Citizens’ Electoral Expectations in Imperfect Democracies: Insights from Five Central American Countries
Abstract
Citizens can predict election outcomes well in advance of voting. However, nearly all existing research only examines mature democracies. Therefore, little is known about citizens’ forecasting abilities in other types of political regimes. This article addresses that gap by examining whether citizens in other regimes can form accurate vote expectations. Drawing on a large dataset of nearly 60,000 respondents, we evaluate citizens’ forecasting accuracy across 22 presidential elections in five Central American countries between 1999 and 2022. We also examine how partisan motivated reasoning and political sophistication are associated with vote expectations. We find that supporters of the eventual winner are significantly more likely to forecast the correct outcome. We also observe that political sophistication is associated with weak to moderate improvements in forecasting accuracy. Political sophistication increases accuracy only among winning-party supporters, suggesting that it may reflect heightened emotional or partisan engagement.
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Althoff, A. (2019). Right-Wing Populism and Evangelicalism in Guatemala: The Presidency of Jimmy Morales. International Journal of Latin American Religions, 3, 294–324.
Azpuru, D. (2008). The 2007 Presidential and Legislative Elections in Guatemala. Electoral Studies, 27, 547–577.
Balderacchi, C. (2022). “Overlooked Forms of Non-Democracy? Insights from Hybrid Regimes.” Third World Quarterly 43(6): 1441–1459.
Bartels, L. (2002). Beyond the Running Tally: Partisan Bias in Political Perceptions. Political Behavior 24(2), 117–150.
Berinsky, A. (1999). The Two Faces of Public Opinion. American Journal of Political Science 43(4), 1209–1230.
Berntzen, E. (1993). Democratic Consolidation in Central America: A Qualitative Comparative Approach. Third World Quarterly 14(3), 589–604.
Bílek, J. (2024). Electoral Manipulation and Postelectoral Protests in Latin America. Latin American Policy 15(3), 362–371.
Blais, A., & Bodet, M.A. (2006). How Do Voters Form Expectations About the Parties’ Chances of Winning the Election? Social Science Quarterly 87(3), 477–493.
Bogaards, M. (2009). How to Classify Hybrid Regimes?”Democratization, 16(2), 399–423.
Booth, J. (2008). Democratic Development in Costa Rica. Democratization 15(4), 714–732.
Bunker, K. (2020). A Two-Stage Model to Forecast Elections in New Democracies. International Journal of Forecasting 36(4), 1407–1419.
Canache, D., & Allison, M. (2005). Perceptions of Political Corruption in Latin American Democracies. Latin American Politics and Society, 47(3), 91–111.
Cannon, B., & and Hume, M. (2012). Central America, Civil Society and the ‘Pink Tide’: Democratization or De-democratization? Democratization , 19(6), 1039–1064.
Carreras, Miguel, & İrepoğlu, Y. (2013). Trust in Elections, Vote Buying, and Turnout in Latin America. Electoral Studies, 32(4), 609–619.
Colburn, F. (2009). The Turnover in El Salvador. Journal of Democracy, 20(3), 143–152.
Colburn, F., & Cruz, A. (2014). El Salvador’s Beleaguered Democracy. Journal of Democracy 25(3), 149–158.
Colburn, F., and Cruz, A. (2018). Latin America’s Shifting Politics: The Fading of Costa Rica’s Old Parties. Journal of Democracy, 29(4), 43–53.
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., & Knutsen, C. (2025). V-dem country-year dataset v15. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. https://www.v-dem.net/data/dataset-archive/.
Cox, G. (1997). Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dabene, O., ed. 2023. Latin America’s Pendular Politics: Electoral Cycles and Alternations. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dahlberg, S., & Solevid, M. (2016). Does Corruption Suppress Voter Turnout? Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 26(4), 489–510.
Daoust, J.-F. (2021). Blame It on Turnout? Citizens’ Participation and Polls’ Accuracy. British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 23(4), 736–747.
