Does China’s Rise influence anti-Americanism? Evidence from Colombia
Abstract China greatly expanded its presence in Latin America over the last several decades, with most researchers examining China’s economic and political efforts. Many U.S.-based researchers, pundits, and policymakers saw China as a potential rival and threat to U. S. hegemony. However, few researchers have examined how average Latin Americans viewed these changes. Building on theories of anti-Americanism, we examine whether views of China are associated with anti-Americanism in Colombia. Drawing on an original survey of Colombians, we find that China’s economic model, respondent ideology, and views of Chinese trade and business are weakly associated with anti-Americanism. Other factors have no association. Our findings provide an important early look into the effectiveness of China’s soft power in the region and contribute to the field’s understanding of anti-Americanism in the region.
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Armony, Ariel C., and Julia C. Strauss. 2012. “From Going Out (Zou Chuqu) to Arriving In (Desembarco): Constructing a New Field of Inquiry in China–Latin America Interactions.” The China Quarterly, 209: 1-17.
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Carlson, Matthew, and Travis Nelson. 2008. “Anti-Americanism in Asia? Factors Shaping International Perceptions of American Influence.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 8(3): 303-24.
Carreras, Miguel. 2017.“Public attitudes toward an emerging China in Latin America.” Issues & Studies: A Social Science Quarterly on China,Taiwan, and East Asian Affairs 53(1): 1-28.
CEPAL, NU. 2011. “La República Popular China y América Latina y el Caribe: hacia una nueva fase en el vínculo económico y comercial.” https://repositorio.cepal.org/handle/11362/2995 (August 14, 2018).
Creutzfeldt, Benjamin. 2022. China’s Diplomatic Outreach to Latin America: The Growing Influence and Strategic Mobility of Beijing’s Ambassadors. Center for China and Asia-Pacific Studies, Universidad del Pacífico. Working Paper.
Defelipe Villa 卡米楼, Camilo. 2015. “La Proyección de Colombia hacia el Asia-Pacífico en un contexto de posacuerdo.” In Polítical Exterior Colombiana: Escenarios y desafíos en el posconflicto, 567-94.
Domínguez, Jorge. 2006. China’s relations with Latin America: Shared gains, asymmetric hopes. Inter-American Dialogue, 1-59.
Dong, Guohui. 2013. “Cooperation and conflict in China’s economic and trade relations with Latin America.” Journal of Latin American Studies (Beijing) 35(3): 36-41.
Eckstein, Harry. 1975. “Case Study and Theory in Political Science.” In Handbook of Political Science, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 79-138.
El Espectador. 2016. “Así fue la protesta de los comerciantes de San Victorino contra los negocios chinos.” ELESPECTADOR.COM. https://www.elespectador.com/noticias/bogota/asi-fue-protesta-de-los-comerciantes-de-san-victorino-c-galeria-633123 (August 14, 2018).
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Gallagher, Kevin P., Juan Carlos Moreno-Brid, and Roberto Porzecanski. 2008. “The Dynamism of Mexican Exports: Lost in (Chinese) Translation?” World Development 36(8): 1365-80.
Gallagher, Kevin, and Roberto Porzecanski. 2010. The Dragon in the Room: China and the Future of Latin American Industrialization. Stanford University Press.
Gao, Charlotte. 2018. “China Says Latin America ‘Eager’ to Join Belt and Road.” The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2018/01/china-says-latin-america-eager-to-join-belt-and-road/ (April 18, 2019).
Gao, Jianhong, and Huanyu Meng. 2015. China’s Exports to Latin America Grew Seven Times in Ten Years, Some Products Met Resistance. Beijing. http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_bcaa62450102uwl4.html
Gasparini, Leonardo, Walter Sosa-Escudero, Mariana Marchionni, and Sergio Olivieri. 2013. “Multidimensional Poverty in Latin America and the Caribbean: New Evidence from the Gallup World Poll.” The Journal of Economic Inequality 11(2): 195-214.
Gerring, John. 2007. “Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?” Comparative Political Studies 40(3): 231-53.
Isernia, Pierangelo. 2006. “Anti-Americanism in Europe during the Cold War.” In Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Ithaca, UNITED STATES: Cornell University Press, 57-92.
