En la primera línea de la violencia: un retrato basado en encuestas de mujeres que buscan emigrar del norte de Centroamérica
Resumen El perfil de los migrantes que intentan cruzar la frontera suroeste de los Estados Unidos ha cambiado drásticamente. Hoy día, las mujeres representan aproximadamente un tercio de las detenciones en la frontera suroeste, y muchas huyen de la violencia y la inseguridad generalizada en el norte de América Central. Para comprender estos patrones migratorios cambiantes, nos basamos en datos de encuestas para examinar las vidas de las mujeres de Guatemala, El Salvador y Honduras que han sido víctimas de delitos durante el año pasado y que informan que planean emigrar en el futuro cercano. Al comparar a estas mujeres con sus contrapartes, descubrimos que este grupo de “emigrantes víctimas” enfrenta una serie de desafíos diarios y amenazas a la seguridad que otros no enfrentan, que van desde la corrupción policial hasta la extorsión. Esta descripción basada en encuestas de las vidas de las mujeres con más probabilidades de emigrar proporciona un primer paso fundamental para comprender los patrones cada vez más mixtos de la emigración centroamericana y la consiguiente necesidad de una respuesta política más matizada para abordar el problema.
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Baranowski K.A., Wang E., D’Andrea MR, Singer EK. (2019). “Experiences of gender-based violence in women asylum seekers from Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala.” Torture, 29(3): 46-58. doi: 10.7146/torture.v29i3.111970. PMID: 31984943.
Belloso, M. (2021, January 4). 63 de cada 100 mujeres han sufrido violencia en El Salvador. La Prensa Gráfica. https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/63-de-cada-100-mujeres-han-sufrido-violencia-sexual-20210103-0060.html.
Cerrutti, M. & D. Massey. (2001). “On the Auspices of Female Migration from Mexico to the United States.” Demography 38, (2): 187-200.
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender & Society, 19(6), 829-859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639.
Córdova, A. (2019). “Living in Gang-Controlled Neighborhoods: Impacts on Electoral and Non-Electoral Participation in El Salvador.” Latin American Research Review 54(1), 201-221.
Customs and Border Protection. (2011). U.S. Border Patrol Fiscal Year 2011 Sector Profile. https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/documents/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Fiscal%20Year%202011%20Sector%20Profile.pdf
Customs and Border Protection. (2019). U.S. Border Patrol Fiscal Year 2019 Sector Profile. https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2020-Jan/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Fiscal%20Year%202019%20Sector%20Profile_0.pdf
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Customs and Border Protection. (2010-2020). U.S. Border Patrol Total Monthly UC Encounters by Sector (FY 2010 - FY 2020). https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2021-Aug/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Total%20Monthly%20UC%20Encounters%20by%20Sector%20%28FY%202010%20-%20FY%202020%29%20%28508%29a_0.pdf
Customs and Border Protection. (2013-2019). U.S. Border Patrol Total Monthly Family Unit Apprehensions by Sector (FY 2013 - FY 2019). https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2020-Jan/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Total%20Monthly%20Family%20Unit%20Apprehensions%20by%20Sector%20%28FY%202013%20-%20FY%202019%29_1.pdf
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Cruz, J.M. (2015). The Root Causes of the Central American Crisis. Current History 114 (769): 43-48. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2015.114.769.43.
Cruz, J.M. (2024). “Addressing the Problem of Violent Crime in Central America: Citizen Security Based on Human Rights.” Cristosal Newsletter. https://cristosal.org/EN/2023/08/16/addressing-the-problem-of-violent-crime-in-central-america-citizen-security-based-on-human-rights/
Danner, M. (1994). The Massacre at El Mozote. New York: Vintage.
Dudley, S. & J. McDermott. (2020, December 21). GameChangers 2020: How Organized Crime Survived the Pandemic. InSight Crime. https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/gamechangers-organized-crime-pandemic/.
