Extractive Equalities: Gender-Based Violence and Canadian Coloniality in the Feminist International Assistance Policy
Abstract
This paper explores the post-colonial relations of power of Canadian international development policies and programs. As a supposed leader on gender equality, Canada has implemented its Feminist International Assistance Policy (FIAP) to integrate gender equality concerns into its international development programs, and yet Canadian resource extraction companies operating abroad continue to be linked to cases of sexual violence with little accountability. I examine this contradiction through looking at how the FIAP serves to depoliticize and decontextualize sexual violence. I examine how the policy defines and conceptualizes sexual and gender-based violence as part of Canada’s efforts to take a so-called feminist approach to international development, and what work this conceptualization enables on behalf of the Canadian government. Drawing on interpretive and critical policy analysis, I show how this policy employs ideas of gender equality and individualized, depoliticized understandings of sexual violence that create a benevolent image of Canada, erasing the power dynamics that facilitate and enable sexual violence, as well as Canada’s role in perpetuating colonial global power inequalities.
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Horowitz, Leah S. “‘It Shocks Me, the Place of Women’: Intersectionality and Mining Companies’ Retrogradation of Indigenous Women in New Caledonia.” Gender, Place & Culture, vol. 24, no. 10, Oct. 2017, pp. 1419-40, https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1387103.
Imai, Shin, et al. “The ‘Canada Brand’: Violence and Canadian Mining Companies in Latin America.” Osgoode Legal Studies Research Paper, no. 17, 2017, pp. 1-100, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2886584.
Jenkins, Katy. “Women, Mining and Development: An Emerging Research Agenda.” The Extractive Industries and Society, vol. 1, no. 2, Nov. 2014, pp. 329-39. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2014.08.004.
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Kothari, Uma. “An Agenda for Thinking about ‘Race’ in Development.” Progress in Development Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, 2006, pp. 9-23.
Lauwo, Sarah. “Challenging Masculinity in CSR Disclosures: Silencing of Women’s Voices in Tanzania’s Mining Industry.” Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 149, no. 3, May 2018, pp. 689-706. Springer Link, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3047-4.
Lugones, Maria. “Toward a Decolonial Feminism.” Hypatia, vol. 25, no. 4, 2010. pp. 742-59.
Maldonado-Torres, Nelson. “On the Coloniality of Human Rights.” Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais, vol. 114, Dec. 2017, pp. 117-36. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.4000/rccs.6793.
Manning, Susan M. “Intersectionality in Resource Extraction: A Case Study of Sexual Violence at the Porgera Mine in Papua New Guinea.” International Feminist Journal of Politics, vol. 18, no. 4, 2016, pp. 574-89, https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2016.1189670.
Mignolo, Walter D. The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Duke UP, 2011.
—. “Who Speaks for the ‘Human’ in Human Rights?” Cadernos de Estudos Culturais, vol. 3, no. 5, 2011, pp. 7-24, https://periodicos.ufms.br/index.php/cadec/article/view/4554.
Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” Boundary, vol. 2, no.12/13, 1984, pp. 333-58, https://doi.org/10.2307/302821.
Parisi, Laura. “Canada’s New Feminist International Assistance Policy: Business as Usual?” Foreign Policy Analysis, vol. 16, no. 2, Apr. 2020, pp. 163-80. Silverchair, https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz027.
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on-being-a-winner/article567172/.
“Purplewashing.” Decolonize Palestine. https://decolonizepalestine.com/rainbow-washing/purplewashing/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.
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Rao, Sheila, and Anne Delorme. “Transformative Organizational and Programmatic Change? Civil Society Responses to the Canadian Feminist International Assistance Policy (FIAP).” Development Policy Review, vol. 42, no. 3, 2024, p. e12773. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12773.
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Rustad, Siri Aas, et al. “Artisanal Mining, Conflict, and Sexual Violence in Eastern DRC.” The Extractive Industries and Society, vol. 3, no. 2, Apr. 2016, pp. 475-84. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2016.01.010.
Shipley, Tyler. Canada in the World: Settler Capitalism and the Colonial Imagination. Fernwood Publishing, 2020.
Simons, Penelope C., “Unsustainable International Law: Transnational Resource Extraction and Violence Against Women.” Ottawa Faculty of Law Working Paper, no. 2019-11, 2017, pp. 415-34, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3389464.
“Suppressed Report Confirms International Violations by Canadian Mining Companies.” MiningWatch Canada, 18 Oct. 2010, https://miningwatch.ca/news/2010/10/18/suppressed-report-confirms-international-violations-canadian-mining-companies.
