Elitism and Status: Reassessing Settlement Hierarchy in Early Medieval England
Resumo The complexities of identifying and understanding settlement hierarchy in early medieval England (c. 5th–11th centuries) is the focus of much debate. Within this field of enquiry, settlement arrangements, architecture, landholding patterns and material culture are commonly used in the identification of a range of settlement types. These include royal complexes, monastic institutions, towns and trading/production sites such as emporia. This same evidence is also used to interpret the status and role of these sites in early medieval England. This paper advances the current understanding of settlement hierarchy through an assessment of rural settlements and their material culture. These settlements have received comparatively less scholarly attention than higher profile early medieval sites such as elite, ecclesiastical and urban centres, yet represent a rich source of information. Through analysis of material culture as evidence for the consumption, economic and social functions which characterise rural settlements, a picture of what were inherently complex communities is presented. The findings further support the need to reassess settlement hierarchy in early medieval England and a new hierarchical model is proposed.
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Addyman, Peter V. «The Anglo-Saxon house: A new review». Anglo-Saxon England, 1972, 1, p. 273-307.
Anderton, Mike (ed.). Anglo-Saxon trading centres: Beyond the emporia. Glasgow: Cruithne Press, 1999.
Audouy, Michel & Chapman, Andy (eds.). Raunds: The origin and growth of a midland village AD450-1500. Excavations in north Raunds, Northamptonshire 1977-87. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2009.
Beresford, Guy. Goltho: The development of an early medieval manor c. 850-1150. London: Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, 1987.
Blair, John. Building Anglo-Saxon England. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018.
Blair, John. The church in Anglo-Saxon society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Brennan, Naomi & Hamerow, Helena. «An Anglo-Saxon great hall complex at Sutton Courtenay/Drayton, Oxfordshire: A royal centre of early Wessex?». Archaeological Journal, 2015, 172, p. 325-350.
Brookes, Stuart. Economics and social change in Anglo-Saxon Kent AD400-900: Landscapes, communities and exchange. BAR British Series 431. Oxford: BAR Publishing, 2007.
Chapman, Andy. West Cotton, Raunds. A study of medieval settlement dynamics AD450-1450: Excavation of a deserted medieval hamlet in Northamptonshire, 1985-89. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2010.
Clegg Hyer, Maren & Owen-Crocker, Gale R. (eds.). The material culture of daily living in the Anglo-Saxon world. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2011.
Cramp, Rosemary J. «Beowulf and Archaeology». Medieval Archaeology, 1957, 1, p. 57-77.
Dyer, Christopher & Lilley, Keith. «Town and countryside: Relationships and resemblances». In: Christie, Neil & Stamper, Paul (eds.). Medieval rural settlement: Britain and Ireland, AD800-1600. Bollington: Windgather, 2011, p. 81-98.
Evans, D. H. & Loveluck, Christopher (eds.). Life and economy at early medieval Flixborough c. AD600-1000. Excavations at Flixborough Volume 2. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2009.
Gardiner, Mark. «Late Saxon settlements». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 198-217.
Gardiner, Mark. «Manorial farmsteads and the expression of lordship before and after the Norman Conquest». In: Hadley, Dawn M. & Dyer, Christopher (eds.). The archaeology of the 11th century: Continuities and transformations. Society for Medieval Archaeology monograph 38. London: Routledge, 2017, p. 88-103.
Gerrard, Christopher. Medieval archaeology: Understanding traditions and contemporary approaches. London; New York: Routledge, 2003.
Hamerow, Helena. «Anglo-Saxon timber buildings and their social context». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 128-155.
Hamerow, Helena. Early medieval settlements: The archaeology of rural communities in North-West Europe 400–900. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Hamerow, Helena. Rural settlements and society in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Hamerow, Helena; Hayden, Chris & Hey, Gill. «Anglo-Saxon and earlier settlement near Drayton Road, Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire». Archaeological Journal, 2007, 164, p. 109-196.
Hansen, Inge Lyse & Wickham, Christopher (eds.). The long eighth century: Production, distribution and demand. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
Hill, John M. The cultural world in Beowulf. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995.
Hinton, David A. «The fifth and sixth centuries: Reorganisation among the ruins». In: Karkov, Catherine E. (ed.). The archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England: Basic readings. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1999, p. 53-78.