Daoust, J.-F., Durand, C., & Blais, A. (2020). Are Pre-Election Polls More Helpful Than Harmful? Evidence From the Canadian Case. Canadian Public Policy / Analyse de politiques, 46(1), 175–186.
Davis, C., Ai Camp, R., & Coleman, K. (2004). The Influence of Party Systems on Citizens’ Perceptions of Corruption and Electoral Response in Latin America. Comparative Political Studies 37(6), 677–703.
Delli Carpini, M., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. Yale University Press.
Diamond, L. (2002). Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 21–35.
Dolan, K., & Holbrook, T. (2001). Knowing Versus Caring: The Role of Affect and Cognition in Political Perceptions. Political Psychology, 22(1), 27–44.
Eichhorn, K., & Linhart, E. (2021). Estimating the Effect of Competitiveness on Turnout Across Regime Types. Political Studies, 69(3), 602–622.
Kimmo, E., & Rapeli, L. (2010). Determinants of Political Knowledge: The Effects of the Media on Knowledge and Information. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 20(1), 133–146.
Frajman, E. (2014). The General Election in Costa Rica, February/April 2014. Journal of Politics in Latin America 13(1), 61–66.
Freeman, W., & Perelló, L. (2022). The Long Game: The Opposition Wins in Honduras. Journal of Democracy 33(2), 118–132.
Garnett, H.A., James, T., & Caal-Lam, S. (2024). Perceptions of Electoral Integrity, (PEI-10.0). Harvard Dataverse, V1. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/FQ5ECC.
Gilbert, L., & Mohseni, P. (2011). Beyond Authoritarianism: The Conceptualization of Hybrid Regimes. Studies in Comparative International Development 46, 270–297.
González-Ocantos, E., Kiewit de Jonge, C., Meléndez, C., Nickerson, D., & Osorio, J. (2020). Carrots and Sticks: Experimental Evidence of Vote-Buying and Voter Intimidation in Guatemala. Journal of Peace Research 57(1), 46–61.
Graefe, A. (2014). Accuracy of Vote Expectation Surveys in Forecasting Elections. Public Opinion Quarterly, 78(S1), 204–232.
Granberg, D., & Brent, E. (1983). When Prophecy Bends: The Preference-Expectation Link in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952–1980. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45(3), 477–491.
Granberg, D., & Brent, E. (1986). Political Perception Among Voters in Sweden and the US: Analyses of Issues with Explicit Alternatives. Western Political Quarterly, 39(1), 7–28.
Guachalla, X.V., Hummel, C., Handlin, S., & Smith, A.E. (2021). When Does Competitive Authoritarianism Take Root? Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 63–77.
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. (2021). The Anatomy of Democratic Backsliding. Journal of Democracy, 19(6), 27–41.
Hameed, M. (2022). Hybrid Regimes: An Overview. Islamabad Policy Research Institute Journal, 22(1), 1–24.
Karl, T.L. (1995). The Hybrid Regimes of Central America. Journal of Democracy, 6(3), 72–86.
Krosnick, J., & Milburn, M. (2011). Psychological Determinants of Political Opinionation. Social Cognition, 8(1), 49–72.
Lau, R.., & Redlawsk, D. (2006). How Voters Decide: Information Processing During Election Campaigns. Cambridge University Press.
Leiter, D., Murr, A., Rascón Ramírez, E., & Stegmaier, M. (2018). Social Networks and Citizen Election Forecasting: The More Friends the Better. International Journal of Forecasting 34(2), 235–248.
Levitsky, S., & Way, L. (2020). The New Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 31(1), 51–65.
Levitsky, S., & Way, L. (2010). Competitive Authoritarianism Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis-Beck, M.S., & Skalaban, A. (1989). Citizen Forecasting: Can Voters See Into the Future? British Journal of Political Science, 19(1), 419–427.
Lewis-Beck, M.S., & Tien, C. (1999). Voters as Forecasters: A Micromodel of Election Prediction. International Journal of Forecasting, 15(2), 175–184.