Swan, Emma. “‘The Personal Is Political!’: Exploring the Limits of Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy under Occupation and Blockade.” Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, vol. 27, no. 1, Jan. 2021, pp. 117-35. Taylor and Francis+NEJM, https://doi.org/10.1080/11926422.2020.1805340.
Ticktin, Miriam. “The Gendered Human of Humanitarianism: Medicalising and Politicising Sexual Violence.” Gender & History, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, pp. 250-65. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0424.2011.01637.x.
Tobalagba, Anaïs. “Corporate Human Rights Due Diligence and Assessing Risks of Sexual Violence in Large-Scale Mining Operations.” Australian Journal of Human Rights, vol. 26, no. 2, May 2020, pp. 347-65. Taylor and Francis+NEJM, https://doi.org/10.1080/1323238X.2020.1813377.
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Zhukova, Ekatherina. “A Struggle for Hegemonic Feminisation in Six Feminist Foreign Policies Or, How Social Hierarchies Work in World Politics.” Millennium, vol. 51, no. 3, Jan. 2023, pp. 839-65. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298231182186.
Beaumont, Hilary. “Women from Papua New Guinea Bring Rape Complaints to Canadian Mining Company’s Door.” MiningWatch Canada, 26 Apr. 2017, miningwatch.ca/news/2017/4/25/women-papua-new-guinea-bring-rape-complaints-canadian-mining-company-s-door.
Bergman Rosamond, Annika, et al. “Caring Feminist States? Paternalistic Feminist Foreign Policies and the Silencing of Indigenous Justice Claims in Sweden and Canada.” International Feminist Journal of Politics, vol. 26, no. 3, Nov. 2023, pp. 1-24, https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2023.2274407.
Berlant, Lauren. “Slow Death (Sovereignty, Obesity, Lateral Agency).” Critical Inquiry, vol. 33, no. 4, 2007, pp. 754-80, https://doi.org/10.1086/521568.
Brownmiller, Susan. “Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape (1975).” Violence Against Women: Classic Papers, edited by R. K. Bergen et al., Pearson Education New Zealand, 2005, pp. 5-8.
Cadesky, Jessica. “Built on Shaky Ground: Reflections on Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy.” International Journal, vol. 75, no. 3, Sep. 2020, pp. 298-312. SAGE Journals, https://doi.org/10.1177/0020702020953424.
Chidwick, Hanna, et al. “Contradictions and Possibilities for Change: Exploring Stakeholder Perspectives of Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy (FIAP) and Their Connection to a Future for Global Health.” PLOS Global Public Health, vol. 4, no. 11, Nov. 2024. PLoS Journals, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgph.0003877.
Cros, Laurence. “The Narrative of Canada as a Peacekeeping Nation since the 1990s: Permanence and Evolution of a National Paradigm.” International Journal of Canadian Studies, vol. 52, Nov. 2015, pp. 83-106. utpjournals.press (Atypon), https://doi.org/10.3138/ijcs.52.83.
Dogra, Nandita. “The Mixed Metaphor of ‘Third World Woman’: Gendered Representations by International Development NGOs.” Third World Quarterly, vol. 32, no. 2, 2011, pp. 333-48, https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2011.560472.
Dyer, Evan. “Report Suggests Arms still Flow from Canada to Israel despite Denials.” CBC News, 29 July 2025, https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/arms-ammunition-shipments
-israel-canada-1.7596091.
EarthRights International, et al. “Report to UN Committee: Canada Complicit in Mining Companies’ Pervasive Abuses Against Women.” EarthRights International, 2016, https://earthrights.org/media_release/report-to-un-committee-canada-complicit-in-mining-companies-pervasive-abuses-against-women/#:~:text=At%20Papua%20New%20Guinea’s%20Porgera,violence%20and%20brutal%20gang%20rape.
Eisenstein, Zillah. “Writing Bodies on the Nation for the Globe.” Women, States and Nationalism, edited by Sita Ranchod-Nilsson and Mary Ann Tetreault, 1st ed., Routledge, 2000, pp 35-53.
Escobar, Arturo. Encountering Development: The Making and Unmaking of the Third World. STU-Student edition, Princeton UP, 1995. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7rtgw.
Global Affairs Canada. “Canada Announces New Support for Projects Working to End Gender-based Violence around the World.” Government of Canada, 7 Dec. 2022, https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2022/12/canada-announces-new-support-for-projects-working-to-end-gender-based-violence-around-the-world.html. Accessed 29 May 2024.
—. “Feminist International Assistance Policy: A Framework for Canada’s Development Assistance.” Government of Canada, 2019, https://www.international.gc.ca/world-monde/issues_development-enjeux_developpement/priorities-priorites/policy-politique.aspx?lang=eng. Accessed 29 May 2024.
