Chronic airway obstruction in children. Most common causes, diagnosis and Surgical and Endoscopic Treatment
Abstract Introduction: Obstructive airway pathology in children may be congenital or acquired. Fortunately, it is a rare condition, but in most cases, it implies a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Endoscopic techniques have experienced in the last years a breakthrough in the treatment of these lesions, but open surgery still plays an important role. Objective: Our objective was to review the most frequent causes of obstruction of the central airway in the child, their diagnostic and current treatment status. Conclusions: Obstructive airway pathology in children requires immediate stabilization, detailed assessment, meticulous planning and individualized treatment. Management of patients with airway obstruction requires a close cooperation between specialists organized in multidisciplinary teams, whose main objective is the diagnosis and timely resolution of the various congenital malformations and acquired lesions that affect the larynx, trachea and bronchi. In many cases the decision of the treatment of choice is not easy. Selection of the most suitable treatment depends on the patient’s clinical situation and the anatomic type of stenosis. The surgeon must master all available techniques, to solve each specific situation.
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Antón-Pacheco JL, Cabezalí D, Tejedor R, López M, Luna C, Comas JV, de Miguel E. The role of airway stenting in pediatric tracheobronchial obstruction. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2008;33(6):1069-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcts.2008.01.034 PMid:18299200
Anton-Pacheco JL, Cano I, Comas J, Galletti L, Polo L, García A, et al. Management of congenital tracheal stenosis in infancy. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2006;29(6):991–6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejcts.2005.12.061 PMid:16675228
Antón-Pacheco JL, CanoI-García A, Martínez A, Cuadros J, Berchi FL. Patterns of management of congenital tracheal stenosis. J Pediatr Surg.2003; 38:1452-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3468(03)00495-0
Antón-Pacheco JL, Luna C, García E, López M, Morante R, Tordable C, et al. Initial experience with a new biodegradable airway stent in children: is this the stent we were waiting for? Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51(6):607-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.23340 PMid:26584412
Antón-Pacheco JL. Paediatric bronchoscopy: from where we came from, to where we are going. An Pediatr (Barc). 2012; 77(4):223-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anpedi.2012.07.006 PMid:22902949
Antón-Pacheco JL. Tracheobronchial stents in children. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016; 25(3):179-85. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.02.011 PMid:27301605
Backer CL, Mavroudis C, Gerber ME, Holinger LD. Tracheal surgery in children: an 18-year review of four techniques. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001;19(6):777-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1010-7940(01)00736-9
Backer CL, Mavroudis C, Holinger LD. Repair of congenital tracheal stenosis. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Pediatr Card Surg Annu. 2002;5:173-86. https://doi.org/10.1053/pcsu.2002.29718 PMid:11994878
Benjamin, B., Inglis, A.: Minor congenital laryngeal clefts: diagnosis and classification. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1989; 98:417-420. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348948909800603 PMid:2729823
Boardman SJ, Albert DM. Single-stage and multistage pediatric laryngotracheal reconstruction. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2008;41(5):947-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2008.04.002 PMid:18775344
Boogaard R1, Huijsmans SH, Pijnenburg MW, Tiddens HA, de Jongste JC, Merkus PJ. Tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia in children: incidence and patient characteristics. Chest. 2005;128:3391-7. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.128.5.3391 PMid:16304290
Brigger MT, Hartnick CJ. Surgery for pediatric vocal cord paralysis: a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2002;126:349-55. https://doi.org/10.1067/mhn.2002.124185 PMid:11997772
Broeks IJ, Hermans DJ, Dassel AC, van der Vleuten CJ, van Beynum IM. Propranolol treatment in life-threatening airway hemangiomas: a case series and review of literature. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;77(11):1791-800.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.08.011 PMid:24074695
Cantrell JR, Guild HG. Congenital stenosis of the trachea. Am J Surg. 1964;108:297-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9610(64)90023-6
Chen, E, Inglis A. Bilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis in Children. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2008; 41:889-901.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2008.04.003 PMid:18775340
Cohen, S.R.: Congenital glottic webs in children. A retrospective review of 51 patients. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1985; Suppl.121:2–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/00034894850940S601
De Trey LA, Dudley J, Ismail-Koch H, Durward A, Bellsham-Revell H, Blaney S, Hore I, Austin CB, Morrison GA. Treatment of severe tracheobronchomalacia: Ten year experience. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;83:57-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.01.022 PMid:26968054
Dedo DD. Pediatric vocal cord paralysis. Laryngoscope. 1979;89:1378-84.
