Procedural fairness and political attitudes: unpacking the experiences of victims of intimate partner violence with the police
Abstract What is the relationship between procedural fairness in encounters with the police and intimate partner violence (IPV) survivors’ attitudes? I argue that because of the emotional damage caused by victimization, survivors are especially attuned to the interpersonal treatment they receive when seeking help from specialized services (e. g., police). If this treatment is procedurally unfair, they might conclude that IPV laws are not effective and become less likely to report intentions to intervene by calling the police if they witness intimate partner violence. Relying on public opinion data from Brazil, I find that procedural fairness matters for survivors’ opinions about laws, but I found no relationship between procedural fairness and bystander intervention attitudes. I explore possible explanations for this non-finding with several additional analyses.
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Altamirano, Melina, Berens, Sarah, and Ley, Sandra. (2020). «The Welfare State amid Crime: How Victimization and Perceptions of Insecurity Affect Social Policy Preferences in Latin America and the Caribbean». Politics & Society 48(3): 389-422.
Araújo, Victor, and Gatto, Malu A. C. (2022). «Can conservatism make women more vulnerable to violence?» Comparative Political Studies 55(1): 122-153.
Arias, Eric. (2019). «How Does Media Influence Social Norms? Experimental Evidence on the Role of Common Knowledge». Political Science Research and Methods 7(3): 561–578.
Bell, Monica. C. (2017). «Police Reform and the Dismantling of Legal Estrangement». Yale Law Journal 2057-249
Bennett, Sidney, Banyard, Victoria L., and Garnhart, Lydia. (2014). «To Act or Not to Act, That Is the Question? Barriers and Facilitators of Bystander Intervention». Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(3): 476–496.
Boninger, David S., Mattew K. Berent, and Jon A. Krosnick. (1995). «Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance». Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68(1): 61-80.
Brysk, Alison. (2018). The Struggle for Freedom from Fear: Contesting Violence Against Women at the Frontiers of Globalization. Oxford University Press.
Calton, Janna, and Cattaneo, Lauren. B. (2014). «The Effects of Procedural and Distributive Justice on Intimate Partner Violence Victims’ Mental Health and Likelihood of Future Help-Seeking». American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 84(4): 329-40.
Cattaneo, Lauren B., and Goodman, Lisa A. (2010). «Through the Lens of Therapeutic Jurisprudence». Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(3): 481-502.
Chong, Dennis, and Druckman, James N. (2012). «Counterframing Effects». The Journal of Politics 75(1): 1–16.
Córdova, Abby, and Kras, Helen R. (2022). «State Action to Prevent Violence Against Women: How Women’s Police Stations Affect Men’s Attitudes toward Gender-based Violence». The Journal of Politics 84(1): 1-17.
Cruz, José Miguel. (2022). «Police, Non-State Actors, and Political Legitimacy in Central America». Policing and Society 32(3): 291-310.
Fleury-Steiner, Ruth E., Bybee, Deborah, Sullivan, Cris M., Belknap, Joanne, and Melton, Heather C. (2005). «Contextual Factors Impacting Battered Women’s Intentions to Reuse the Criminal Legal System». Journal of Community Psychology 34(3): 327-42.
Hautzinger, Sarah. (2007). Violence in the City of Women: Gender and Battering in Bahia, Brazil. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Heijnders, Miriam, and Van Der Meij, Suzanne. (2006). «The Fight Against Stigma: An Overview of Stigma-Reduction Strategies and Interventions». Psychology, Health & Medicine 11(3): 353–363.
Henry, Tri Keah S., Franklin, Travis W., and Franklin, Courtney A. (2020). «Facilitating Sexual Assault Reporting on the College Campus: The Role of Procedural Justice in Bystander Decisions to Provide Police Referrals». Violence against Women 27(1): 1-26.
Herman, Judith L. (1997). Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence - From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Philadelphia, PA: Basic Books.