Fundación de Estudios para la Aplicación del Derecho (FESPAD). (2021). Desaparación de Personas en El Salvador. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1U6d8M8h0RgZmZ0jx4gdhn
Aeu-pn_o3CN/view.
Gender Equality Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean. (2021). https://oig.cepal.org/en/infographics/femicide
Gurney, K. (2014, November 7). Report Details How El Salvador Gangs Use Rape as Weapon. InSight Crime. http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/el-salvador-gangs-rape-sexual-
violence-femicides
Heffron, L.C. (2019). ‘Salía de uno y me metí en otro’: Exploring the Migration-Violence Nexus Among Central American Women. Violence Against Women, 25(6): 677-702.
Hiskey, J., A. Córdova, M. Malone, and D. Orcés. (2018). “Leaving the Devil You Know: Crime.
Victimization, U.S. Deterrence Policy, and the Emigration Decision in Central America,” Latin American Research Review 53(3): 1-19.
Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. (1994). Gendered Transitions: Mexican Experiences of Immigration. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Huerta, A.V. (2017). La trinidad perversa de la que huyen las fugitivas centroamericanas: violencia feminicida, violencia de estado, y violencia de mercado. Debate Feminista 53: 1-17.
Hume, M. (2009). The Politics of Violence: Gender, Conflict and Community in El Salvador.
New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). (2011). Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2010. Washington, DC: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
Lemus-Way, M.C. & H. Johansson. (2020). Strengths and Resilience of Migrant Women in Transit: An Analysis of the Narratives of Central American Women in Irregular Transit Through Mexico Towards the USA. Journal of International Migration and Integration 21: 745-763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-019-00690-z
Malone, M. (2012). “Crimen y Gobernabilidad en una Honduras Contemporánea,” Air & Space Power Journal: Spanish Edition 24 (4): 63-81.
Manjoo, R. (2011). Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Addendum, Follow-up Mission to El Salvador. United Nations Human Rights Council https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ef1a8ae2.html.
Massey, D.S. (2020). Immigration Policy Mismatches and Counterproductive Outcomes: Unauthorized Migration to The U.S. in Two Eras. Comparative Migration Studies 8: 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00181-6
Menjívar, C. (1993). History, Economy, and Politics: Macro and Micro-level Factors in Recent Salvadorean Migration to the US. Journal of Refugee Studies 6 (4): 350-371.
Menjívar, C. & S. Drysdale-Walsh. (2017). The Architecture of Femicide: The State, Inequalities, and Everyday Gender Violence in Honduras. Latin American Research Review 52(2): 221-240.
Obinna, D.N. (2021). Seeking Sanctuary: Violence Against Women in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. Violence Against Women 27(6-7): 806-827.
Sela-Shayovitz, R. (2010). The Role of Ethnicity and Context: Intimate femicide rates among.
social groups in Israeli society. Violence Against Women 16(12): 1424-1436.
Svallfors, S. (2023). Hidden Casualties: The Links between Armed Conflict and Intimate Partner Violence in Colombia. Politics & Gender, 19(1), 133-165. doi:10.1017/S1743923X2100043X
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2015). Women on the Run: First-Hand Accounts of Refugees Fleeing El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico. http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/publications/operations/5630f24c6/women-run.html
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-intentional-homicide-victims
Valdez, E.S., L.A. Valdez, & S. Sabo. (2015). Structural Vulnerability Among Migrating Women and Children Fleeing Central America and Mexico: The Public Health Impact of ‘Humanitarian Parole’. Frontiers in Public Health 3:1-8. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2015.00163.
Wilkinson, D. (2002). Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Wilson, T. D. (2014). Introduction: Violence against Women in Latin America. Latin American Perspectives, 41(1): 3-18.
Wolf, S. (2021). Talking to Migrants: Invisibility, Vulnerability, and Protection. Geopolitics 26(1), 193-214.
Baranowski K.A., Wang E., D’Andrea MR, Singer EK. (2019). “Experiences of gender-based violence in women asylum seekers from Honduras, El Salvador and Guatemala.” Torture, 29(3): 46-58. doi: 10.7146/torture.v29i3.111970. PMID: 31984943.
