (2016). Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century. Palgrave.
Hirst, M., Luján, C., Romero, C. A. y Tokatlián, G. (2019). Venezuela: hacia una solución política y pacífica. Análisis. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES).
Hufbauer, G. C., y Oegg, B. (2000). Targeted Sanctions: A Policy Alternative? Peterson Institute for International Economics. https://www.piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/targeted-sanctions-policy-alternative.
Hufbauer, G. C., Schott, J., Kimberly, A .E. y Oegg, B. (2009). Economic Sanctions Reconsidered. Peterson Institution for International Economics Press.
Letkzian, D., y Souva, A. (2007). An institutional theory of sanctions onset and success. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51(6), 848-878.
Mastanduno, M. (2012). Economic Statecraft (chapter 11). En S. Smith, A. Hadfield, y T. Dunne (eds.), Foreign Policy, Theory, Actors, Cases (pp. 204-223). Oxford University Press.
McLean, E. y Whang, T. (2014). Designing foreign policy: Voters, special interest groups, and economic sanctions. Journal of Peace Research, 51(5), 589-602.
Moehr, O. (2018, 6 de febrero). Secondary Sanctions: A First Glance. EconoGraphics. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/econographics/ole-moehr-3/
Moret, E. (2015). Humanitarian impacts of economic sanctions on Iran and Syria. European Security, 24(1), 120-140.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: the Means to Success in World Politics. Public Affairs.
Parlamento Europeo (PE). (2019, 31 de enero). Resolución del Parlamento Europeo sobre la situación en Venezuela, (2019/2543 (RSP). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/B-8-2019-0084_ES.html
Parmar, I. (2018). The US-led liberal order: imperialism by another name. International Affairs, 94(1), 151-172.
Pastro Ridruejo, J. A. (2015). Curso de derecho Internacional público y Organizaciones Internacionales. Tecnos.
Penfold, M. (2017). Could Sanctions against Venezuela backfire? Insight and Analysis. Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/could-economic-sanctions-against-venezuela-backfire.
Portela, C. (2012). European Union Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool: Do They Work? En S. B. Gareis, G. Hauser y F. Kernic. (eds.), Europe as a Global Actor (pp. 429-439). Budrich.
Portela, C. (2014). The EU’s Use of ‘Targeted Sanctions’: evaluating effectiveness. CEPS Working Paper, 391. Center for European Policy Studies (CEPS).
Portela, C. (2016). Are European Sanctions Targeted? Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 29(3), 912-929.
Portela, C. (2018). Targeted sanctions against individuals on grounds of grave human rights violations – impact, trends and prospects at EU level. Policy Department, Directorate-General for External Policies. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2018/603869/EXPO_STU(2018)603869_EN.pdf.
Portela, C. (2019). Sanctioning Kleptocrats. An Assessment of EU misappropriation sanctions. Civil Forum for Asset Recovery (CIFAR). https://cifar.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/CiFAR_Sanctioning-kleptocrats.pdf.
Puerta Riera, M. I. (2019, 17 de noviembre). Lealtad o conveniencia: el matrimonio forzado entre Maduro y los militares en Venezuela. Agenda Pública. http://agendapublica.elpais.com/lealtad-o-conveniencia-el-matrimonio-forzado-entre-maduro-y-los-militares-en-venezuela/
Rendon, M. y Price, M. (2019). Are Sanctions Working in Venezuela? CSIS Briefs. Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS).
Rodríguez, F. (2019). Sanctions and the Venezuelan economy: what the data say. LATAM Economic Viewpoint, Torino Economics. https://torinocap.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Sanctions-and-Vzlan-Economy-June-2019.pdf.
Romero, C. A. (2006). Las Relaciones de seguridad entre Venezuela y Estados Unidos: entre la diplomacia y el conflicto. Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales (ILDIS). https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/caracas/50450.pdf.