Lewis-Beck, M. S., & Stegmaier, M. (2011). Citizen Forecasting: Can UK Voters See the Future? Electoral Studies, 30(2), 264–268.
Lodge, M., & Taber, C. (2013). The Rationalizing Voter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lührmann, A., Tannenberg, M., & Lindberg, S.I. (2018). Regimes of the World (RoW): Opening New Avenues for the Comparative Study of Political Regimes. Politics and Governance, 6(1), 60–77.
Mainwaring, S., & Pérez-Liñán, A. (2023). Why Latin America’s Democracies Are Stuck. Journal of Democracy, 34(1), 156–170.
Marsh, K., & Wallace, H. (2014). The Influence of Attitudes on Beliefs: Formation and Change. In Dolores Albarracin, Blair T. Johnson, and Mark P. Zanna (Eds.), The Handbook of Attitudes (pp. 369–396). Psychology Press.
McClintock, C. (2018). Electoral Rules and Democracy in Latin America. Oxford University Press.
Meléndez-Sánchez, M. (2021). Millennial Authoritarianism in El Salvador. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 19–32.
Mondak, J., & Anderson, M. (2004). The Knowledge Gap: A Reexamination of Gender-Based Differences in Political Knowledge. Journal of Politics, 66(2), 492–512.
Mongrain, P. (2021a). Did You See It Coming? Explaining the Accuracy of Voter Expectations for District and (Sub)national Election Outcomes in Multi-party Systems. Electoral Studies, 71(102317).
Mongrain, P. (2021b). A Technocratic View of Election Forecasting: Weighting Citizens’ Forecasts According to Competence. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 33(3), 713–723.
Mongrain, P. (2023). Suspicious Minds: Unexpected Election Outcomes, Perceived Electoral Integrity and Satisfaction With Democracy in American Presidential Elections. Political Research Quarterly, 76(4), 1589–1603.
Mongrain, P., Nadeau, R., & Jérôme, B. (2021). Playing the Synthesizer with Canadian Data: Adding Polls to a Structural Forecasting Model. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 37(1), 289–301.
Morgenbesser, L. (2014). Elections in Hybrid Regimes: Conceptual Stretching Revived. Political Studies, 62(1), 21–36.
Morisi, D., & Leeper, T. (2024). What Influences Citizen Forecasts? The Effects of Information, Elite Cues, and Social Cues. Political Behavior, 46, 21–41.
Morlino, L. (2009). Are There Hybrid Regimes? Or Are They Just an Optical Illusion? European Political Science Review, 1(2), 273–296.
Munck, G., & Verkuilen, J. (2002). Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices. Comparative Political Studies, 35(1), 5–34.
Murr, A. (2017). “Wisdom of Crowds.” In Arzheimer, K., Evans, J., & Lewis-Beck, M.S. (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Electoral Behaviour (pp. 835–860). SAGE.
Murr, A. (2011). Wisdom of Crowds? A Decentralised Election Forecasting Model that Uses Citizens’ Local Expectations. International Journal of Forecasting, 30, 771–783.
Neshkova, M., & Kalesnikaite, V. (2019). Corruption and Citizen Participation in Local Government: Evidence from Latin America. Governance, 32(4), 677–693.
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Ortmann, S. (2014). The Significance of By-elections for Political Change in Singapore’s Authoritarian Regime. Asian Survey, 54(4), 725–748.
Otero-Felipe, P. (2014). The 2013 Honduran General Election. Electoral Studies, 35, 398–402.
Panagopoulos, C. (2009). Polls and Elections: Preelection Poll Accuracy in the 2008 General Elections. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 39(4), 896–907.
Perelló, L., & Navia, P. (2023). Conditional Cash Transfers and Voting for Incumbents Under Democratic Backsliding: The Case of Honduras’ Bono 10 000. Journal of the Society for Latin American Studies, 42(3), 456–472.
Perelló, L., & Navia, P. (2021). Abrupt and Gradual Realignments: The Case of Costa Rica, 1958–2018. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 13(1), 86–113.