Belloso, M. (2021, January 4). 63 de cada 100 mujeres han sufrido violencia en El Salvador. La Prensa Gráfica. https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/63-de-cada-100-mujeres-han-sufrido-violencia-sexual-20210103-0060.html.
Cerrutti, M. & D. Massey. (2001). “On the Auspices of Female Migration from Mexico to the United States.” Demography 38, (2): 187-200.
Connell, R. W., & Messerschmidt, J. W. (2005). “Hegemonic Masculinity: Rethinking the Concept.” Gender & Society, 19(6), 829-859. https://doi.org/10.1177/0891243205278639.
Córdova, A. (2019). “Living in Gang-Controlled Neighborhoods: Impacts on Electoral and Non-Electoral Participation in El Salvador.” Latin American Research Review 54(1), 201-221.
Customs and Border Protection. (2011). U.S. Border Patrol Fiscal Year 2011 Sector Profile. https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/documents/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Fiscal%20Year%202011%20Sector%20Profile.pdf
Customs and Border Protection. (2019). U.S. Border Patrol Fiscal Year 2019 Sector Profile. https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2020-Jan/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Fiscal%20Year%202019%20Sector%20Profile_0.pdf
Customs and Border Protection. (2000-2020). U.S. Border Patrol Apprehensions from Mexico and Other Than Mexico (FY 2000 -2020). https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2021-Aug/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Apprehensions%20From%20Mexico%20and%20Other%20Than%20Mexico%20%28FY%202000%20-%20FY%202020%29.pdf.
Customs and Border Protection. (2010-2020). U.S. Border Patrol Total Monthly UC Encounters by Sector (FY 2010 - FY 2020). https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2021-Aug/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Total%20Monthly%20UC%20Encounters%20by%20Sector%20%28FY%202010%20-%20FY%202020%29%20%28508%29a_0.pdf
Customs and Border Protection. (2013-2019). U.S. Border Patrol Total Monthly Family Unit Apprehensions by Sector (FY 2013 - FY 2019). https://www.cbp.gov/sites/default/files/assets/documents/2020-Jan/U.S.%20Border%20Patrol%20Total%20Monthly%20Family%20Unit%20Apprehensions%20by%20Sector%20%28FY%202013%20-%20FY%202019%29_1.pdf
Cruz, J.M. (2012). The Transformation of Street Gangs in Central America: Organized Crime, Mano Dura Policies and Lost Opportunities. Revista Harvard Review of Latin America. https://revista.drclas.harvard.edu/book/transformation-street-gangs-central-america.
Cruz, J.M. (2015). The Root Causes of the Central American Crisis. Current History 114 (769): 43-48. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2015.114.769.43.
Cruz, J.M. (2024). “Addressing the Problem of Violent Crime in Central America: Citizen Security Based on Human Rights.” Cristosal Newsletter. https://cristosal.org/EN/2023/08/16/addressing-the-problem-of-violent-crime-in-central-america-citizen-security-based-on-human-rights/
Danner, M. (1994). The Massacre at El Mozote. New York: Vintage.
Dudley, S. & J. McDermott. (2020, December 21). GameChangers 2020: How Organized Crime Survived the Pandemic. InSight Crime. https://insightcrime.org/news/analysis/gamechangers-organized-crime-pandemic/.
Fundación de Estudios para la Aplicación del Derecho (FESPAD). (2021). Desaparación de Personas en El Salvador. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1U6d8M8h0RgZmZ0jx4gdhn
Aeu-pn_o3CN/view.
Gender Equality Observatory for Latin America and the Caribbean. (2021). https://oig.cepal.org/en/infographics/femicide
Gurney, K. (2014, November 7). Report Details How El Salvador Gangs Use Rape as Weapon. InSight Crime. http://www.insightcrime.org/news-briefs/el-salvador-gangs-rape-sexual-
violence-femicides
Heffron, L.C. (2019). ‘Salía de uno y me metí en otro’: Exploring the Migration-Violence Nexus Among Central American Women. Violence Against Women, 25(6): 677-702.
