Construcción de teoría en cognición comparada: evaluando el caso de la normatividad animal
Resumen A partir de una gran cantidad de investigación respecto a las vidas sociales de los primates, Frans de Waal ha sido un pionero defensor de la continuidad mental entre animales humanos y no humanos, avanzando la idea de que tales criaturas exhibían rudimentos de comportamientos políticos y morales. Uno de los rasgos en el que se ha concentrado Frans de Waal es el de normatividad animal, un conjunto de comportamientos funcionalmente definidos como la adherencia a estándares socialmente. Recientemente, a su vez, algunos filósofos y filósofas han apoyado esta posición, afirmando que los animales muestran una capacidad psicológica de cognición normativa que subyace a aquellos y a otros comportamientos. En este artículo, evalúo si la defensa de la normatividad animal constituye un ejercicio de construcción de teoría en cognición comparada. Con ese fin, presento tres rasgos de esta clase de construcción teórica. En primer lugar, el rol explicativo de construir análisis funcionales de capacidades cognitivas. En segundo lugar, la ayuda conceptual que brinda el pensamiento comparativo a la cognición comparada. En tercer lugar, el valor heurístico de la teoría en especificar caminos posibles de indagación. Tomando en cuenta estos rasgos, evalúo si las afirmaciones de los defensores de la normatividad animal los toman en consideración. Mi respuesta es negativa. En primer lugar, dado que algunos defensores se concentran en rasgos comportamentales y no en capacidades psicológicas, no están produciendo teoría en cognición comparada, si bien, como argumento, deberían. En segundo lugar, hay una despreocupación por el testeo de hipótesis y no hay consideraciones evolutivas que apoyen la posición de los defensores. Finalmente, la afirmación de que los animales no humanos exhiben normatividad no parece tener un valor heurístico definido.
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Waal, Frans B. M. de (1989). Peacemaking Among Primates. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674033085
Waal, Frans B. M. de (1991). Complementary Methods and Convergent Evidence in the Study of Primate Social Cognition. Behaviour, 118(3/4), 297-320. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4534969
Waal, Frans B. M. de (2007). Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Waal, Frans B. M. de (2014). Natural Normativity: The ‘Is’ and ‘Ought’ of Animal Behavior. Behaviour, 151(2-3), 185-204. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003146
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Andrews, Kristin (2020). Naïve Normativity: The Social Foundation of Moral Cognition. Journal of the American Philosophical Association, 6(1), 36-56. https://doi.org/10.1017/apa.2019.30
Bicchieri, Cristina (2016). Norms in the Wild: How to Diagnose, Measure, and Change Social Norms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780190622046.001.0001
Bird, Christopher David and Nathan John Emery (2009). Rooks Use Stones to Raise the Water Level to Reach a Floating Worm. Current Biology, 19(16), 1410-1414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2009.07.033
Brosnan, Sarah F. and Frans B. M. de Waal (2003). Monkeys Reject Unequal Pay. Nature, 425(6955), 297-299. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
Buckner, Cameron (2013). Morgan’s Canon, Meet Hume’s Dictum: Avoiding Anthropofabulation in Cross-Species Comparisons. Biology & Philosophy, 28(5), 853-871. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-013-9376-0
Cummins, Robert (2010). The World in the Head. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199548033.001.0001
Currie, Adrian (2021). Comparative Thinking in Biology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108616683
Danón, Laura (2019). Animal Normativity. Phenomenology and Mind, (17), 176-187. https://doi.org/10.13128/PAM-8035
Emery, Nathan J. and Nicola S. Clayton (2004). The Mentality of Crows: Convergent Evolution of Intelligence in Corvids and Apes. Science, 306(5703), 1903-1907. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1098410
Fitzpatrick, Simon (2017). Against Morgan’s Canon. In Kristin Andrews and Jacob Beck (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Animal Minds (pp. 437-447). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315742250-43
Fitzpatrick, Simon (2020). Chimpanzee Normativity: Evidence and Objections. Biology & Philosophy, 35(4), 45. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-020-09763-1
Greenberg, Gary and Maury M. Haraway (1998). Comparative Psychology: A Handbook. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203826492
Jelbert, Sarah A., Alex H. Taylor, Lucy G. Cheke, Nicola S. Clayton and Russell D. Gray (2014). Using the Aesop’s Fable Paradigm to Investigate Causal Understanding of Water Displacement by New Caledonian Crows. PLoS ONE, 9(3), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0092895
Kelly, Daniel and Stephen Setman (2021). The Psychology of Normative Cognition. In The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, edited by Edward N. Zalta. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/psychology-normative-cognition/
Luncz, Lydia V. and Christophe Boesch (2014). Tradition over Trend: Neighboring Chimpanzee Communities Maintain Differences in Cultural Behavior Despite Frequent Immigration of Adult Females. American Journal of Primatology, 76(7), 649-657. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.22259
Luncz, Lydia V., Giulia Sirianni, Roger Mundry y Christophe Boesch (2018). Costly Culture: Differences in Nut-Cracking Efficiency between Wild Chimpanzee Groups. Animal Behaviour, 137, 63-73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.12.017
