Potential Economic Effectiveness of Payment for Environmental Services in a Protected Area in the State of Amazonas (Brazil)
Abstract The implementation of payment for environmental services (PES) schemes in public protected areas raises several questions in economic, social, and environmental domains. In this paper, we analyze the case of Brazil’s Bolsa Floresta Program (BFP), established in the Protected Areas of the state of Amazonas and considered one of the largest programs in the world in terms of area of coverage. First, we verify whether the program meets the requirements of a typical PES: conditionality, additionality, and voluntariness. Secondly, we seek to evaluate the two key requirements for a PES to perform well: economic effectiveness and ecological sustainability. Studying the case of the Uatumã Sustainable Development Reserve (Uatumã SDR), we determine that the payments made do not cover the provider–receivers’ opportunity costs, which results in non-delivery of the contracted environmental services. The total area of secondary forest (SF) available to be incorporated into successive crop cycles might not be large enough to allow fallow periods of a long enough duration for soil fertility to recover fully. The intensification of agricultural activities in SF areas may lead to a degradation of the traditional agricultural system and a consequent loss of the ecosystem services that this system can potentially provide. In sum, these negative impacts indicate that, at least in the Uatumã SDR, the BFP might not be effective in the medium to long term.
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Börner, J., & Wunder, S. (2008). Paying for avoided deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: from cost assessment to scheme design. Int. For. Rev., 10(3), 496-511.
Börner, J., Baylis, K., Corbera, E., Ezzine-De-Blas, D., Honey-Rosés, J., Persson, U. M., & Wunder, S. (2017). The Effectiveness of Payments for Environmental Services, World Dev., 96(2017), 359-374.
Börner, J., Mendonza, A., & Vosti, S. A. (2007). Ecosystem services, agriculture, and rural poverty in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon: Interrelationships and policy prescription. Ecol. Econ., 64(2), 356-379.
Börner, J., Wunder, S., Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S., Tito, M. R., Pereira, L., & Nascimento, N. (2010). Direct conservation payments in the Brazilian Amazon: Scope and equity implications. Ecol. Econ., 69(6), 1272-1282.
Camargo, T. R. L., & Pereira, H. S. (2015). Aspectos legais do Programa de Pagamento por serviços ambientais pela prática da Pesca desportiva no município de Barcelos – AM. In E. D. Silveira, & S. A. F. Camargo (Org.). Socioambientalismo de fronteiras: populações tradicionais, terra, território e ambiente (pp. 179-206). Curitiba: Juruá.
Conab. (2018). Política de garantia de preços mínimos. Retrieved from [http://consultaweb.conab.gov.br/consultas/consultaPgpm.do?method=acaoCarregarConsulta].
Coomes, O. T., Grimard, F., & Burt, G. J. (2000). Tropical forests and shifting cultivation: secondary forest fallow dynamics among traditional farmers of the Peruvian Amazon. Ecol. Econ., 32(1), 109-124.
Costa, J. R., & Mitja, D. (2010). Uso dos recursos vegetais por agricultores familiares de Manacapuru (AM). Acta Amaz., 40(1), 49-58.
Costanza, R., Kubiszewski, I., Ervin, D., Bluffstone, R., Boyd, J., Brown, D., Chang, H., Dujon, V., Granek, E., Polasky, S., Shandas, V., & Yeakley, A. (2011). Valuing ecological systems and services. F1000 Biol. Rep. 3. Retrieved from [https://doi.org/10.3410/B3-14].
Deng, L., Liu, G-B., & Shangguan, Z-P. (2014). Land-use conversion and changing soil carbon stocks in China’s ‘Grain-for-Green’ Program: a synthesis. Global Change Biol., 20(11), 3544-3556.
Engel, S., Pagiola, S., & Wunder, S. (2008). Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice: An overview of the issues. Ecol. Econ., 65(4), 663-674.
Fasiaben, M. C. R., Andrade, D. C., Reydon, B. P., Garcia, J. R., & Romeiro, A. D. (2009). Estimativa de aporte de recursos para um sistema de pagamento por serviços ambientais na floresta amazônica brasileira. Ambient. Soc., 12(2), 223-239.
Feng, L. & Xu, J. (2015). Farmers’ Willingness to Participate in the Next-Stage Grain-for-Green Project in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. Environ. Manag., 56(2), 505-518.
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García-Amado, L. R., Pérez, M. R., Escutia, F. R., García, S. B., & Mejía, E. C. (2011). Efficiency of Payments for Environmental Services: Equity and additionality in a case study from a Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas, Mexico. Ecol. Econ., 70(12), 2361-2368.