https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.5540890902
PMid:481043
Dyce O, McDonald-McGinn D, Kirschner RE, Zackai E, Young K, Jacobs IN. Otolaryngologic manifestations of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2002;128:1408–12. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.128.12.1408 PMid:12479730
Elliott M1, Roebuck D, Noctor C, McLaren C, Hartley B, Mok Q, Dunne C, Pigott N, Patel C, Patel A, Wallis C. The management of congenital tracheal stenosis. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2003; 67:183–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2003.08.023
Fayon M, Donato L. Tracheomalacia (TM) or bronchomalacia (BM) in children: conservative or invasive therapy. Arch Pediatr. 2010;17:97-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2009.09.015 PMid:19892533
Fraga JC, Jennings RW, Kim PC. Pediatric tracheomalacia. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016;25(3):156-64.
https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.02.008 PMid:27301602
Freitag L1, Ernst A, Unger M, Kovitz K, Marquette CH. A proposed classification system of central airway stenosis. Eur Respir J. 2007; 30(1):7-12. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00132804 PMid:17392320
Friedman EM, Vastola AP, McGill TJI, Healy GB. Chronic pediatric stridor: etiology and outcome. Laryngoscope. 1990;100:277-80.
https://doi.org/10.1288/00005537-199003000-00013 PMid:2308452
Goldberg S, Shatz A, Picard E, Wexler I, Schwartz S, Swed E, et al. Endoscopic findings in children with obstructive sleep apnea: effects of age and hypotonia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2005; 40:205-10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.20230 PMid:15957182
Herrera P, Caldarone C, Forte V, Campisi P, Holtby H, Chait P, et al. The current state of congenital tracheal stenosis. Pediatr Surg Int. 2007;23(11):1033-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00383-007-1945-3 PMid:17712567
Hewitt RJ, Butler CR, Maughan EF, Elliott MJ. Congenital tracheobronchial stenosis. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016;25(3):144-9.
https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.02.007 PMid:27301600
Holinger LD, Barnes DR, Smid LJ, Holinger PH. Laryngocele and saccular cysts. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1978;87,675–85.
https://doi.org/10.1177/000348947808700513 PMid:718065
Holinger LD, Konior RJ. Surgical management of severe laryngomalacia. Laryngoscope 1989; 99:136-42.
https://doi.org/10.1288/00005537-198902000-00004 PMid:2913424
Holinger LD. Congenital laryngeal anomalies. In: Holinger LD, Lusk RP, Green CG (Eds.) Pediatric Laryngology and Bronchoesophagology, Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia/New York (1997). p. 139-42.
Holinger, P.H., Brown, W.T. Congenital webs, cysts, laryngoceles and other anomalies of the larynx. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1967;76:744-752. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348946707600402 PMid:6059212
Jennings RW, Hamilton TE, Smithers CJ, Ngerncham M, Feins N, Foker JE. Surgical approaches to aortopexy for severe tracheomalacia. J Pediatr Surg. 2014;49:66-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2013.09.036 PMid:24439583
Kusak B, Cichocka-Jarosz E, Jedynak-Wasowicz U, Lis G. Types of laryngomalacia in children: interrelationship between clinical course and comorbid conditions. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;274(3):1577-1583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-016-4334-5 PMid:27722899 PMCid:PMC5309268
Lando T, April MM, Ward RF. Minimally invasive techniques in laryngotracheal reconstruction. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2008;41(5):935-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2008.04.007 PMid:18775343
Lee KS1, Chen BN, Yang CC, Chen YC. CO2 laser supraglottoplasty for severe laryngomalacia: a study of symptomatic improvement. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 2007; 71:889-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2007.02.010 PMid:17416423
McArdle J, Gildea T, Mehta A. Balloon bronchoplasty: Its indications, benefits and complications. J Bronchol. 2005;4:123–7.