Smilde, D. y Ramsey, G. (2019). El difícil camino hacia adelante: Venezuela y el Grupo de Contacto Internacional. Análisis Carolina, 1, Fundación Carolina. https://www.fundacioncarolina.es/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/AC1.pdf
Stoukes, D. (2018). Trump, American hegemony and the future of the liberal international order. International Affairs, 94(1), 133-150.
Torres, M. I. (2008). El derecho de veto en el Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas: la historia de la válvula de seguridad que paralizó el sistema. Anuario Colombiano de Derecho Internacional, 1(1), 49-88.
Van Laake, M. (2018). European Union Sanctions Policy: A display of forms or interests? Faculty of Social and Behavioural Science. Leiden University.
Von Soest, C. y Wahmann, M. (2013). Sanctions and Democratization in the post-Cold War Era. GIGA Working Paper , 212.
Von Soest, C. y Wahmann, M. (2015). Are democratic sanctions really counterproductive? Democratization, 22(6), 957-980.
Walker, J. (2016). Study on Humanitarian Impact of Syria-related unilateral coercive measures. United Nations (UN) Economic & Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). http://www.antikrieg.eu/aktuell/un_study_syria.pdf.
Weisbrot, M. y Sachs, J. (2019). Economic Sanctions as Collective Punishment: The case of Venezuela. Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR).
Ayuso, A. y Gratius, S. (2019). ¿Qué salida tiene el laberinto venezolano? Opinión, 565. CIDOB. https://www.cidob.org/es/publicaciones/serie_de_publicacion/opinion_cidob/america_latina/que_salida_tiene_el_laberinto_venezolano
Bahar, D., Bustos, S., Morales, J. R. y Santos, M. A. (2019). Impact of the 2017 sanctions on Venezuela: Revisiting the evidence. Policy Brief (Global Economy and Development at Brookings). https://www.brookings.edu/research/revisiting-the-evidence-impact-of-the-2017-sanctions-on-venezuela/
Barbé, E. (2014). Introducción: cambio en el sistema internacional, adversidad para la UE. Revista CIDOB d’Afers Internacionals, 108, 7-21.
Bernal-Meza, R. (2017). Las ideas en el pensamiento de política exterior de Venezuela bajo la revolución bolivariana. Continuidades y rupturas: 1990-2016. Izquierdas, 32, 235-262.
Bessler, M., Garfield, R. y McHugh, G. (2004). Sanctions Assessment Handbook: Assessing the Humanitarian Implications of Sanctions. United Nations Inter-Agency Standing Committee. United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, OCHA and the Policy Development Studies Branch.
Biersteker, T., Eckert, S. E. y Tourinho, M. (eds.). (2016). Targeted Sanctions: The Impacts and Effectiveness of United Nations Action. Cambridge University Press.
Biersteker, T., Eckert, S. E., Tourinho, M. y Hudáková, Z. (2013). The Effectiveness of United Nations Targeted Sanctions: Findings from the Targeted Sanctions Consortium (TSC). Graduate Institute.
Bossuyt, M. (2000, 21 de junio). The Adverse Consequences of Economic Sanctions. Economic and Social Council E/CN.4/Sub.2/2000/33. https://www.globalpolicy.org/global-taxes/42501-the-adverse-consequences-of-economic-sanctions.html.
Bull, B. y Rosales, A. (2020a). The crisis in Venezuela: drivers, transitions and pathways. European Review of Latin American and Caribbean Studies (ERLACS), 109, 1-20.
Bull, B. y Rosales, A. (2020b). Nuevo escenario global: COVID-19 y perspectivas para una salida negociada en Venezuela. Análisis Carolina, 31, Fundación Carolina. https://www.fundacioncarolina.es/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/AC-31.-2020.pdf
Camague, S., Gómez, C. y Matelly, S. (2017). Performance des Sanctions Internationales. Institute des Relations Internationales et Stratégiques.
Camerón, I. (ed.). (2013). EU Sanctions: Law and Policy Issues Concerning Restrictive Measures. Intersentia.
Carrillo Salcedo, J. A. (2005). Permanencia y cambios en derecho internacional. Real Academia de Ciencias Morales y Políticas.