Hinton, David A. Gold and gilt, pots and pins: Possessions and people in medieval Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Hodges, Richard. Dark Age economics: A new audit. London: Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc., 2013.
Hooke, Della. The landscape of Anglo-Saxon England. London; Washington: Leicester University Press, 1998.
Hope-Taylor, Brian. Yeavering: An Anglo-British centre of early Northumbria. Swindon: H. M. Stationery Office, 1977.
Jones, Richard & Page, Mark. Medieval villages in an English landscape: Beginnings and ends. Cheshire: Windgather Press, 2006.
Lewis, Hana. Pattern and process in the material culture of Anglo-Saxon non-elite rural settlements. UCL Institute of Archaeology PhD Series 1. Oxford: BAR Publishing, 2019.
Loveluck, Christopher & Tys, Dries. «Coastal societies, exchange, and identity along the channel and the North Sea shores of Europe, AD600-1000». Journal of Marine Archaeology, 2006, 1, p. 140-169.
Loveluck, Christopher. «Central-places, exchange and maritime-oriented identity around the North Sea and western Baltic, AD600-1100». In: Gelichi, Sauro & Hodges, Richard (eds.). From one sea to another: Trading places in the European and Mediterranean early Middle Ages. Proceedings of the International Conference Comacchio, 27th–29th March 2009. Turnhout: Brepols, 2012, p. 123-165.
Loveluck, Christopher. «Wealth, waste and conspicuous consumption: Flixborough and its importance for Middle and Late Saxon rural settlement studies». In: Hamerow, Helena & MacGregor, Arthur (eds.). Image and power in the archaeology of early medieval Britain: Essays in honour of Rosemary Cramp. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2001, p. 78-130.
Loveluck, Christopher. Northwest Europe in the early Middle Ages, c. AD600-1150: A comparative archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Loveluck, Christopher. Rural settlement, lifestyles and social change in the later first millennium AD: Anglo-Saxon Flixborough in its wider context. Excavations at Flixborough Volume 4. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007.
Lowry, Scott. Ritual and politics: Power negotiations at Anglo-Saxon feasts. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of North Carolina, 2003.
Marshall, Anne & Marshall, Garry. «A survey and analysis of the buildings of Early and Middle Anglo-Saxon England». Medieval Archaeology, 1991, 35, p. 29-43.
Marshall, Anne & Marshall, Garry. «Differentiation, change and continuity in Anglo-Saxon buildings». Archaeological Journal, 1993, 150, p. 366-402.
McCormick, Michael. Origins of the European economy: Communications and commerce AD300-900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Millett, Martin & James, Simon. «Excavations at Cowdery’s Down, Basingstoke, Hampshire, 1978-81». Archaeological Journal, 1983, 140, p. 151-279.
Molyneaux, George. The formation of the English kingdom in the tenth century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Moreland, John F. «The significance of production in eighth century England». In: Hansen, Inge Lise & Wickham, Christopher (eds.). The long eighth century: Production, distribution and demand. Leiden: Brill, 2000, p. 69-104.
Orton, Clive. Sampling in archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Palmer, Ben. «The hinterlands of three southern English emporia: Some common themes». In: Pestell, Tim & Ulmschneider, Katharina (eds.). Markets in early medieval Europe: Trading and «productive» sites, 650–850. Macclesfield: Windgather Press, 2003, p. 48-60.
Powlesland, Dominic. «Early Anglo-Saxon settlements, structures, form and layout». In: Hines, John (ed.). The Anglo-Saxons from the migration period to the eighth century: An ethnographic perspective. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1997, p. 101-124.
Radford, C. A. Ralegh. «The Saxon house: A review and some parallels». Medieval Archaeology, 1957, 1, p. 27-38.
Rahtz, Philip A. «Buildings and rural settlements». In: Wilson, David Mackenzie (ed.). The archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976, p. 49-98.
Reynolds, Andrew. «Boundaries and settlements in later 6th to 11th century England». In: Griffiths, David W.; Reynolds, Andrew & Semple, Sarah (eds.). Boundaries in early medieval Britain. Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 12. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2003, p. 97-139.
Reynolds, Andrew. Later Anglo-Saxon England: Life and landscape. Stroud: Tempus, 1999.