Hickman, Laure J., and Simpson, Sally S. (2003). «Fair Treatment or Preferred Outcome? The Impact of Police Behavior on Victim Reports of Domestic Violence Incidents». Law & Society Review 37(3): 607-34.
Htun, Mala, and Jensenius, Francesca. (2020). «Fighting Violence Against Women: Laws, Norms, and Challenges Ahead». Daedalus 149(1): 144-159.
Hurwitz, Jon, and Peffley, Mark. (2005). «Explaining the Great Racial Divide: Perceptions of Fairness in the U. S. Criminal Justice System». The Journal of Politics 67(3): 762-83.
Instituto DataSenado. Pesquisa de Opinião Pública Nacional: Violência Doméstica Contra a Mulher.
Jordan, Carol E., Campbell, Rebecca., and Follingstad, Diane. (2010). «Violence and Women’s Mental Health: The Impact of Physical, Sexual and Psychological Aggression». Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 6: 607-628.
Keshet, Hadar, Foa, Edna B., and Gilboa-Schechtman, Eva. (2019). «Women’s Self-Perceptions in the Aftermath of Trauma: The Role of Trauma-Centrality and Trauma-Type». Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 11(5): 542-50.
Kras, Helen R. (2022). «The Politics of Private Violence: How Intimate Partner Violence Victimization Influences Political Attitudes». Latin American Politics and Society 64(4): 119-145.
Kras, Helen R. (2024). Does Procedural Justice Influence Evaluations of State Efforts to Combat Gender-Based Violence? Evidence from Brazil. Politics & Gender 20(1): 77-103.
Kulkarni, Shanti J., Bell, Holly, and Rhodes, Diane M. (2012). «Back to Basics: Essential Qualities of Services for Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence». Violence against Women 18(1): 85-101.
McLeod, Amy L., Hays, Danica G., and Chang, Catherine Y. (2010). «Female Intimate Partner Violence Survivors’ Experiences with Accessing Resources». Journal of Counseling and Development 88(3): 303-10.
Medie, Peace A. (2017). «Rape Reporting in Post-Conflict Côte D’Ivoire: Accessing Justice and Ending Impunity». African Affairs 116(464): 414–434.
Murphy, Kristina, and Barkworth, Julie. (2014). «Victim Willingness to Report Crime to Police: Does Procedural Justice or Outcome Matter Most?». Victims & Offenders 9(2): 178–204.
Nussbaum, Martha C. (2005). «Women’s Bodies: Violence, Security, Capabilities». Journal of Human Development 6(2): 167-83.
Overstreet, Nicole M., and Quinn, Diane, D. (2013). «The Intimate Partner Violence Stigmatization Model and Barriers to Help Seeking». Basic Applied Social Psychology 35(1): 109-122.
Peffley, Mark, and Hurwitz, Jon. (2010). Justice in America: The Separate Realities of Blacks and Whites. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ptacek, James. (1999). Battered Women in The Courtroom: The Power of Judicial Responses. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
Powers, Ráchael, A., and Leili, Jennifer. (2018). «Bar Training for Active Bystanders: Evaluation of a Community-Based Bystander Intervention Program». Violence against Women 24(13): 1614-1634.
Rakovec-Felser, Zlatka. (2014). «Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationships from Public Health Perspective». Health Psychology Research 2(3):1821.
Rancher, Caitlin, Jouriles, Ernest N., and McDonald, Renee. (2018). «Intimate Partner Violence, Police Involvement, and Women’s Trauma Symptoms». Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(8): 1-14.
Sunshine, Jason, and Tyler, Tom R. (2003). «The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing». Law & Society Review 37(3), 513-48.
Santos, Cecilia M. (2010). «From Women’s Police Stations to the Maria da Penha Law: The State’s Absorption/Translation of Women’s Demands». Revista Crítica de Ciências Socias 89: 153-170.