Jamal, Amaney A., Robert O. Keohane, David Romney, and Dustin Tingley. 2015. “Anti-Americanism and Anti-Interventionism in Arabic Twitter Discourses.” Perspectives on Politics; Cambridge 13(1): 55-73.
Jenkins, Rhys. 2022. “China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Latin America: What Has Changed?” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 51(1): 13–39.
Jenkins, Rhys, and Alexandre de Freitas Barbosa. 2012. “Fear for Manufacturing? China and the Future of Industry in Brazil and Latin America*.” The China Quarterly 209: 59-81.
Johnson, Gregg B., and Brian F. Crisp. 2003. “Mandates, Powers, and Policies.” American Journal of Political Science 47(1): 128-42.
Johnson, Gregg B., and Jesse T. Wasson. 2011. “China, Latina America and the United States: The Political Economy of Energy Policy in the Americas.” In China’s Energy Relations with the Developing World, New York: Contginuum Books, 125-49.
Kaplan, Stephen. 2018. “Analysis | China Is Investing Seriously in Latin America. Should You Worry?” Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/01/24/china-is-investing-seriously-in-latin-america-should-you-worry/ (September 4, 2018).
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King, Gary, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba. 2021. Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research, New Edition. Princeton University Press.
Laco, Kelly, and Ben Evansky. 2022. “Colombia’s President: China Ahead of US in Strategic Infrastructure Bidding, Calls for Securing 5G Networks.” Fox News. https://www.foxnews.com/politics/colombian-president-china-ahead-us-global-infrastructure-bidding-securing-5g-networks (March 13, 2023).
León-Manríquez, Jose, Luis F. Alvarez, Jose León-Manríquez, and Luis F. Alvarez. 2014. “Mao’s Steps in Monroe’s Backyard: Towards a United States-China Hegemonic Struggle in Latin America?” Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 57(SPE): 9-27.
Linley, Matthew, James Reilly, and Benjamin E. Goldsmith. 2012. “Who’s Afraid of the Dragon? Asian Mass Publics’ Perceptions of China’s Influence.” Japanese Journal of Political Science; Cambridge 13(4): 501-23.
Long, J. Scott, and Jeremy Freese. 2014. Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables Using Stata, Third Edition. College Station, Texas: Stata Press.
Mesquita Moreira, Mauricio. 2007. “Fear of China: Is There a Future for Manufacturing in Latin America?” World Development 35(3): 355-76.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China. 2015. “Li Keqiang Arrives in Bogotá for an Official Visit to Colombia.” http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/lkqdbxglbyblzljxzsfw/t1266630.shtml (August 14, 2018).
Morgenstern, Scott, and Asbel Bohigues. 2021. “Battling for the Hearts and Minds of Latin Americans: Covariance of Attitudes towards the United States and China.” Latin American Research Review Forthcoming(Forthcoming).
Myers, Margaret, and Carol Wise. 2016. The Political Economy of China–Latin America Relations in the New Millennium: Brave New World. Taylor & Francis.
Paradise, James F. 2009. “China and International Harmony: The Role of Confucius Institutes in Bolstering Beijing’s Soft Power.” Asian Survey 49(4): 647-69.
Parra, Hugo. 2016. “Doce preguntas para el embajador de China desde San Victorino.” El Tiempo. http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-16610201 (August 14, 2018).
Peres Milani, Livia. 2021. “US Foreign Policy to South America since 9/11: Neglect or Militarisation?” Contexto Internacional 43(1): 121-46.
Ray, Rebecca, Kevin Gallagher, Andres López, and Cynthia Sanborn. 2017. China and Sustainable Development in Latin America: The Social and Environmental Dimension. Anthem Press.
“Reinvigorating U.S.-Colombia Relations.” 2022. https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/dem/release/_for-immediate-release-february-16-2022—-contact-juan-pachon—-chairman-menendez-opening-remarks-at-full-committee-hearing-reinvigorating-us-colombia-relations- (March 28, 2023).