Richards, Julian D. «What’s so special about ‘productive sites’? Middle Saxon settlements in Northumbria». In: Dickinson, Tania M. & Griffiths, David W. (eds.). The making of kingdoms: Papers from the 47th Sachsen symposium, York, September 1996. Anglo-Saxon studies in archaeology and history 10. Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1999, p. 71-80.
Rippon, Stephen. «Landscape change during the «long eighth century» in southern England». In: Higham, Nicholas J. & Ryan, Martin J. (eds.). The landscape archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2010, p. 39-64.
Rippon, Stephen. Making sense of an historic landscape. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Rogerson, Andrew. A Late Neolithic, Saxon and medieval site at Middle Harling, Norfolk. East Anglian Archaeology 74. London: British Museum; Norfolk: Field Archaeology Division, Norfolk Museums Service, 1995.
Rowland, Jenny. «OE Ealuscerwen/Meoduscerwen and the concept of ‘paying for mead’». Leeds Studies in English, 1990, 21, p. 1-12.
Schiffer, Michael B. «Toward the identification of formation processes». American Antiquity, 1983, 48, p. 675-706.
Schiffer, Michael B. Formation processes of the archaeological record. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987.
Scull, Christopher. «Social transactions, gift exchange, and power in the archaeology of the fifth to seventh centuries». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A. & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 848-864.
Tester, Andrew; Anderson, Sue; Riddler, Ian & Carr, Robert. Staunch Meadow, Brandon, Suffolk: A high status Middle Saxon settlement on the fen edge. East Anglian Archaeology 151. Bury St Edmonds: Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service, 2014.
Tipper, Jess. The grubenhaus in Anglo-Saxon England: An analysis and interpretation of the evidence from a most distinctive building type. Yedingham, North Yorkshire: Landscape Research Centre, 2004.
Ulmschneider, Katharina. «Central places and metal-detector finds: What are the English ‘productive sites’?» In: Hårdt, Birgitta & Larsson, Lars (eds.). Central places in the Migration and Merovingian periods: Papers from the 52nd Sachsensymposium, Lund. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 2002, p. 333-339.
Ulmschneider, Katharina. «Settlement hierarchy». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 156-171.
Wickham, Christopher. Framing the early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Wright, Duncan W. ‘Middle Saxon’ settlement and society. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2015.
Anderton, Mike (ed.). Anglo-Saxon trading centres: Beyond the emporia. Glasgow: Cruithne Press, 1999.
Audouy, Michel & Chapman, Andy (eds.). Raunds: The origin and growth of a midland village AD450-1500. Excavations in north Raunds, Northamptonshire 1977-87. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2009.
Beresford, Guy. Goltho: The development of an early medieval manor c. 850-1150. London: Historic Buildings and Monuments Commission for England, 1987.
Blair, John. Building Anglo-Saxon England. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018.
Blair, John. The church in Anglo-Saxon society. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Brennan, Naomi & Hamerow, Helena. «An Anglo-Saxon great hall complex at Sutton Courtenay/Drayton, Oxfordshire: A royal centre of early Wessex?». Archaeological Journal, 2015, 172, p. 325-350.
Brookes, Stuart. Economics and social change in Anglo-Saxon Kent AD400-900: Landscapes, communities and exchange. BAR British Series 431. Oxford: BAR Publishing, 2007.
Chapman, Andy. West Cotton, Raunds. A study of medieval settlement dynamics AD450-1450: Excavation of a deserted medieval hamlet in Northamptonshire, 1985-89. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2010.
Clegg Hyer, Maren & Owen-Crocker, Gale R. (eds.). The material culture of daily living in the Anglo-Saxon world. Exeter: University of Exeter Press, 2011.
Cramp, Rosemary J. «Beowulf and Archaeology». Medieval Archaeology, 1957, 1, p. 57-77.
Dyer, Christopher & Lilley, Keith. «Town and countryside: Relationships and resemblances». In: Christie, Neil & Stamper, Paul (eds.). Medieval rural settlement: Britain and Ireland, AD800-1600. Bollington: Windgather, 2011, p. 81-98.
Evans, D. H. & Loveluck, Christopher (eds.). Life and economy at early medieval Flixborough c. AD600-1000. Excavations at Flixborough Volume 2. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2009.
Gardiner, Mark. «Late Saxon settlements». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 198-217.