Colmenares, A. (2018). Las relaciones de Venezuela con Estados Unidos en la era de Trump. Foreign Affairs Latinoamérica, 18(1), 17-24.
Consultores 21. (2019). Perfil 21: Servicio de Análisis de Entorno, 158 (3er Trimestre).
Díez de Velasco, M. y Escobar, C. (2013, 18 edición). Instituciones de Derecho Internacional Público. Tecnos.
Dreyer, I. y Luengo-Cabrera, J. (2015). On target? EU sanctions as a security policy tool. Issue Report, 22. EUISS (EU Institute for Security Studies). https://www.iss.europa.eu/content/target-eu-sanctions-security-policy-tools
Drezner, D. W. (2011). Sanctions Sometimes Smart: Targeted Sanctions in Theory and Practica. International Studies Review, 13, 96-108.
Geranmayeh, E. y Lafont, M. (2019). Meeting the challenge of secondary sanctions. European Council for International Relations. https://www.ecfr.eu/page/-/4_Meeting_the_challenge_of_secondary_sanctions.pdf.
Giumelli, F. (2011). Coercing, Constraining and Signalling: Explaining UN and EU Sanctions after the Cold War. ECPR Press.
Gratius, S. (2019, 8 de agosto). De sanciones inteligentes a embargo. El País. https://elpais.com/internacional/2019/08/08/actualidad/1565286905_125870.html
Gratius, S. y Puente, J. M. (2019). Las Claves de la Crisis Venezolana. Foreign Affairs Latinoamérica, 19(2), 5-15.
Gratius, S. y Rodríguez Pinzón, E. (2020). Entre Seguridad humana y estatal: ¿Ofrece la UE una respuesta coherente a los desafíos de seguridad en Centroamérica, Colombia y Venezuela? Colombia Internacional, 100 (en proceso de revisión).
Hausmann, R. y Muci, F. (2019, 1 de mayo). Don’t blame Washington for Venezuela’s oil woes: a rebuttal, Americas Quarterly. https://www.americasquarterly.org/article/dont-blame-washington-for-venezuelas-oil-woes-a-rebuttal/
Herrera Guerra, J. (1998). Las sanciones del derecho internacional. Agenda Internacional, 4(10), 113-143.
Hill, C. (2016). Foreign Policy in the Twenty-First Century. Palgrave.
Hirst, M., Luján, C., Romero, C. A. y Tokatlián, G. (2019). Venezuela: hacia una solución política y pacífica. Análisis. Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung (FES).
Hufbauer, G. C., y Oegg, B. (2000). Targeted Sanctions: A Policy Alternative? Peterson Institute for International Economics. https://www.piie.com/commentary/speeches-papers/targeted-sanctions-policy-alternative.
Hufbauer, G. C., Schott, J., Kimberly, A .E. y Oegg, B. (2009). Economic Sanctions Reconsidered. Peterson Institution for International Economics Press.
Letkzian, D., y Souva, A. (2007). An institutional theory of sanctions onset and success. Journal of Conflict Resolution, 51(6), 848-878.
Mastanduno, M. (2012). Economic Statecraft (chapter 11). En S. Smith, A. Hadfield, y T. Dunne (eds.), Foreign Policy, Theory, Actors, Cases (pp. 204-223). Oxford University Press.
McLean, E. y Whang, T. (2014). Designing foreign policy: Voters, special interest groups, and economic sanctions. Journal of Peace Research, 51(5), 589-602.
Moehr, O. (2018, 6 de febrero). Secondary Sanctions: A First Glance. EconoGraphics. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/econographics/ole-moehr-3/
Moret, E. (2015). Humanitarian impacts of economic sanctions on Iran and Syria. European Security, 24(1), 120-140.
Nye, J. (2004). Soft Power: the Means to Success in World Politics. Public Affairs.
Parlamento Europeo (PE). (2019, 31 de enero). Resolución del Parlamento Europeo sobre la situación en Venezuela, (2019/2543 (RSP). https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/B-8-2019-0084_ES.html
Parmar, I. (2018). The US-led liberal order: imperialism by another name. International Affairs, 94(1), 151-172.