Pérez, O., & Wade, C. (2023). Militarism, Authoritarianism and Corruption: Post-Coup Honduras and the Decline of Democracy. Revista Latinoamericana de Opinión Pública, 12(2), 147–177.
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Rothschild, David, and Justin Wolfers. (2012). Forecasting Elections: Voter Intentions Versus Expectations. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/01-voter-expectations-wolfers.pdf.
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Bartels, L. (2002). Beyond the Running Tally: Partisan Bias in Political Perceptions. Political Behavior 24(2), 117–150.
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Blais, A., & Bodet, M.A. (2006). How Do Voters Form Expectations About the Parties’ Chances of Winning the Election? Social Science Quarterly 87(3), 477–493.
Bogaards, M. (2009). How to Classify Hybrid Regimes?”Democratization, 16(2), 399–423.
Booth, J. (2008). Democratic Development in Costa Rica. Democratization 15(4), 714–732.
Bunker, K. (2020). A Two-Stage Model to Forecast Elections in New Democracies. International Journal of Forecasting 36(4), 1407–1419.
Canache, D., & Allison, M. (2005). Perceptions of Political Corruption in Latin American Democracies. Latin American Politics and Society, 47(3), 91–111.
Cannon, B., & and Hume, M. (2012). Central America, Civil Society and the ‘Pink Tide’: Democratization or De-democratization? Democratization , 19(6), 1039–1064.
Carreras, Miguel, & İrepoğlu, Y. (2013). Trust in Elections, Vote Buying, and Turnout in Latin America. Electoral Studies, 32(4), 609–619.
Colburn, F. (2009). The Turnover in El Salvador. Journal of Democracy, 20(3), 143–152.
Colburn, F., & Cruz, A. (2014). El Salvador’s Beleaguered Democracy. Journal of Democracy 25(3), 149–158.
Colburn, F., and Cruz, A. (2018). Latin America’s Shifting Politics: The Fading of Costa Rica’s Old Parties. Journal of Democracy, 29(4), 43–53.
Coppedge, M., Gerring, J., & Knutsen, C. (2025). V-dem country-year dataset v15. Varieties of Democracy (V-Dem) Project. https://www.v-dem.net/data/dataset-archive/.
Cox, G. (1997). Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dabene, O., ed. 2023. Latin America’s Pendular Politics: Electoral Cycles and Alternations. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan.
Dahlberg, S., & Solevid, M. (2016). Does Corruption Suppress Voter Turnout? Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 26(4), 489–510.
Daoust, J.-F. (2021). Blame It on Turnout? Citizens’ Participation and Polls’ Accuracy. British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 23(4), 736–747.
Daoust, J.-F., Durand, C., & Blais, A. (2020). Are Pre-Election Polls More Helpful Than Harmful? Evidence From the Canadian Case. Canadian Public Policy / Analyse de politiques, 46(1), 175–186.
Davis, C., Ai Camp, R., & Coleman, K. (2004). The Influence of Party Systems on Citizens’ Perceptions of Corruption and Electoral Response in Latin America. Comparative Political Studies 37(6), 677–703.
Delli Carpini, M., & Keeter, S. (1996). What Americans Know about Politics and Why It Matters. Yale University Press.
Diamond, L. (2002). Elections Without Democracy: Thinking About Hybrid Regimes. Journal of Democracy, 13(2), 21–35.
Dolan, K., & Holbrook, T. (2001). Knowing Versus Caring: The Role of Affect and Cognition in Political Perceptions. Political Psychology, 22(1), 27–44.
Eichhorn, K., & Linhart, E. (2021). Estimating the Effect of Competitiveness on Turnout Across Regime Types. Political Studies, 69(3), 602–622.
Kimmo, E., & Rapeli, L. (2010). Determinants of Political Knowledge: The Effects of the Media on Knowledge and Information. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties 20(1), 133–146.
Frajman, E. (2014). The General Election in Costa Rica, February/April 2014. Journal of Politics in Latin America 13(1), 61–66.