Schraiber, Lilia. B., D’Oliveira, Ana Flavia, Hanada, Heloisa L., & Kiss, Ligia. (2012). «Assistência a Mulheres em Situação de Violência». Athenea Digital 12(3): 237- 254.
Setzler, Mark. (2020). «Did Brazilians Vote for Jair Bolsonaro Because They Share His Most Controversial Views?». Brazilian Political Science Review 5(1): 1-16.
Snijders, Tom, and Bosker, Roel J. (2012). Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modelling (2nd ed.). London, England: SAGE.
Soss, Joe. (1999). «Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning, and Political Action». The American Political Science Review 93(2): 363-80.
Srinivas, Tejaswinhi, and DePrince, Anne P. (2015). «Links Between the Police Response and Women’s Psychological Outcomes Following Intimate Partner Violence». Violence and Victims 30(1): 32-48.
Tankebe, Justice. (2009). «Public Cooperation with The Police in Ghana: Does Procedural Fairness Matter?». Criminology 47(4): 1265- 1293.
Taylor, Whitney K. (2018). «Ambivalent Legal Mobilization: Perceptions of Justice and the Use of the Tutela in Colombia». Law & Society Review 52: 337-367.
Trinkner, Rick, Rodrigues, Herbert, Piccirillo, Debora, Gifford, Faith, and Gomes, Aline M. M. (2019). «Legal Socialization in Brazil: Examining the Generalizability of the Procedural Justice Model». International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(1–2), 7-27.
Tyler, Tom R., and Huo, Yuen J. (2002). Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
United Nations Women. (2021). Facts and Figures: Ending Violence against Women.
Van Den Bos, Kees, Wilke, Henk A. M., & Lind, E. Allan. (1998). «When Do We Need Procedural Fairness? The Role of Trust in Authority». Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75(6): 1449-1458.
Xie, Min, and Lynch, James P. (2017). «The Effects of Arrest, Reporting to the Police, and Victim Services on Intimate Partner Violence». Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 54(3): 338-378.
Altamirano, Melina, Berens, Sarah, and Ley, Sandra. (2020). «The Welfare State amid Crime: How Victimization and Perceptions of Insecurity Affect Social Policy Preferences in Latin America and the Caribbean». Politics & Society 48(3): 389-422.
Araújo, Victor, and Gatto, Malu A. C. (2022). «Can conservatism make women more vulnerable to violence?» Comparative Political Studies 55(1): 122-153.
Arias, Eric. (2019). «How Does Media Influence Social Norms? Experimental Evidence on the Role of Common Knowledge». Political Science Research and Methods 7(3): 561–578.
Bell, Monica. C. (2017). «Police Reform and the Dismantling of Legal Estrangement». Yale Law Journal 2057-249
Bennett, Sidney, Banyard, Victoria L., and Garnhart, Lydia. (2014). «To Act or Not to Act, That Is the Question? Barriers and Facilitators of Bystander Intervention». Journal of Interpersonal Violence 29(3): 476–496.
Boninger, David S., Mattew K. Berent, and Jon A. Krosnick. (1995). «Origins of Attitude Importance: Self-Interest, Social Identification, and Value Relevance». Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68(1): 61-80.
Brysk, Alison. (2018). The Struggle for Freedom from Fear: Contesting Violence Against Women at the Frontiers of Globalization. Oxford University Press.
Calton, Janna, and Cattaneo, Lauren. B. (2014). «The Effects of Procedural and Distributive Justice on Intimate Partner Violence Victims’ Mental Health and Likelihood of Future Help-Seeking». American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 84(4): 329-40.
Cattaneo, Lauren B., and Goodman, Lisa A. (2010). «Through the Lens of Therapeutic Jurisprudence». Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 25(3): 481-502.
Chong, Dennis, and Druckman, James N. (2012). «Counterframing Effects». The Journal of Politics 75(1): 1–16.
Córdova, Abby, and Kras, Helen R. (2022). «State Action to Prevent Violence Against Women: How Women’s Police Stations Affect Men’s Attitudes toward Gender-based Violence». The Journal of Politics 84(1): 1-17.