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.laboratory.0000159783.34078.3d
Monnier P, Dikkers FG, Eckel H, Sittel C, Piazza C, Campos G, et al. Preoperative assessment and classification of benign laryngotracheal stenosis: a consensus paper of the European Laryngological Society. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2015;272(10):2885-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-015-3635-4 PMid:25951790
Monnier P, George M, Monod ML, Lang F. The role of the CO2 laser in the management of laryngotracheal stenosis: a survey of 100 cases. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 2005;262:602-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-005-0948-8 PMid:16021463
Monnier P, Ikonomidis C, Jaquet Y, George M. Proposal of a new classification for optimising outcome assessment following partial cricotracheal resections in severe pediatric subglotticstenosis. Int J Pediatrotorhinolaryngol. 2009;73(9):1217–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.05.008 PMid:19493576
Myer CM, O'Connor DM, Cotton RT. Proposed grading system for subglottic stenosis based on endotracheal tube sizes. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1994;103:319-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348949410300410 PMid:8154776
Nicolai T. Airway stents in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2008;43:330-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.20790 PMid:18286550
Parente Hernández A, García-Casillas MA, Matute JA, Ca-izo A, Laín A, Fanjul M, et al. ¿Es el estridor un síntoma banal en el lactante? An Pediatr (Barc). 2007; 66(6):559-65. https://doi.org/10.1157/13107389
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Ductal Cysts, Saccular Cysts and Laryngoceles. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 141-145. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13535-4_11
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Laryngeal and Tracheal Clefts. 6. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p.147-5.
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Laryngeal Web and Atresia. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 125-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13535-4_9
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. Endoscopic Assessment of the Compromised Paediatric Airway. p. 77-99.
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Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Laryngotracheoplasty and Laryngotracheal Reconstruction. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 257-277.
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Partial Cricotracheal Resection. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 279-321.
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Surgery for Laryngotracheal Stenosis. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 231-79.
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Congenital Tracheal Stenosis. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p.167-75.
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Antón-Pacheco JL, CanoI-García A, Martínez A, Cuadros J, Berchi FL. Patterns of management of congenital tracheal stenosis. J Pediatr Surg.2003; 38:1452-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3468(03)00495-0
Antón-Pacheco JL, Luna C, García E, López M, Morante R, Tordable C, et al. Initial experience with a new biodegradable airway stent in children: is this the stent we were waiting for? Pediatr Pulmonol. 2016;51(6):607-12. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.23340 PMid:26584412
Antón-Pacheco JL. Paediatric bronchoscopy: from where we came from, to where we are going. An Pediatr (Barc). 2012; 77(4):223-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anpedi.2012.07.006 PMid:22902949
Antón-Pacheco JL. Tracheobronchial stents in children. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016; 25(3):179-85. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.02.011 PMid:27301605
Backer CL, Mavroudis C, Gerber ME, Holinger LD. Tracheal surgery in children: an 18-year review of four techniques. Eur J Cardiothorac Surg. 2001;19(6):777-84. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1010-7940(01)00736-9
Backer CL, Mavroudis C, Holinger LD. Repair of congenital tracheal stenosis. Semin Thorac Cardiovasc Surg Pediatr Card Surg Annu. 2002;5:173-86. https://doi.org/10.1053/pcsu.2002.29718 PMid:11994878
Benjamin, B., Inglis, A.: Minor congenital laryngeal clefts: diagnosis and classification. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1989; 98:417-420. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348948909800603 PMid:2729823