Freeman, W., & Perelló, L. (2022). The Long Game: The Opposition Wins in Honduras. Journal of Democracy 33(2), 118–132.
Garnett, H.A., James, T., & Caal-Lam, S. (2024). Perceptions of Electoral Integrity, (PEI-10.0). Harvard Dataverse, V1. https://doi.org/10.7910/DVN/FQ5ECC.
Gilbert, L., & Mohseni, P. (2011). Beyond Authoritarianism: The Conceptualization of Hybrid Regimes. Studies in Comparative International Development 46, 270–297.
González-Ocantos, E., Kiewit de Jonge, C., Meléndez, C., Nickerson, D., & Osorio, J. (2020). Carrots and Sticks: Experimental Evidence of Vote-Buying and Voter Intimidation in Guatemala. Journal of Peace Research 57(1), 46–61.
Graefe, A. (2014). Accuracy of Vote Expectation Surveys in Forecasting Elections. Public Opinion Quarterly, 78(S1), 204–232.
Granberg, D., & Brent, E. (1983). When Prophecy Bends: The Preference-Expectation Link in U.S. Presidential Elections, 1952–1980. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 45(3), 477–491.
Granberg, D., & Brent, E. (1986). Political Perception Among Voters in Sweden and the US: Analyses of Issues with Explicit Alternatives. Western Political Quarterly, 39(1), 7–28.
Guachalla, X.V., Hummel, C., Handlin, S., & Smith, A.E. (2021). When Does Competitive Authoritarianism Take Root? Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 63–77.
Haggard, S., & Kaufman, R. (2021). The Anatomy of Democratic Backsliding. Journal of Democracy, 19(6), 27–41.
Hameed, M. (2022). Hybrid Regimes: An Overview. Islamabad Policy Research Institute Journal, 22(1), 1–24.
Karl, T.L. (1995). The Hybrid Regimes of Central America. Journal of Democracy, 6(3), 72–86.
Krosnick, J., & Milburn, M. (2011). Psychological Determinants of Political Opinionation. Social Cognition, 8(1), 49–72.
Lau, R.., & Redlawsk, D. (2006). How Voters Decide: Information Processing During Election Campaigns. Cambridge University Press.
Leiter, D., Murr, A., Rascón Ramírez, E., & Stegmaier, M. (2018). Social Networks and Citizen Election Forecasting: The More Friends the Better. International Journal of Forecasting 34(2), 235–248.
Levitsky, S., & Way, L. (2020). The New Competitive Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy, 31(1), 51–65.
Levitsky, S., & Way, L. (2010). Competitive Authoritarianism Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis-Beck, M.S., & Skalaban, A. (1989). Citizen Forecasting: Can Voters See Into the Future? British Journal of Political Science, 19(1), 419–427.
Lewis-Beck, M.S., & Tien, C. (1999). Voters as Forecasters: A Micromodel of Election Prediction. International Journal of Forecasting, 15(2), 175–184.
Lewis-Beck, M. S., & Stegmaier, M. (2011). Citizen Forecasting: Can UK Voters See the Future? Electoral Studies, 30(2), 264–268.
Lodge, M., & Taber, C. (2013). The Rationalizing Voter. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lührmann, A., Tannenberg, M., & Lindberg, S.I. (2018). Regimes of the World (RoW): Opening New Avenues for the Comparative Study of Political Regimes. Politics and Governance, 6(1), 60–77.
Mainwaring, S., & Pérez-Liñán, A. (2023). Why Latin America’s Democracies Are Stuck. Journal of Democracy, 34(1), 156–170.
Marsh, K., & Wallace, H. (2014). The Influence of Attitudes on Beliefs: Formation and Change. In Dolores Albarracin, Blair T. Johnson, and Mark P. Zanna (Eds.), The Handbook of Attitudes (pp. 369–396). Psychology Press.
McClintock, C. (2018). Electoral Rules and Democracy in Latin America. Oxford University Press.
Meléndez-Sánchez, M. (2021). Millennial Authoritarianism in El Salvador. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 19–32.