Gauvin, C., Uchida, E., Rozelle, S., Xu, J., & Zhan, J. (2010). Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for Ecosystem Services with Dual Goals of Environment and Poverty Alleviation. Environ. Manag., 45(3), 488-501.
Gebara, M. F., & Agrawal, A. (2017). Beyond rewards and punishments in the Brazilian Amazon: Practical implications of the REDD+ discourse. Forests, 8(3), 1-17.
Gomes, G. C., Gomes, J. C. C., Barbieri, R. L., Miura, A. K., & Sousa, L. P. (2019). Environmental and Ecosystem Services, Tree Diversity and Knowledge of Family Farmers. Floresta e Ambiente, 26(1).
Gutierrez, R. L., Fernandes, V., & Rauen, W. B. (2017). Princípios protetor-recebedor e poluidor-pagador como instrumentos de incentivo à redução do consumo de água residencial no município de Curitiba (PR). Eng. Sanit. Ambient., 22(5), 899-909.
Hall, A. (2008). Better RED than dead: paying the people for environmental services in Amazonia. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 363, 1925-1932.
Hammer, Ø., Harper, D. A. T., & Ryan, P. D. (2001). PAST: Paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica, 4(1), 1-9.
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE). (2013). Coordenadoria Geral de Observação da Terra. Programa Amazônia – Projeto PRODES. Metodologia para o Cálculo da Taxa Anual de Desmatamento na Amazônia Legal. Retrieved from [http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes/metodologia_TaxaProdes.pdf].
Jack, B. K. & Santos, E. C. (2017). The leakage and livelihood impacts of PES contracts: A targeting experiment in Malawi. Land Use Policy, nº 63, 645-658.
Jakovac, C. C., Bongers, F., Kuyper, T. W., Mesquita, R. C. G., & Peña-Claros, M. (2016). Land use as a ?lter for species composition in Amazonian secondary forests. Journal of Vegetation Science, 27(6), 1-13.
Jakovac, C. C., Peña-Claros, M., Kuyer, T. W., & Bongers, F. (2015). Loss of secondary-forest resilience by land-use intensi?cation in the Amazon. Journal of Ecology, 103(1), 67-77.
Lamarque, P., Quetier, F., & Lavorel, S. (2011). The diversity of the ecosystem services concept and its implications for their assessment and management. Comptes rendus biologies, 334(5-6), 441-449.
Landell-Mills, N., & Porras, I. (2002). Silver bullet or fools gold? A global review of markets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Retrieved from [https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/9066IIED.pdf]
Lant, C. L., Ruhl, J. B., & Kraft, S. E. (2008). The Tragedy of Ecosystem Services. BioScience, 58(10), 969-974.
Marquardt, K., Milestad, R., & Salomonsson, L. (2013). Improved fallows: a case study of an adaptive response in Amazonian swidden farming systems. Agric. Hum. Values, 30(3), 417-428.
Massoca, P. E. S., Jakovac, A. C. C., Bentos, T. V., Williamson, G. B., & Mesquita, R. C. G. (2012). Dinâmica e trajetórias da sucessão secundaria na Amazônia central. Bol. Mus. Para. Emílio Goeldi. Cienc. Nat., 7(3), 235-250.
Mcginnis, M. D., & Ostrom, E. (2014). Social-ecological system framework: Initial changes and continuing challenges. Ecol. Soc., 19(2), 1-12.
Muradian, R., Arsel, M., Pellegrini, L., Adaman, F., Aguilar, B., Agarwal, B., & Urama, K. (2013). Payments for ecosystem services and the fatal attraction of win-win solutions. Conservation letters, 6(4), 274-279.
Pagiola, S., Agostini, P., Gobbi, J., de Haan, C., Ibrahim, M., Murgueitio, E., Ramírez, E., Rosales, M., & Ruíz, J. P. (2004). Paying for biodiversity conservation services in agricultural landscapes. Environment Department Paper (96). Environmental Economics Series. Washington: The World Bank, May de 2004. Retrieved from [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/18393].
Pagiola, S., Arcenas, A., & Platais, G. (2005). Can Payments for Environmental Services Help Reduce Poverty? An Exploration of the Issues and the Evidence to Date from Latin America. World Development, 33(2), 237-253.
Pagiola, S., Von Glehn, H. C., & Taffarello, D. (2013). Experiências de pagamento por serviços ambientais no Brasil. São Paulo: SMA/CBRN. Retrieved from [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/548371468021548454/pdf/864940WP0P088000PORTUGUESE0PSAlivr o.pdf].