—. “Minister Ng Promotes Canada’s Mining Industry at Virtual Prospectors & Developers Association of Canada 2021 Convention.” Government of Canada, 17 Mar. 2021, https://www.canada.ca/en/global-affairs/news/2021/03/minister-ng-promotes-canadas-mining-industry-at-virtual-prospectors–developers-association-of-canada-2021-convention.html. Accessed 29 May 2024.
—. “Project Profile–Addressing Sexual and Gender-Based Violence (SGBV) in the West Bank and Gaza.” Government of Canada, https://w05.international.gc.ca/projectbrowser-banqueprojets/project-projet/details/p014615001. Accessed 29 May 2024.
—. “Project Profile–Canadian Fund for the Extractive Sector in Latin America and the Caribbean.” Government of Canada, https://w05.international.gc.ca/projectbrowser-banqueprojets/project-projet/details/d002768001. Accessed 29 May 2024.
—. “Project Profile–Gender Equality in Artisanal Mining.” Government of Canada, https://w05.international.gc.ca/projectbrowser-banqueprojets/project-projet/details/p005930001. Accessed 29 May 2024.
Grinspun, Ricardo, and Jennifer Mills. “Canada, Extractivism, and Hemispheric Relations.” Beyond Free Trade: Alternative Approaches to Trade, Politics and Power, edited by Kate Ervine and Gavin Fridell, Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2015, pp. 133-51. Springer Link, https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137412737_8.
Horowitz, Leah S. “‘It Shocks Me, the Place of Women’: Intersectionality and Mining Companies’ Retrogradation of Indigenous Women in New Caledonia.” Gender, Place & Culture, vol. 24, no. 10, Oct. 2017, pp. 1419-40, https://doi.org/10.1080/0966369X.2017.1387103.
Imai, Shin, et al. “The ‘Canada Brand’: Violence and Canadian Mining Companies in Latin America.” Osgoode Legal Studies Research Paper, no. 17, 2017, pp. 1-100, https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2886584.
Jenkins, Katy. “Women, Mining and Development: An Emerging Research Agenda.” The Extractive Industries and Society, vol. 1, no. 2, Nov. 2014, pp. 329-39. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2014.08.004.
Kassam, Ashifa. “Guatemalan Women Take on Canada’s Mining Giants over ‘Horrific Human Rights Abuses.’” The Guardian, 13 Dec. 2017, www.theguardian.com/world/2017/dec/13/guatemala-canada-indigenous-right-canadian-mining-company.
Kothari, Uma. “An Agenda for Thinking about ‘Race’ in Development.” Progress in Development Studies, vol. 6, no. 1, 2006, pp. 9-23.
Lauwo, Sarah. “Challenging Masculinity in CSR Disclosures: Silencing of Women’s Voices in Tanzania’s Mining Industry.” Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 149, no. 3, May 2018, pp. 689-706. Springer Link, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-016-3047-4.
Lugones, Maria. “Toward a Decolonial Feminism.” Hypatia, vol. 25, no. 4, 2010. pp. 742-59.
Maldonado-Torres, Nelson. “On the Coloniality of Human Rights.” Revista Crítica de Ciências Sociais, vol. 114, Dec. 2017, pp. 117-36. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.4000/rccs.6793.
Manning, Susan M. “Intersectionality in Resource Extraction: A Case Study of Sexual Violence at the Porgera Mine in Papua New Guinea.” International Feminist Journal of Politics, vol. 18, no. 4, 2016, pp. 574-89, https://doi.org/10.1080/14616742.2016.1189670.
Mignolo, Walter D. The Darker Side of Western Modernity: Global Futures, Decolonial Options. Duke UP, 2011.
—. “Who Speaks for the ‘Human’ in Human Rights?” Cadernos de Estudos Culturais, vol. 3, no. 5, 2011, pp. 7-24, https://periodicos.ufms.br/index.php/cadec/article/view/4554.
Mohanty, Chandra Talpade. “Under Western Eyes: Feminist Scholarship and Colonial Discourses.” Boundary, vol. 2, no.12/13, 1984, pp. 333-58, https://doi.org/10.2307/302821.
Parisi, Laura. “Canada’s New Feminist International Assistance Policy: Business as Usual?” Foreign Policy Analysis, vol. 16, no. 2, Apr. 2020, pp. 163-80. Silverchair, https://doi.org/10.1093/fpa/orz027.
Posner, Michael. “Peter Munk’s reflections on being a winner.” The Globe and Mail, 11 Feb. 2011, https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/peter-munks-reflections-
on-being-a-winner/article567172/.
“Purplewashing.” Decolonize Palestine. https://decolonizepalestine.com/rainbow-washing/purplewashing/. Accessed 1 Jan. 2026.