Mondak, J., & Anderson, M. (2004). The Knowledge Gap: A Reexamination of Gender-Based Differences in Political Knowledge. Journal of Politics, 66(2), 492–512.
Mongrain, P. (2021a). Did You See It Coming? Explaining the Accuracy of Voter Expectations for District and (Sub)national Election Outcomes in Multi-party Systems. Electoral Studies, 71(102317).
Mongrain, P. (2021b). A Technocratic View of Election Forecasting: Weighting Citizens’ Forecasts According to Competence. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 33(3), 713–723.
Mongrain, P. (2023). Suspicious Minds: Unexpected Election Outcomes, Perceived Electoral Integrity and Satisfaction With Democracy in American Presidential Elections. Political Research Quarterly, 76(4), 1589–1603.
Mongrain, P., Nadeau, R., & Jérôme, B. (2021). Playing the Synthesizer with Canadian Data: Adding Polls to a Structural Forecasting Model. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 37(1), 289–301.
Morgenbesser, L. (2014). Elections in Hybrid Regimes: Conceptual Stretching Revived. Political Studies, 62(1), 21–36.
Morisi, D., & Leeper, T. (2024). What Influences Citizen Forecasts? The Effects of Information, Elite Cues, and Social Cues. Political Behavior, 46, 21–41.
Morlino, L. (2009). Are There Hybrid Regimes? Or Are They Just an Optical Illusion? European Political Science Review, 1(2), 273–296.
Munck, G., & Verkuilen, J. (2002). Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy: Evaluating Alternative Indices. Comparative Political Studies, 35(1), 5–34.
Murr, A. (2017). “Wisdom of Crowds.” In Arzheimer, K., Evans, J., & Lewis-Beck, M.S. (Eds.), The SAGE Handbook of Electoral Behaviour (pp. 835–860). SAGE.
Murr, A. (2011). Wisdom of Crowds? A Decentralised Election Forecasting Model that Uses Citizens’ Local Expectations. International Journal of Forecasting, 30, 771–783.
Neshkova, M., & Kalesnikaite, V. (2019). Corruption and Citizen Participation in Local Government: Evidence from Latin America. Governance, 32(4), 677–693.
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development. 2023. Educational attainment. https://data.oecd.org/education.htm.
Ortmann, S. (2014). The Significance of By-elections for Political Change in Singapore’s Authoritarian Regime. Asian Survey, 54(4), 725–748.
Otero-Felipe, P. (2014). The 2013 Honduran General Election. Electoral Studies, 35, 398–402.
Panagopoulos, C. (2009). Polls and Elections: Preelection Poll Accuracy in the 2008 General Elections. Presidential Studies Quarterly, 39(4), 896–907.
Perelló, L., & Navia, P. (2023). Conditional Cash Transfers and Voting for Incumbents Under Democratic Backsliding: The Case of Honduras’ Bono 10 000. Journal of the Society for Latin American Studies, 42(3), 456–472.
Perelló, L., & Navia, P. (2021). Abrupt and Gradual Realignments: The Case of Costa Rica, 1958–2018. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 13(1), 86–113.
Pérez, O., & Wade, C. (2023). Militarism, Authoritarianism and Corruption: Post-Coup Honduras and the Decline of Democracy. Revista Latinoamericana de Opinión Pública, 12(2), 147–177.
Ratto, M., Lewis-Beck, M.S., & Bélanger, É. (2022). Forecasting Elections in Latin America: An Overview. Revista Latinoamericana de Opinión Pública, 11(1), 5–13.
Rothschild, David, and Justin Wolfers. (2012). Forecasting Elections: Voter Intentions Versus Expectations. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/01-voter-expectations-wolfers.pdf.
Ruhl, J.M. (2010). Trouble in Central America: Honduras Unravels. Journal of Democracy, 21(2), 93–107.
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- Brian Thompson-Collart, Evelyne Brie, Yannick Dufresne, Can Latin American Voters see the Future? , Revista Latinoamericana de Opinión Pública: Vol. 13 (2024)
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