Pascual, U., Muradian, R., Rodríguez, L. C., & Duraiappah, A. (2010). Exploring the links between equity and efficiency in payments for environmental services: A conceptual approach. Ecological Economics, 69(6), 1237-1244.
Peña-Claros, M. (2003). Changes in Forest Structure and Species Composition during Secondary Forest Succession in the Bolivian Amazon. Biotropica, 35(4), 450-46.
Pereira, H. S., & Camargo, T. R. L. (2014). Bens, recursos e serviços ambientais: bases conceituais e redefinições. In A. Rivas Economia e valoração de serviços ambientais utilizando técnicas de preferências declaradas (pp. 177-202). Manaus: EDUA.
Pereira, H. S., & Lescure, J-P. (1994). Extrativismo e agricultura: as escolhas de uma população Kokama do médio Solimões. Revista da Universidade do Amazonas (Série Ciências Agrárias), 3, 1-9.
Pereira, H. S. (1996). Castanha ou farinha: bilan énergétique des activités extractiviste et agricole chez les Koakama. In L. Emperaire (Ed.). La forêt en jeu: L’ extractivisme en Amazonie centrale (pp. 63-72). Paris: ORSTOM/UNESCO. Retrieved from [http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers18-07/010009242.pdf].
Pereira, M. C. G., & Pereira, H. S. (2015). Alocação de tempo para a produção agroextrativista nos quintais e roças no rio Cuieiras, Manaus, Amazonas. In T. J. P. F. Fraxe, J. L. Santiago. Agroecologia em Sociedades Amazônicas (pp. 7-128). Manaus: Moderna.
Pereira, S. N. C. (2010). Payment for environmental services in the Amazon Forest: How can conservation and development be reconciled. The journal of Environment & Development, 19(2), 171-190.
Samii, C., Lisiecki, M., Kulkarni, P., Paler, L., & Chavis, L. (2014). Effects of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) on Deforestation and Poverty in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2014, 11. Retrieved from [https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2014.11].
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Vatn, A. (2010). An institutional analysis of payments for environmental services. Ecol. Econ., 69(6), 1245-1252.
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Asquith, N. M., Vargas, M. T., & Wunder, S. (2008). Selling two environmental services: In-kind payments for bird habitat and watershed protection in Los Negros, Bolivia. Ecol. Econ., 65(4), 675-684.
Börner, J., & Wunder, S. (2008). Paying for avoided deforestation in the Brazilian Amazon: from cost assessment to scheme design. Int. For. Rev., 10(3), 496-511.
Börner, J., Baylis, K., Corbera, E., Ezzine-De-Blas, D., Honey-Rosés, J., Persson, U. M., & Wunder, S. (2017). The Effectiveness of Payments for Environmental Services, World Dev., 96(2017), 359-374.
Börner, J., Mendonza, A., & Vosti, S. A. (2007). Ecosystem services, agriculture, and rural poverty in the Eastern Brazilian Amazon: Interrelationships and policy prescription. Ecol. Econ., 64(2), 356-379.
Börner, J., Wunder, S., Wertz-Kanounnikoff, S., Tito, M. R., Pereira, L., & Nascimento, N. (2010). Direct conservation payments in the Brazilian Amazon: Scope and equity implications. Ecol. Econ., 69(6), 1272-1282.
Camargo, T. R. L., & Pereira, H. S. (2015). Aspectos legais do Programa de Pagamento por serviços ambientais pela prática da Pesca desportiva no município de Barcelos – AM. In E. D. Silveira, & S. A. F. Camargo (Org.). Socioambientalismo de fronteiras: populações tradicionais, terra, território e ambiente (pp. 179-206). Curitiba: Juruá.
Conab. (2018). Política de garantia de preços mínimos. Retrieved from [http://consultaweb.conab.gov.br/consultas/consultaPgpm.do?method=acaoCarregarConsulta].
Coomes, O. T., Grimard, F., & Burt, G. J. (2000). Tropical forests and shifting cultivation: secondary forest fallow dynamics among traditional farmers of the Peruvian Amazon. Ecol. Econ., 32(1), 109-124.
Costa, J. R., & Mitja, D. (2010). Uso dos recursos vegetais por agricultores familiares de Manacapuru (AM). Acta Amaz., 40(1), 49-58.
Costanza, R., Kubiszewski, I., Ervin, D., Bluffstone, R., Boyd, J., Brown, D., Chang, H., Dujon, V., Granek, E., Polasky, S., Shandas, V., & Yeakley, A. (2011). Valuing ecological systems and services. F1000 Biol. Rep. 3. Retrieved from [https://doi.org/10.3410/B3-14].