Cruz, José Miguel. (2022). «Police, Non-State Actors, and Political Legitimacy in Central America». Policing and Society 32(3): 291-310.
Fleury-Steiner, Ruth E., Bybee, Deborah, Sullivan, Cris M., Belknap, Joanne, and Melton, Heather C. (2005). «Contextual Factors Impacting Battered Women’s Intentions to Reuse the Criminal Legal System». Journal of Community Psychology 34(3): 327-42.
Hautzinger, Sarah. (2007). Violence in the City of Women: Gender and Battering in Bahia, Brazil. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Heijnders, Miriam, and Van Der Meij, Suzanne. (2006). «The Fight Against Stigma: An Overview of Stigma-Reduction Strategies and Interventions». Psychology, Health & Medicine 11(3): 353–363.
Henry, Tri Keah S., Franklin, Travis W., and Franklin, Courtney A. (2020). «Facilitating Sexual Assault Reporting on the College Campus: The Role of Procedural Justice in Bystander Decisions to Provide Police Referrals». Violence against Women 27(1): 1-26.
Herman, Judith L. (1997). Trauma and Recovery: The Aftermath of Violence - From Domestic Abuse to Political Terror. Philadelphia, PA: Basic Books.
Hickman, Laure J., and Simpson, Sally S. (2003). «Fair Treatment or Preferred Outcome? The Impact of Police Behavior on Victim Reports of Domestic Violence Incidents». Law & Society Review 37(3): 607-34.
Htun, Mala, and Jensenius, Francesca. (2020). «Fighting Violence Against Women: Laws, Norms, and Challenges Ahead». Daedalus 149(1): 144-159.
Hurwitz, Jon, and Peffley, Mark. (2005). «Explaining the Great Racial Divide: Perceptions of Fairness in the U. S. Criminal Justice System». The Journal of Politics 67(3): 762-83.
Instituto DataSenado. Pesquisa de Opinião Pública Nacional: Violência Doméstica Contra a Mulher.
Jordan, Carol E., Campbell, Rebecca., and Follingstad, Diane. (2010). «Violence and Women’s Mental Health: The Impact of Physical, Sexual and Psychological Aggression». Annual Review of Clinical Psychology 6: 607-628.
Keshet, Hadar, Foa, Edna B., and Gilboa-Schechtman, Eva. (2019). «Women’s Self-Perceptions in the Aftermath of Trauma: The Role of Trauma-Centrality and Trauma-Type». Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy 11(5): 542-50.
Kras, Helen R. (2022). «The Politics of Private Violence: How Intimate Partner Violence Victimization Influences Political Attitudes». Latin American Politics and Society 64(4): 119-145.
Kras, Helen R. (2024). Does Procedural Justice Influence Evaluations of State Efforts to Combat Gender-Based Violence? Evidence from Brazil. Politics & Gender 20(1): 77-103.
Kulkarni, Shanti J., Bell, Holly, and Rhodes, Diane M. (2012). «Back to Basics: Essential Qualities of Services for Survivors of Intimate Partner Violence». Violence against Women 18(1): 85-101.
McLeod, Amy L., Hays, Danica G., and Chang, Catherine Y. (2010). «Female Intimate Partner Violence Survivors’ Experiences with Accessing Resources». Journal of Counseling and Development 88(3): 303-10.
Medie, Peace A. (2017). «Rape Reporting in Post-Conflict Côte D’Ivoire: Accessing Justice and Ending Impunity». African Affairs 116(464): 414–434.
Murphy, Kristina, and Barkworth, Julie. (2014). «Victim Willingness to Report Crime to Police: Does Procedural Justice or Outcome Matter Most?». Victims & Offenders 9(2): 178–204.
Nussbaum, Martha C. (2005). «Women’s Bodies: Violence, Security, Capabilities». Journal of Human Development 6(2): 167-83.