Quijano, Anibal. “The Coloniality of Power, Eurocentrism and Latin America.” Nepantla: Views from South, vol. 1, no. 3, 2002, pp. 533-80.
Rao, Sheila, and Anne Delorme. “Transformative Organizational and Programmatic Change? Civil Society Responses to the Canadian Feminist International Assistance Policy (FIAP).” Development Policy Review, vol. 42, no. 3, 2024, p. e12773. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/dpr.12773.
Robertson, Dylan. “Carney Says Canada Upholding Values but Drops Talk of ‘Feminist Foreign Policy.’” CTV News, 23 Nov. 2025, www.ctvnews.ca/montreal/article/carney-says-canada-upholding-values-but-drops-talk-of-feminist-foreign-policy/.
Rudderham, M. A. “Canada and United Nations Peace Operations: Challenges, Opportunities, and Canada’s Response.” International Journal, vol. 63, no. 2, June 2008, pp. 359-84. SAGE Journals, https://doi.org/10.1177/002070200806300210.
Rustad, Siri Aas, et al. “Artisanal Mining, Conflict, and Sexual Violence in Eastern DRC.” The Extractive Industries and Society, vol. 3, no. 2, Apr. 2016, pp. 475-84. ScienceDirect, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2016.01.010.
Shipley, Tyler. Canada in the World: Settler Capitalism and the Colonial Imagination. Fernwood Publishing, 2020.
Simons, Penelope C., “Unsustainable International Law: Transnational Resource Extraction and Violence Against Women.” Ottawa Faculty of Law Working Paper, no. 2019-11, 2017, pp. 415-34, https://ssrn.com/abstract=3389464.
“Suppressed Report Confirms International Violations by Canadian Mining Companies.” MiningWatch Canada, 18 Oct. 2010, https://miningwatch.ca/news/2010/10/18/suppressed-report-confirms-international-violations-canadian-mining-companies.
Swan, Emma. “‘The Personal Is Political!’: Exploring the Limits of Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy under Occupation and Blockade.” Canadian Foreign Policy Journal, vol. 27, no. 1, Jan. 2021, pp. 117-35. Taylor and Francis+NEJM, https://doi.org/10.1080/11926422.2020.1805340.
Ticktin, Miriam. “The Gendered Human of Humanitarianism: Medicalising and Politicising Sexual Violence.” Gender & History, vol. 23, no. 2, 2011, pp. 250-65. Wiley Online Library, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0424.2011.01637.x.
Tobalagba, Anaïs. “Corporate Human Rights Due Diligence and Assessing Risks of Sexual Violence in Large-Scale Mining Operations.” Australian Journal of Human Rights, vol. 26, no. 2, May 2020, pp. 347-65. Taylor and Francis+NEJM, https://doi.org/10.1080/1323238X.2020.1813377.
Trudeau, Justin. “Diversity is Canada’s Strength.” 26 Nov. 2015, London, www.pm.gc.ca/en/news/speeches/2015/11/26/diversity-canadas-strength.
True, Jacqui. The Political Economy of Violence against Women. Oxford UP, 2012.
UN Women. Partners For Change: UN Women and Canada. May 2020, https://www.unwomen.org/sites/default/files/Headquarters/Attachments/Sections/Partnerships/Donor%20Countries/Partners-for-change-Canada-en.pdf.
Veit, Alex. “Feminism in the Humanitarian Machine. Introduction to the Special Section on ‘The Politics of Intervention Against (Conflict-Related) Sexual and Gender-Based Violence.’” Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding, vol. 13, no. 4, Aug. 2019, pp. 401-17. Taylor and Francis+NEJM, https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2019.1649009.
Wegner, Nicole. Martialling Peace: How the Peacekeeper Myth Legitimises Warfare. Edinburgh UP, 2023.
Whyte, Jessica. The Morals of the Market: Human Rights and the Rise of Neoliberalism. Verso Books, 2019.
Women’s Earth Alliance and Native Youth Sexual Health Network. Violence on the Land, Violence on our Bodies: Building an Indigenous Response to Environmental Violence. 2016, http://landbodydefense.org/uploads/files/VLVBReport_2016.pdf.
Zhukova, Ekatherina. “A Struggle for Hegemonic Feminisation in Six Feminist Foreign Policies Or, How Social Hierarchies Work in World Politics.” Millennium, vol. 51, no. 3, Jan. 2023, pp. 839-65. EBSCOhost, https://doi.org/10.1177/03058298231182186.
Riddle, T. (2026). Extractive Equalities: Gender-Based Violence and Canadian Coloniality in the Feminist International Assistance Policy. Canada and Beyond: A Journal of Canadian Literary and Cultural Studies, 15, 79–97. https://doi.org/10.14201/candb.v15i79-97
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