Gardiner, Mark. «Manorial farmsteads and the expression of lordship before and after the Norman Conquest». In: Hadley, Dawn M. & Dyer, Christopher (eds.). The archaeology of the 11th century: Continuities and transformations. Society for Medieval Archaeology monograph 38. London: Routledge, 2017, p. 88-103.
Gerrard, Christopher. Medieval archaeology: Understanding traditions and contemporary approaches. London; New York: Routledge, 2003.
Hamerow, Helena. «Anglo-Saxon timber buildings and their social context». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 128-155.
Hamerow, Helena. Early medieval settlements: The archaeology of rural communities in North-West Europe 400–900. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
Hamerow, Helena. Rural settlements and society in Anglo-Saxon England. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Hamerow, Helena; Hayden, Chris & Hey, Gill. «Anglo-Saxon and earlier settlement near Drayton Road, Sutton Courtenay, Berkshire». Archaeological Journal, 2007, 164, p. 109-196.
Hansen, Inge Lyse & Wickham, Christopher (eds.). The long eighth century: Production, distribution and demand. Leiden: Brill, 2000.
Hill, John M. The cultural world in Beowulf. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1995.
Hinton, David A. «The fifth and sixth centuries: Reorganisation among the ruins». In: Karkov, Catherine E. (ed.). The archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England: Basic readings. New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 1999, p. 53-78.
Hinton, David A. Gold and gilt, pots and pins: Possessions and people in medieval Britain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Hodges, Richard. Dark Age economics: A new audit. London: Bloomsbury Academic, an imprint of Bloomsbury Publishing Plc., 2013.
Hooke, Della. The landscape of Anglo-Saxon England. London; Washington: Leicester University Press, 1998.
Hope-Taylor, Brian. Yeavering: An Anglo-British centre of early Northumbria. Swindon: H. M. Stationery Office, 1977.
Jones, Richard & Page, Mark. Medieval villages in an English landscape: Beginnings and ends. Cheshire: Windgather Press, 2006.
Lewis, Hana. Pattern and process in the material culture of Anglo-Saxon non-elite rural settlements. UCL Institute of Archaeology PhD Series 1. Oxford: BAR Publishing, 2019.
Loveluck, Christopher & Tys, Dries. «Coastal societies, exchange, and identity along the channel and the North Sea shores of Europe, AD600-1000». Journal of Marine Archaeology, 2006, 1, p. 140-169.
Loveluck, Christopher. «Central-places, exchange and maritime-oriented identity around the North Sea and western Baltic, AD600-1100». In: Gelichi, Sauro & Hodges, Richard (eds.). From one sea to another: Trading places in the European and Mediterranean early Middle Ages. Proceedings of the International Conference Comacchio, 27th–29th March 2009. Turnhout: Brepols, 2012, p. 123-165.
Loveluck, Christopher. «Wealth, waste and conspicuous consumption: Flixborough and its importance for Middle and Late Saxon rural settlement studies». In: Hamerow, Helena & MacGregor, Arthur (eds.). Image and power in the archaeology of early medieval Britain: Essays in honour of Rosemary Cramp. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2001, p. 78-130.
Loveluck, Christopher. Northwest Europe in the early Middle Ages, c. AD600-1150: A comparative archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Loveluck, Christopher. Rural settlement, lifestyles and social change in the later first millennium AD: Anglo-Saxon Flixborough in its wider context. Excavations at Flixborough Volume 4. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2007.
Lowry, Scott. Ritual and politics: Power negotiations at Anglo-Saxon feasts. Unpublished PhD thesis, University of North Carolina, 2003.
Marshall, Anne & Marshall, Garry. «A survey and analysis of the buildings of Early and Middle Anglo-Saxon England». Medieval Archaeology, 1991, 35, p. 29-43.
Marshall, Anne & Marshall, Garry. «Differentiation, change and continuity in Anglo-Saxon buildings». Archaeological Journal, 1993, 150, p. 366-402.
McCormick, Michael. Origins of the European economy: Communications and commerce AD300-900. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002.
Millett, Martin & James, Simon. «Excavations at Cowdery’s Down, Basingstoke, Hampshire, 1978-81». Archaeological Journal, 1983, 140, p. 151-279.
Molyneaux, George. The formation of the English kingdom in the tenth century. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2015.