Overstreet, Nicole M., and Quinn, Diane, D. (2013). «The Intimate Partner Violence Stigmatization Model and Barriers to Help Seeking». Basic Applied Social Psychology 35(1): 109-122.
Peffley, Mark, and Hurwitz, Jon. (2010). Justice in America: The Separate Realities of Blacks and Whites. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Ptacek, James. (1999). Battered Women in The Courtroom: The Power of Judicial Responses. Boston, MA: Northeastern University Press.
Powers, Ráchael, A., and Leili, Jennifer. (2018). «Bar Training for Active Bystanders: Evaluation of a Community-Based Bystander Intervention Program». Violence against Women 24(13): 1614-1634.
Rakovec-Felser, Zlatka. (2014). «Domestic Violence and Abuse in Intimate Relationships from Public Health Perspective». Health Psychology Research 2(3):1821.
Rancher, Caitlin, Jouriles, Ernest N., and McDonald, Renee. (2018). «Intimate Partner Violence, Police Involvement, and Women’s Trauma Symptoms». Journal of Interpersonal Violence 38(8): 1-14.
Sunshine, Jason, and Tyler, Tom R. (2003). «The Role of Procedural Justice and Legitimacy in Shaping Public Support for Policing». Law & Society Review 37(3), 513-48.
Santos, Cecilia M. (2010). «From Women’s Police Stations to the Maria da Penha Law: The State’s Absorption/Translation of Women’s Demands». Revista Crítica de Ciências Socias 89: 153-170.
Schraiber, Lilia. B., D’Oliveira, Ana Flavia, Hanada, Heloisa L., & Kiss, Ligia. (2012). «Assistência a Mulheres em Situação de Violência». Athenea Digital 12(3): 237- 254.
Setzler, Mark. (2020). «Did Brazilians Vote for Jair Bolsonaro Because They Share His Most Controversial Views?». Brazilian Political Science Review 5(1): 1-16.
Snijders, Tom, and Bosker, Roel J. (2012). Multilevel Analysis: An Introduction to Basic and Advanced Multilevel Modelling (2nd ed.). London, England: SAGE.
Soss, Joe. (1999). «Lessons of Welfare: Policy Design, Political Learning, and Political Action». The American Political Science Review 93(2): 363-80.
Srinivas, Tejaswinhi, and DePrince, Anne P. (2015). «Links Between the Police Response and Women’s Psychological Outcomes Following Intimate Partner Violence». Violence and Victims 30(1): 32-48.
Tankebe, Justice. (2009). «Public Cooperation with The Police in Ghana: Does Procedural Fairness Matter?». Criminology 47(4): 1265- 1293.
Taylor, Whitney K. (2018). «Ambivalent Legal Mobilization: Perceptions of Justice and the Use of the Tutela in Colombia». Law & Society Review 52: 337-367.
Trinkner, Rick, Rodrigues, Herbert, Piccirillo, Debora, Gifford, Faith, and Gomes, Aline M. M. (2019). «Legal Socialization in Brazil: Examining the Generalizability of the Procedural Justice Model». International Journal of Comparative and Applied Criminal Justice, 44(1–2), 7-27.
Tyler, Tom R., and Huo, Yuen J. (2002). Trust in the Law: Encouraging Public Cooperation with the Police and Courts. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
United Nations Women. (2021). Facts and Figures: Ending Violence against Women.
Van Den Bos, Kees, Wilke, Henk A. M., & Lind, E. Allan. (1998). «When Do We Need Procedural Fairness? The Role of Trust in Authority». Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75(6): 1449-1458.
Xie, Min, and Lynch, James P. (2017). «The Effects of Arrest, Reporting to the Police, and Victim Services on Intimate Partner Violence». Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency 54(3): 338-378.
Rabello Kras, H. (2024). Procedural fairness and political attitudes: unpacking the experiences of victims of intimate partner violence with the police. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 13, e31356. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.31356
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