Boardman SJ, Albert DM. Single-stage and multistage pediatric laryngotracheal reconstruction. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2008;41(5):947-58. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2008.04.002 PMid:18775344
Boogaard R1, Huijsmans SH, Pijnenburg MW, Tiddens HA, de Jongste JC, Merkus PJ. Tracheomalacia and bronchomalacia in children: incidence and patient characteristics. Chest. 2005;128:3391-7. https://doi.org/10.1378/chest.128.5.3391 PMid:16304290
Brigger MT, Hartnick CJ. Surgery for pediatric vocal cord paralysis: a meta-analysis. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2002;126:349-55. https://doi.org/10.1067/mhn.2002.124185 PMid:11997772
Broeks IJ, Hermans DJ, Dassel AC, van der Vleuten CJ, van Beynum IM. Propranolol treatment in life-threatening airway hemangiomas: a case series and review of literature. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2013;77(11):1791-800.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2013.08.011 PMid:24074695
Cantrell JR, Guild HG. Congenital stenosis of the trachea. Am J Surg. 1964;108:297-305. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9610(64)90023-6
Chen, E, Inglis A. Bilateral Vocal Cord Paralysis in Children. Otolaryngol Clin N Am. 2008; 41:889-901.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2008.04.003 PMid:18775340
Cohen, S.R.: Congenital glottic webs in children. A retrospective review of 51 patients. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1985; Suppl.121:2–16. https://doi.org/10.1177/00034894850940S601
De Trey LA, Dudley J, Ismail-Koch H, Durward A, Bellsham-Revell H, Blaney S, Hore I, Austin CB, Morrison GA. Treatment of severe tracheobronchomalacia: Ten year experience. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2016;83:57-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2016.01.022 PMid:26968054
Dedo DD. Pediatric vocal cord paralysis. Laryngoscope. 1979;89:1378-84.
https://doi.org/10.1002/lary.5540890902
PMid:481043
Dyce O, McDonald-McGinn D, Kirschner RE, Zackai E, Young K, Jacobs IN. Otolaryngologic manifestations of the 22q11.2 deletion syndrome. Arch. Otolaryngol. Head Neck Surg. 2002;128:1408–12. https://doi.org/10.1001/archotol.128.12.1408 PMid:12479730
Elliott M1, Roebuck D, Noctor C, McLaren C, Hartley B, Mok Q, Dunne C, Pigott N, Patel C, Patel A, Wallis C. The management of congenital tracheal stenosis. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2003; 67:183–92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2003.08.023
Fayon M, Donato L. Tracheomalacia (TM) or bronchomalacia (BM) in children: conservative or invasive therapy. Arch Pediatr. 2010;17:97-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arcped.2009.09.015 PMid:19892533
Fraga JC, Jennings RW, Kim PC. Pediatric tracheomalacia. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016;25(3):156-64.
https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.02.008 PMid:27301602
Freitag L1, Ernst A, Unger M, Kovitz K, Marquette CH. A proposed classification system of central airway stenosis. Eur Respir J. 2007; 30(1):7-12. https://doi.org/10.1183/09031936.00132804 PMid:17392320
Friedman EM, Vastola AP, McGill TJI, Healy GB. Chronic pediatric stridor: etiology and outcome. Laryngoscope. 1990;100:277-80.
https://doi.org/10.1288/00005537-199003000-00013 PMid:2308452
Goldberg S, Shatz A, Picard E, Wexler I, Schwartz S, Swed E, et al. Endoscopic findings in children with obstructive sleep apnea: effects of age and hypotonia. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2005; 40:205-10. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.20230 PMid:15957182
Herrera P, Caldarone C, Forte V, Campisi P, Holtby H, Chait P, et al. The current state of congenital tracheal stenosis. Pediatr Surg Int. 2007;23(11):1033-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00383-007-1945-3 PMid:17712567
Hewitt RJ, Butler CR, Maughan EF, Elliott MJ. Congenital tracheobronchial stenosis. Semin Pediatr Surg. 2016;25(3):144-9.
https://doi.org/10.1053/j.sempedsurg.2016.02.007 PMid:27301600
Holinger LD, Barnes DR, Smid LJ, Holinger PH. Laryngocele and saccular cysts. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1978;87,675–85.
https://doi.org/10.1177/000348947808700513 PMid:718065
Holinger LD, Konior RJ. Surgical management of severe laryngomalacia. Laryngoscope 1989; 99:136-42.
https://doi.org/10.1288/00005537-198902000-00004 PMid:2913424
Holinger LD. Congenital laryngeal anomalies. In: Holinger LD, Lusk RP, Green CG (Eds.) Pediatric Laryngology and Bronchoesophagology, Lippincott-Raven, Philadelphia/New York (1997). p. 139-42.