Monsó, Susana and Kristin Andrews (2022). Animal Moral Psychologies. In Manuel Vargas and John M. Doris (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Moral Psychology (pp. 388-420). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198871712.001.0001
Olmstead, Mary C. and Valerie A. Kuhlmeier (2022). Comparative Cognition. In Patrizia d’Ettorre, Amanda R. Ridley, and Todd M. Freeberg (Eds.), The Routledge International Handbook of Comparative Psychology (pp. 84-95). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003091868
Papini, Mauricio R. (2021). Comparative Psychology: Evolution and Development of Brain and Behavior. New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003080701
Povinelli, Daniel J. (1993). Reconstructing the Evolution of Mind. American Psychologist, 48(5), 493-509. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.48.5.493
Roth, Martin and Robert Cummins (2017). Neuroscience, Psychology, Reduction, and Functional Analysis. In David M Kaplan (Ed.), Explanation and Integration in Mind and Brain Science (pp. 29-43). New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780199685509.003.0002
Roughley, Neil and Kurt Bayertz (Eds.) (2019). The Normative Animal? On the Anthropological Significance of Social, Moral, and Linguistic Norms. Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190846466.001.0001
Schlingloff, Laura and Richard Moore (2017). Do Chimpanzees Conform to Social Norms? In Kristin Andrews and Jacob Beck (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Animal Minds (pp. 381-389). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315742250-37
Schmidt, Marco F. H. and Hannes Rakoczy (2019). On the Uniqueness of Human Normative Attitudes. In Neil Roughley and Kurt Bayertz (Eds.), The Normative Animal? On the Anthropological Significance of Social, Moral, and Linguistic Norms (pp. 121-135). Oxford: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190846466.003.0006
Sherry, David F. (2005). Do Ideas about Function Help in the Study of Causation? Animal Biology, 55(4), 441-456. https://doi.org/10.1163/157075605774840950
Shettleworth, Sara J. (2009). The Evolution of Comparative Cognition: Is the Snark Still a Boojum? Behavioural Processes, 80(3), 210-217. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beproc.2008.09.001
Sober, Elliot (2005). Comparative psychology meets evolutionary biology. In L. Daston and G. Mitman (Eds.), Thinking with animals: New perspectives on anthropomorphism (pp. 85-99). New York: Columbia University Press.
Sterelny, Kim (2019). Norms and Their Evolution. In Tracy B. Henley, Matt J. Rossano, and Edward P. Kardas (Eds.), Handbook of Cognitive Archaeology (pp. 375-397). London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429488818-20
Sterelny, Kim (2021). The Pleistocene Social Contract: Culture and Cooperation in Human Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197531389.001.0001
Tinbergen, N. (1963). On Aims and Methods of Ethology. Zeitschrift Für Tierpsychologie, 20(4), 410-433. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1963.tb01161.x
Tomasello, Michael (2016). A Natural History of Human Morality. Cambridge (Mass.): Harvard University press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674915855
Van Schaik, Carel P. (2012). Animal Culture: Chimpanzee Conformity? Current Biology, 22(10), R402-R404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2012.04.001
Vincent, Sarah, Rebecca Ring and Kristin Andrews (2019). Normative Practices of Other Animals. In Aaron Zachary Zimmerman, Karen Jones, and Mark Timmons (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Moral Epistemology (pp. 57-83). New York: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315719696-4
Vonk, Jennifer and Todd K. Shackelford (Eds.) (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Evolutionary Psychology. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Waal, Frans B. M. de (1989). Peacemaking Among Primates. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674033085
Waal, Frans B. M. de (1991). Complementary Methods and Convergent Evidence in the Study of Primate Social Cognition. Behaviour, 118(3/4), 297-320. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4534969
Waal, Frans B. M. de (2007). Chimpanzee Politics: Power and Sex Among Apes. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Waal, Frans B. M. de (2014). Natural Normativity: The ‘Is’ and ‘Ought’ of Animal Behavior. Behaviour, 151(2-3), 185-204. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003146
Waal, Frans B. M. de (2016). Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are? New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
Waal, Frans B. M. de, Stephen Macedo, Josiah Ober and Robert Wright (2006). Primates and Philosophers: How Morality Evolved. The University Center for Human Values Series. Princeton, N.J: Princeton University Press.
Wasserman, Edward A. and Thomas R. Zentall (2009). Comparative Cognition: Experimental Explorations of Animal Intelligence. New York: Oxford university press.
Westra, Evan and Kristin Andrews (2022). A Pluralistic Framework for the Psychology of Norms. Biology & Philosophy, 37(5), 40. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-022-09871-0
Sánchez, N. (2024). Construcción de teoría en cognición comparada: evaluando el caso de la normatividad animal. ArtefaCToS. Revista De Estudios Sobre La Ciencia Y La tecnología, 13(1), 255–277. https://doi.org/10.14201/art2024.31142
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