Pastro Ridruejo, J. A. (2015). Curso de derecho Internacional público y Organizaciones Internacionales. Tecnos.
Penfold, M. (2017). Could Sanctions against Venezuela backfire? Insight and Analysis. Wilson Center. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/could-economic-sanctions-against-venezuela-backfire.
Portela, C. (2012). European Union Sanctions as a Foreign Policy Tool: Do They Work? En S. B. Gareis, G. Hauser y F. Kernic. (eds.), Europe as a Global Actor (pp. 429-439). Budrich.
Portela, C. (2014). The EU’s Use of ‘Targeted Sanctions’: evaluating effectiveness. CEPS Working Paper, 391. Center for European Policy Studies (CEPS).
Portela, C. (2016). Are European Sanctions Targeted? Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 29(3), 912-929.
Portela, C. (2018). Targeted sanctions against individuals on grounds of grave human rights violations – impact, trends and prospects at EU level. Policy Department, Directorate-General for External Policies. European Parliament. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2018/603869/EXPO_STU(2018)603869_EN.pdf.
Portela, C. (2019). Sanctioning Kleptocrats. An Assessment of EU misappropriation sanctions. Civil Forum for Asset Recovery (CIFAR). https://cifar.eu/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/CiFAR_Sanctioning-kleptocrats.pdf.
Puerta Riera, M. I. (2019, 17 de noviembre). Lealtad o conveniencia: el matrimonio forzado entre Maduro y los militares en Venezuela. Agenda Pública. http://agendapublica.elpais.com/lealtad-o-conveniencia-el-matrimonio-forzado-entre-maduro-y-los-militares-en-venezuela/
Rendon, M. y Price, M. (2019). Are Sanctions Working in Venezuela? CSIS Briefs. Center for Strategic & International Studies (CSIS).
Rodríguez, F. (2019). Sanctions and the Venezuelan economy: what the data say. LATAM Economic Viewpoint, Torino Economics. https://torinocap.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/06/Sanctions-and-Vzlan-Economy-June-2019.pdf.
Romero, C. A. (2006). Las Relaciones de seguridad entre Venezuela y Estados Unidos: entre la diplomacia y el conflicto. Instituto Latinoamericano de Investigaciones Sociales (ILDIS). https://library.fes.de/pdf-files/bueros/caracas/50450.pdf.
Smilde, D. y Ramsey, G. (2019). El difícil camino hacia adelante: Venezuela y el Grupo de Contacto Internacional. Análisis Carolina, 1, Fundación Carolina. https://www.fundacioncarolina.es/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/AC1.pdf
Stoukes, D. (2018). Trump, American hegemony and the future of the liberal international order. International Affairs, 94(1), 133-150.
Torres, M. I. (2008). El derecho de veto en el Consejo de Seguridad de Naciones Unidas: la historia de la válvula de seguridad que paralizó el sistema. Anuario Colombiano de Derecho Internacional, 1(1), 49-88.
Van Laake, M. (2018). European Union Sanctions Policy: A display of forms or interests? Faculty of Social and Behavioural Science. Leiden University.
Von Soest, C. y Wahmann, M. (2013). Sanctions and Democratization in the post-Cold War Era. GIGA Working Paper , 212.
Von Soest, C. y Wahmann, M. (2015). Are democratic sanctions really counterproductive? Democratization, 22(6), 957-980.
Walker, J. (2016). Study on Humanitarian Impact of Syria-related unilateral coercive measures. United Nations (UN) Economic & Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA). http://www.antikrieg.eu/aktuell/un_study_syria.pdf.
Weisbrot, M. y Sachs, J. (2019). Economic Sanctions as Collective Punishment: The case of Venezuela. Center for Economic and Policy Research (CEPR).
Gratius, S., & Ayuso Pozo, A. (2020). Sanctions as an Instrument of coercion: how similar are the policies of the United States and the European Union towards Venezuela?. América Latina Hoy, 85, 31–53. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh.21989
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