Holinger, P.H., Brown, W.T. Congenital webs, cysts, laryngoceles and other anomalies of the larynx. Ann. Otol. Rhinol. Laryngol. 1967;76:744-752. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348946707600402 PMid:6059212
Jennings RW, Hamilton TE, Smithers CJ, Ngerncham M, Feins N, Foker JE. Surgical approaches to aortopexy for severe tracheomalacia. J Pediatr Surg. 2014;49:66-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2013.09.036 PMid:24439583
Kusak B, Cichocka-Jarosz E, Jedynak-Wasowicz U, Lis G. Types of laryngomalacia in children: interrelationship between clinical course and comorbid conditions. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2017;274(3):1577-1583. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-016-4334-5 PMid:27722899 PMCid:PMC5309268
Lando T, April MM, Ward RF. Minimally invasive techniques in laryngotracheal reconstruction. Otolaryngol Clin North Am. 2008;41(5):935-46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.otc.2008.04.007 PMid:18775343
Lee KS1, Chen BN, Yang CC, Chen YC. CO2 laser supraglottoplasty for severe laryngomalacia: a study of symptomatic improvement. Int. J. Pediatr. Otorhinolaryngol. 2007; 71:889-5. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2007.02.010 PMid:17416423
McArdle J, Gildea T, Mehta A. Balloon bronchoplasty: Its indications, benefits and complications. J Bronchol. 2005;4:123–7.
https://doi.org/10.1097/01.laboratory.0000159783.34078.3d
Monnier P, Dikkers FG, Eckel H, Sittel C, Piazza C, Campos G, et al. Preoperative assessment and classification of benign laryngotracheal stenosis: a consensus paper of the European Laryngological Society. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol. 2015;272(10):2885-96. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-015-3635-4 PMid:25951790
Monnier P, George M, Monod ML, Lang F. The role of the CO2 laser in the management of laryngotracheal stenosis: a survey of 100 cases. Eur. Arch. Otorhinolaryngol. 2005;262:602-8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00405-005-0948-8 PMid:16021463
Monnier P, Ikonomidis C, Jaquet Y, George M. Proposal of a new classification for optimising outcome assessment following partial cricotracheal resections in severe pediatric subglotticstenosis. Int J Pediatrotorhinolaryngol. 2009;73(9):1217–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijporl.2009.05.008 PMid:19493576
Myer CM, O'Connor DM, Cotton RT. Proposed grading system for subglottic stenosis based on endotracheal tube sizes. Ann Otol Rhinol Laryngol. 1994;103:319-23. https://doi.org/10.1177/000348949410300410 PMid:8154776
Nicolai T. Airway stents in children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2008;43:330-44. https://doi.org/10.1002/ppul.20790 PMid:18286550
Parente Hernández A, García-Casillas MA, Matute JA, Ca-izo A, Laín A, Fanjul M, et al. ¿Es el estridor un síntoma banal en el lactante? An Pediatr (Barc). 2007; 66(6):559-65. https://doi.org/10.1157/13107389
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Ductal Cysts, Saccular Cysts and Laryngoceles. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 141-145. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13535-4_11
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Laryngeal and Tracheal Clefts. 6. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p.147-5.
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Laryngeal Web and Atresia. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 125-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-13535-4_9
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. Endoscopic Assessment of the Compromised Paediatric Airway. p. 77-99.
Philippe Monnier. Pediatric Airway Surgery. Management of Laryngotracheal Stenosis in Infants and Children. Preoperative Assessment, Indications for Surgery and Parental Counselling. Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht (London New York) 2011. p. 231-40.
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