Deng, L., Liu, G-B., & Shangguan, Z-P. (2014). Land-use conversion and changing soil carbon stocks in China’s ‘Grain-for-Green’ Program: a synthesis. Global Change Biol., 20(11), 3544-3556.
Engel, S., Pagiola, S., & Wunder, S. (2008). Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice: An overview of the issues. Ecol. Econ., 65(4), 663-674.
Fasiaben, M. C. R., Andrade, D. C., Reydon, B. P., Garcia, J. R., & Romeiro, A. D. (2009). Estimativa de aporte de recursos para um sistema de pagamento por serviços ambientais na floresta amazônica brasileira. Ambient. Soc., 12(2), 223-239.
Feng, L. & Xu, J. (2015). Farmers’ Willingness to Participate in the Next-Stage Grain-for-Green Project in the Three Gorges Reservoir Area, China. Environ. Manag., 56(2), 505-518.
Finegan, B. (1996). Pattern and process in neotropical secondary rain forests: the first 100 years of succession. Trends Eco. Evol., 11(3), 119-124.
Fundação Amazonas Sustentável (FAS). (2015). Relatório de Atividades 2014. Retrieved from [http://fas-amazonas.org/versao/2012/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2015/06/relatorio2014final_redux.pdf].
Fundação Amazonas Sustentável (FAS). (2017). Relatório de Atividades 2016. Retrieved from [http://fas-amazonas.org/versao/2012/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2017/05/Projeto-_-Relato%CC%81rio-2016-v.6.6.1- final.pdf].
García-Amado, L. R., Pérez, M. R., Escutia, F. R., García, S. B., & Mejía, E. C. (2011). Efficiency of Payments for Environmental Services: Equity and additionality in a case study from a Biosphere Reserve in Chiapas, Mexico. Ecol. Econ., 70(12), 2361-2368.
Gauvin, C., Uchida, E., Rozelle, S., Xu, J., & Zhan, J. (2010). Cost-Effectiveness of Payments for Ecosystem Services with Dual Goals of Environment and Poverty Alleviation. Environ. Manag., 45(3), 488-501.
Gebara, M. F., & Agrawal, A. (2017). Beyond rewards and punishments in the Brazilian Amazon: Practical implications of the REDD+ discourse. Forests, 8(3), 1-17.
Gomes, G. C., Gomes, J. C. C., Barbieri, R. L., Miura, A. K., & Sousa, L. P. (2019). Environmental and Ecosystem Services, Tree Diversity and Knowledge of Family Farmers. Floresta e Ambiente, 26(1).
Gutierrez, R. L., Fernandes, V., & Rauen, W. B. (2017). Princípios protetor-recebedor e poluidor-pagador como instrumentos de incentivo à redução do consumo de água residencial no município de Curitiba (PR). Eng. Sanit. Ambient., 22(5), 899-909.
Hall, A. (2008). Better RED than dead: paying the people for environmental services in Amazonia. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B, 363, 1925-1932.
Hammer, Ø., Harper, D. A. T., & Ryan, P. D. (2001). PAST: Paleontological statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica, 4(1), 1-9.
Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas Espaciais (INPE). (2013). Coordenadoria Geral de Observação da Terra. Programa Amazônia – Projeto PRODES. Metodologia para o Cálculo da Taxa Anual de Desmatamento na Amazônia Legal. Retrieved from [http://www.obt.inpe.br/prodes/metodologia_TaxaProdes.pdf].
Jack, B. K. & Santos, E. C. (2017). The leakage and livelihood impacts of PES contracts: A targeting experiment in Malawi. Land Use Policy, nº 63, 645-658.
Jakovac, C. C., Bongers, F., Kuyper, T. W., Mesquita, R. C. G., & Peña-Claros, M. (2016). Land use as a ?lter for species composition in Amazonian secondary forests. Journal of Vegetation Science, 27(6), 1-13.
Jakovac, C. C., Peña-Claros, M., Kuyer, T. W., & Bongers, F. (2015). Loss of secondary-forest resilience by land-use intensi?cation in the Amazon. Journal of Ecology, 103(1), 67-77.
Lamarque, P., Quetier, F., & Lavorel, S. (2011). The diversity of the ecosystem services concept and its implications for their assessment and management. Comptes rendus biologies, 334(5-6), 441-449.
Landell-Mills, N., & Porras, I. (2002). Silver bullet or fools gold? A global review of markets for forest environmental services and their impact on the poor. London, UK: International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED). Retrieved from [https://pubs.iied.org/pdfs/9066IIED.pdf]
Lant, C. L., Ruhl, J. B., & Kraft, S. E. (2008). The Tragedy of Ecosystem Services. BioScience, 58(10), 969-974.