Roy, Diana. 2022. China’s Growing Influence in Latin America. Council on Foreign Relations. Backgrounder. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-influence-latin-america-argentina-
brazil-venezuela-security-energy-bri
Sargent, John, and Linda Matthews. 2009. “China versus Mexico in the Global EPZ Industry: Maquiladoras, FDI Quality, and Plant Mortality.” World Development 37(6): 1069-82.
Scheller, Stefan. 2017. Nobody Builds Walls Better than Me —: US Policy towards Latin America under Donald Trump. Federal Academy for Security Policy. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep22222 (March 29, 2023).
Stoutenborough, James W., Shelbi G. Sturgess, and Arnold Vedlitz. 2013. “Knowledge, Risk, and Policy Support: Public Perceptions of Nuclear Power.” Energy Policy 62: 176-84.
Symmes Cobb, Julia. 2022. “Road Blockades Remain around Zijin’s Colombia Project.” Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/road-blockades-remain-around-zijins-
colombia-project-2022-08-19/
The Economist. 2013. “Vueltiao to Sender - Colombian Headgear.” https://www.economist.com/americas-view/2013/01/29/vueltiao-to-sender (August 14, 2018).
Tickner, and Felipe Botero. 2011. Colombia y el mundo 2010. Opinión pública y política internacional. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.
Vaillant, Marcel. 2021. “Why Uruguay’s Bet on China Matters for Latin America.” Americas Quarterly. https://americasquarterly.org/article/why-uruguays-bet-on-china-matters-for-latin-america/ (October 12, 2021).
Wang, Hongying. 2015. “The Missing Link in Sino-American Relations.” Journal of Contemporary China 24(95): 922-42.
Williams, Richard. 2016. “Understanding and Interpreting Generalized Ordered Logit Models.” The Journal of Mathematical Sociology 40(1): 7-20.
World Bank. 2018. “World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) | Data on Export, Import, Tariff, NTM.” WITS World Integrated Trade Solution. https://wits.worldbank.org/Default.aspx?lang=en (August 14, 2018).
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Wu, Baiyi, Weiguang Liu, and Tongchang Cai. 2012. Yellow Book of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2011-2012. Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press.
Wu, Changsheng. 2015. “Why is Li Keqiang visiting four Latin American Countries?” Takungpao News: Online.
Xu, Chensheng, Feng Yao, Fan Zhang, and Yonghong Wang. 2020. “An Investigation of Confucius Institute’s Effects on China’s OFDI via Cultural Difference and Institutional Quality.” Journal of Asia Business Studies 14(3): 241-63.
Yang, Zhimin. 2015. “The Roles Played by Three Categories of Actors in China’s Engagement in Latin America to Develop Economic Ties with the Region.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 20(3): 289-300.
Armony, Ariel C., and Julia C. Strauss. 2012. “From Going Out (Zou Chuqu) to Arriving In (Desembarco): Constructing a New Field of Inquiry in China–Latin America Interactions.” The China Quarterly, 209: 1-17.
Authors’ Personal Interviews. 2016. “Elite interviews in Colombia focusing on Sino-Colombian Relations.”
Baker, Andy, and David Cupery. 2013. “ANTI-AMERICANISM IN LATIN AMERICA: Economic Exchange, Foreign Policy Legacies, and Mass Attitudes toward the Colossus of the North.” Latin American Research Review; Pittsburgh 48(2): 106-130.
Blaydes, Lisa, and Drew A. Linzer. 2012. “Elite Competition, Religiosity, and Anti-Americanism in the Islamic World.” The American Political Science Review; Washington 106(2): 225-43.
Brands, Hal, and Ryan C. Berg. 2021. “The Return of Geopolitics: Latin America and the Caribbean in an Era of Strategic Competition.” Jack Gordon Institute Research Publications. 37: 1-24.
Campbell, Jason H. et al., 2022. U. S. Resourcing to National Security Interests in Latin America and the Caribbean in the Context of Adversary Activities in the Region. Santa Monica, CA: RAND.
Carlson, Matthew, and Travis Nelson. 2008. “Anti-Americanism in Asia? Factors Shaping International Perceptions of American Influence.” International Relations of the Asia-Pacific 8(3): 303-24.