Hiskey, J., A. Córdova, M. Malone, and D. Orcés. (2018). “Leaving the Devil You Know: Crime.
Victimization, U.S. Deterrence Policy, and the Emigration Decision in Central America,” Latin American Research Review 53(3): 1-19.
Hondagneu-Sotelo, P. (1994). Gendered Transitions: Mexican Experiences of Immigration. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Huerta, A.V. (2017). La trinidad perversa de la que huyen las fugitivas centroamericanas: violencia feminicida, violencia de estado, y violencia de mercado. Debate Feminista 53: 1-17.
Hume, M. (2009). The Politics of Violence: Gender, Conflict and Community in El Salvador.
New York: Wiley-Blackwell.
Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR). (2011). Annual Report of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 2010. Washington, DC: Inter-American Commission on Human Rights.
Lemus-Way, M.C. & H. Johansson. (2020). Strengths and Resilience of Migrant Women in Transit: An Analysis of the Narratives of Central American Women in Irregular Transit Through Mexico Towards the USA. Journal of International Migration and Integration 21: 745-763. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12134-019-00690-z
Malone, M. (2012). “Crimen y Gobernabilidad en una Honduras Contemporánea,” Air & Space Power Journal: Spanish Edition 24 (4): 63-81.
Manjoo, R. (2011). Report of the Special Rapporteur on Violence Against Women, Its Causes and Consequences, Addendum, Follow-up Mission to El Salvador. United Nations Human Rights Council https://www.refworld.org/docid/4ef1a8ae2.html.
Massey, D.S. (2020). Immigration Policy Mismatches and Counterproductive Outcomes: Unauthorized Migration to The U.S. in Two Eras. Comparative Migration Studies 8: 21. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-020-00181-6
Menjívar, C. (1993). History, Economy, and Politics: Macro and Micro-level Factors in Recent Salvadorean Migration to the US. Journal of Refugee Studies 6 (4): 350-371.
Menjívar, C. & S. Drysdale-Walsh. (2017). The Architecture of Femicide: The State, Inequalities, and Everyday Gender Violence in Honduras. Latin American Research Review 52(2): 221-240.
Obinna, D.N. (2021). Seeking Sanctuary: Violence Against Women in El Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala. Violence Against Women 27(6-7): 806-827.
Sela-Shayovitz, R. (2010). The Role of Ethnicity and Context: Intimate femicide rates among.
social groups in Israeli society. Violence Against Women 16(12): 1424-1436.
Svallfors, S. (2023). Hidden Casualties: The Links between Armed Conflict and Intimate Partner Violence in Colombia. Politics & Gender, 19(1), 133-165. doi:10.1017/S1743923X2100043X
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). (2015). Women on the Run: First-Hand Accounts of Refugees Fleeing El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Mexico. http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/publications/operations/5630f24c6/women-run.html
United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). https://dataunodc.un.org/dp-intentional-homicide-victims
Valdez, E.S., L.A. Valdez, & S. Sabo. (2015). Structural Vulnerability Among Migrating Women and Children Fleeing Central America and Mexico: The Public Health Impact of ‘Humanitarian Parole’. Frontiers in Public Health 3:1-8. doi: 10.3389/fpubh.2015.00163.
Wilkinson, D. (2002). Silence on the Mountain: Stories of Terror, Betrayal, and Forgetting in Guatemala. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
Wilson, T. D. (2014). Introduction: Violence against Women in Latin America. Latin American Perspectives, 41(1): 3-18.
Wolf, S. (2021). Talking to Migrants: Invisibility, Vulnerability, and Protection. Geopolitics 26(1), 193-214.
Malone, M., Hiskey, J., Córdova, A., & Orcés, D. (2025). En la primera línea de la violencia: un retrato basado en encuestas de mujeres que buscan emigrar del norte de Centroamérica. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 14, e31722. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.31722
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