Moreland, John F. «The significance of production in eighth century England». In: Hansen, Inge Lise & Wickham, Christopher (eds.). The long eighth century: Production, distribution and demand. Leiden: Brill, 2000, p. 69-104.
Orton, Clive. Sampling in archaeology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.
Palmer, Ben. «The hinterlands of three southern English emporia: Some common themes». In: Pestell, Tim & Ulmschneider, Katharina (eds.). Markets in early medieval Europe: Trading and «productive» sites, 650–850. Macclesfield: Windgather Press, 2003, p. 48-60.
Powlesland, Dominic. «Early Anglo-Saxon settlements, structures, form and layout». In: Hines, John (ed.). The Anglo-Saxons from the migration period to the eighth century: An ethnographic perspective. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 1997, p. 101-124.
Radford, C. A. Ralegh. «The Saxon house: A review and some parallels». Medieval Archaeology, 1957, 1, p. 27-38.
Rahtz, Philip A. «Buildings and rural settlements». In: Wilson, David Mackenzie (ed.). The archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976, p. 49-98.
Reynolds, Andrew. «Boundaries and settlements in later 6th to 11th century England». In: Griffiths, David W.; Reynolds, Andrew & Semple, Sarah (eds.). Boundaries in early medieval Britain. Anglo-Saxon Studies in Archaeology and History 12. Oxford: Oxford University School of Archaeology, 2003, p. 97-139.
Reynolds, Andrew. Later Anglo-Saxon England: Life and landscape. Stroud: Tempus, 1999.
Richards, Julian D. «What’s so special about ‘productive sites’? Middle Saxon settlements in Northumbria». In: Dickinson, Tania M. & Griffiths, David W. (eds.). The making of kingdoms: Papers from the 47th Sachsen symposium, York, September 1996. Anglo-Saxon studies in archaeology and history 10. Oxford: Oxford University Committee for Archaeology, 1999, p. 71-80.
Rippon, Stephen. «Landscape change during the «long eighth century» in southern England». In: Higham, Nicholas J. & Ryan, Martin J. (eds.). The landscape archaeology of Anglo-Saxon England. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2010, p. 39-64.
Rippon, Stephen. Making sense of an historic landscape. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012.
Rogerson, Andrew. A Late Neolithic, Saxon and medieval site at Middle Harling, Norfolk. East Anglian Archaeology 74. London: British Museum; Norfolk: Field Archaeology Division, Norfolk Museums Service, 1995.
Rowland, Jenny. «OE Ealuscerwen/Meoduscerwen and the concept of ‘paying for mead’». Leeds Studies in English, 1990, 21, p. 1-12.
Schiffer, Michael B. «Toward the identification of formation processes». American Antiquity, 1983, 48, p. 675-706.
Schiffer, Michael B. Formation processes of the archaeological record. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1987.
Scull, Christopher. «Social transactions, gift exchange, and power in the archaeology of the fifth to seventh centuries». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David A. & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 848-864.
Tester, Andrew; Anderson, Sue; Riddler, Ian & Carr, Robert. Staunch Meadow, Brandon, Suffolk: A high status Middle Saxon settlement on the fen edge. East Anglian Archaeology 151. Bury St Edmonds: Suffolk County Council Archaeological Service, 2014.
Tipper, Jess. The grubenhaus in Anglo-Saxon England: An analysis and interpretation of the evidence from a most distinctive building type. Yedingham, North Yorkshire: Landscape Research Centre, 2004.
Ulmschneider, Katharina. «Central places and metal-detector finds: What are the English ‘productive sites’?» In: Hårdt, Birgitta & Larsson, Lars (eds.). Central places in the Migration and Merovingian periods: Papers from the 52nd Sachsensymposium, Lund. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell International, 2002, p. 333-339.
Ulmschneider, Katharina. «Settlement hierarchy». In: Hamerow, Helena; Hinton, David & Crawford, Sally (eds.). The Oxford handbook of Anglo-Saxon archaeology. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2011, p. 156-171.
Wickham, Christopher. Framing the early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Wright, Duncan W. ‘Middle Saxon’ settlement and society. Oxford: Archaeopress, 2015.
Lewis, H. (2020). Elitism and Status: Reassessing Settlement Hierarchy in Early Medieval England. Studia Historica. Historia Medieval, 38(2), 9–42. https://doi.org/10.14201/shhme2020382942
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