Carreras, Miguel. 2017.“Public attitudes toward an emerging China in Latin America.” Issues & Studies: A Social Science Quarterly on China,Taiwan, and East Asian Affairs 53(1): 1-28.
CEPAL, NU. 2011. “La República Popular China y América Latina y el Caribe: hacia una nueva fase en el vínculo económico y comercial.” https://repositorio.cepal.org/handle/11362/2995 (August 14, 2018).
Creutzfeldt, Benjamin. 2022. China’s Diplomatic Outreach to Latin America: The Growing Influence and Strategic Mobility of Beijing’s Ambassadors. Center for China and Asia-Pacific Studies, Universidad del Pacífico. Working Paper.
Defelipe Villa 卡米楼, Camilo. 2015. “La Proyección de Colombia hacia el Asia-Pacífico en un contexto de posacuerdo.” In Polítical Exterior Colombiana: Escenarios y desafíos en el posconflicto, 567-94.
Domínguez, Jorge. 2006. China’s relations with Latin America: Shared gains, asymmetric hopes. Inter-American Dialogue, 1-59.
Dong, Guohui. 2013. “Cooperation and conflict in China’s economic and trade relations with Latin America.” Journal of Latin American Studies (Beijing) 35(3): 36-41.
Eckstein, Harry. 1975. “Case Study and Theory in Political Science.” In Handbook of Political Science, Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley, 79-138.
El Espectador. 2016. “Así fue la protesta de los comerciantes de San Victorino contra los negocios chinos.” ELESPECTADOR.COM. https://www.elespectador.com/noticias/bogota/asi-fue-protesta-de-los-comerciantes-de-san-victorino-c-galeria-633123 (August 14, 2018).
Ellis, R. Evan. 2014. China on the Ground in Latin America: Challenges for the Chinese and Impacts on the Region. Springer.
Ellis, R Evan. 2020. Chinese Security Engagement in Latin America. Center for Strategic & International Studies. https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinese-security-engagement-latin-america (March 2, 2023).
Ellis, R Evan. 2022. Colombia’s Relationship with the PRC. Center for Strategic & International Studies.
Estevadeordal, Antoni. 2018. “Latin America in the New Asia-Pacific Trade Order.” Brookings. https://www.brookings.edu/research/latin-america-in-the-new-asia-pacific-trade-
order/ (August 13, 2018).
Fornés, Gastón, and Alan Butt Philip. 2012. “Emerging Markets: The Markets of the Future.” In The China-Latin America Axis, Palgrave Macmillan, London, 5-26. https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9780230363410_2 (August 13, 2018).
Fullerton, Andrew S., and Jeffrey C. Dixon. 2010. “Generational Conflict Or Methodological Artifact?Reconsidering the Relationship between Age and Policy Attitudes in the U.S., 1984–2008.” Public Opinion Quarterly 74(4): 643-73.
Gallagher, Kevin P. 2016. The China Triangle: Latin America’s China Boom and the Fate of the Washington Consensus. Oxford University Press.
Gallagher, Kevin P., Juan Carlos Moreno-Brid, and Roberto Porzecanski. 2008. “The Dynamism of Mexican Exports: Lost in (Chinese) Translation?” World Development 36(8): 1365-80.
Gallagher, Kevin, and Roberto Porzecanski. 2010. The Dragon in the Room: China and the Future of Latin American Industrialization. Stanford University Press.
Gao, Charlotte. 2018. “China Says Latin America ‘Eager’ to Join Belt and Road.” The Diplomat. https://thediplomat.com/2018/01/china-says-latin-america-eager-to-join-belt-and-road/ (April 18, 2019).
Gao, Jianhong, and Huanyu Meng. 2015. China’s Exports to Latin America Grew Seven Times in Ten Years, Some Products Met Resistance. Beijing. http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_bcaa62450102uwl4.html
Gasparini, Leonardo, Walter Sosa-Escudero, Mariana Marchionni, and Sergio Olivieri. 2013. “Multidimensional Poverty in Latin America and the Caribbean: New Evidence from the Gallup World Poll.” The Journal of Economic Inequality 11(2): 195-214.