Marquardt, K., Milestad, R., & Salomonsson, L. (2013). Improved fallows: a case study of an adaptive response in Amazonian swidden farming systems. Agric. Hum. Values, 30(3), 417-428.
Massoca, P. E. S., Jakovac, A. C. C., Bentos, T. V., Williamson, G. B., & Mesquita, R. C. G. (2012). Dinâmica e trajetórias da sucessão secundaria na Amazônia central. Bol. Mus. Para. Emílio Goeldi. Cienc. Nat., 7(3), 235-250.
Mcginnis, M. D., & Ostrom, E. (2014). Social-ecological system framework: Initial changes and continuing challenges. Ecol. Soc., 19(2), 1-12.
Muradian, R., Arsel, M., Pellegrini, L., Adaman, F., Aguilar, B., Agarwal, B., & Urama, K. (2013). Payments for ecosystem services and the fatal attraction of win-win solutions. Conservation letters, 6(4), 274-279.
Pagiola, S., Agostini, P., Gobbi, J., de Haan, C., Ibrahim, M., Murgueitio, E., Ramírez, E., Rosales, M., & Ruíz, J. P. (2004). Paying for biodiversity conservation services in agricultural landscapes. Environment Department Paper (96). Environmental Economics Series. Washington: The World Bank, May de 2004. Retrieved from [https://openknowledge.worldbank.org/handle/10986/18393].
Pagiola, S., Arcenas, A., & Platais, G. (2005). Can Payments for Environmental Services Help Reduce Poverty? An Exploration of the Issues and the Evidence to Date from Latin America. World Development, 33(2), 237-253.
Pagiola, S., Von Glehn, H. C., & Taffarello, D. (2013). Experiências de pagamento por serviços ambientais no Brasil. São Paulo: SMA/CBRN. Retrieved from [http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/548371468021548454/pdf/864940WP0P088000PORTUGUESE0PSAlivr o.pdf].
Pascual, U., Muradian, R., Rodríguez, L. C., & Duraiappah, A. (2010). Exploring the links between equity and efficiency in payments for environmental services: A conceptual approach. Ecological Economics, 69(6), 1237-1244.
Peña-Claros, M. (2003). Changes in Forest Structure and Species Composition during Secondary Forest Succession in the Bolivian Amazon. Biotropica, 35(4), 450-46.
Pereira, H. S., & Camargo, T. R. L. (2014). Bens, recursos e serviços ambientais: bases conceituais e redefinições. In A. Rivas Economia e valoração de serviços ambientais utilizando técnicas de preferências declaradas (pp. 177-202). Manaus: EDUA.
Pereira, H. S., & Lescure, J-P. (1994). Extrativismo e agricultura: as escolhas de uma população Kokama do médio Solimões. Revista da Universidade do Amazonas (Série Ciências Agrárias), 3, 1-9.
Pereira, H. S. (1996). Castanha ou farinha: bilan énergétique des activités extractiviste et agricole chez les Koakama. In L. Emperaire (Ed.). La forêt en jeu: L’ extractivisme en Amazonie centrale (pp. 63-72). Paris: ORSTOM/UNESCO. Retrieved from [http://horizon.documentation.ird.fr/exl-doc/pleins_textes/divers18-07/010009242.pdf].
Pereira, M. C. G., & Pereira, H. S. (2015). Alocação de tempo para a produção agroextrativista nos quintais e roças no rio Cuieiras, Manaus, Amazonas. In T. J. P. F. Fraxe, J. L. Santiago. Agroecologia em Sociedades Amazônicas (pp. 7-128). Manaus: Moderna.
Pereira, S. N. C. (2010). Payment for environmental services in the Amazon Forest: How can conservation and development be reconciled. The journal of Environment & Development, 19(2), 171-190.
Samii, C., Lisiecki, M., Kulkarni, P., Paler, L., & Chavis, L. (2014). Effects of Payment for Environmental Services (PES) on Deforestation and Poverty in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Systematic Review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, 2014, 11. Retrieved from [https://doi.org/10.4073/csr.2014.11].
Swallow, B. M., Kallesoe, M. F., Iftikhar, U. A., Van Noordwijk, M., Bracer, C., Scherr, S. J., Raju, K. V., Poats, S. V., Kumar Duraiappah, A., Ochieng, B. O., Mallee, H., & Rumley, R. (2009). Compensation and rewards for environmental services in the developing world: framing pan-tropical analysis and comparison. Ecology and Society, 14(2), 26. Retrieved from [http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art26/]
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Vatn, A. (2010). An institutional analysis of payments for environmental services. Ecol. Econ., 69(6), 1245-1252.
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