Gerring, John. 2007. “Is There a (Viable) Crucial-Case Method?” Comparative Political Studies 40(3): 231-53.
Isernia, Pierangelo. 2006. “Anti-Americanism in Europe during the Cold War.” In Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Ithaca, UNITED STATES: Cornell University Press, 57-92.
Jamal, Amaney A., Robert O. Keohane, David Romney, and Dustin Tingley. 2015. “Anti-Americanism and Anti-Interventionism in Arabic Twitter Discourses.” Perspectives on Politics; Cambridge 13(1): 55-73.
Jenkins, Rhys. 2022. “China’s Belt and Road Initiative in Latin America: What Has Changed?” Journal of Current Chinese Affairs 51(1): 13–39.
Jenkins, Rhys, and Alexandre de Freitas Barbosa. 2012. “Fear for Manufacturing? China and the Future of Industry in Brazil and Latin America*.” The China Quarterly 209: 59-81.
Johnson, Gregg B., and Brian F. Crisp. 2003. “Mandates, Powers, and Policies.” American Journal of Political Science 47(1): 128-42.
Johnson, Gregg B., and Jesse T. Wasson. 2011. “China, Latina America and the United States: The Political Economy of Energy Policy in the Americas.” In China’s Energy Relations with the Developing World, New York: Contginuum Books, 125-49.
Kaplan, Stephen. 2018. “Analysis | China Is Investing Seriously in Latin America. Should You Worry?” Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2018/01/24/china-is-investing-seriously-in-latin-america-should-you-worry/ (September 4, 2018).
Katzenstein, Peter J., and Robert O. Keohane. 2006. Anti-Americanisms in World Politics. Ithaca, UNITED STATES: Cornell University Press. http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/valpo-ebooks/detail.action?docID=3138226 (March 5, 2018).
King, Gary, Robert O. Keohane, and Sidney Verba. 2021. Designing Social Inquiry: Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research, New Edition. Princeton University Press.
Laco, Kelly, and Ben Evansky. 2022. “Colombia’s President: China Ahead of US in Strategic Infrastructure Bidding, Calls for Securing 5G Networks.” Fox News. https://www.foxnews.com/politics/colombian-president-china-ahead-us-global-infrastructure-bidding-securing-5g-networks (March 13, 2023).
León-Manríquez, Jose, Luis F. Alvarez, Jose León-Manríquez, and Luis F. Alvarez. 2014. “Mao’s Steps in Monroe’s Backyard: Towards a United States-China Hegemonic Struggle in Latin America?” Revista Brasileira de Política Internacional 57(SPE): 9-27.
Linley, Matthew, James Reilly, and Benjamin E. Goldsmith. 2012. “Who’s Afraid of the Dragon? Asian Mass Publics’ Perceptions of China’s Influence.” Japanese Journal of Political Science; Cambridge 13(4): 501-23.
Long, J. Scott, and Jeremy Freese. 2014. Regression Models for Categorical Dependent Variables Using Stata, Third Edition. College Station, Texas: Stata Press.
Mesquita Moreira, Mauricio. 2007. “Fear of China: Is There a Future for Manufacturing in Latin America?” World Development 35(3): 355-76.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs, People’s Republic of China. 2015. “Li Keqiang Arrives in Bogotá for an Official Visit to Colombia.” http://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/topics_665678/lkqdbxglbyblzljxzsfw/t1266630.shtml (August 14, 2018).
Morgenstern, Scott, and Asbel Bohigues. 2021. “Battling for the Hearts and Minds of Latin Americans: Covariance of Attitudes towards the United States and China.” Latin American Research Review Forthcoming(Forthcoming).
Myers, Margaret, and Carol Wise. 2016. The Political Economy of China–Latin America Relations in the New Millennium: Brave New World. Taylor & Francis.
Paradise, James F. 2009. “China and International Harmony: The Role of Confucius Institutes in Bolstering Beijing’s Soft Power.” Asian Survey 49(4): 647-69.
Parra, Hugo. 2016. “Doce preguntas para el embajador de China desde San Victorino.” El Tiempo. http://www.eltiempo.com/archivo/documento/CMS-16610201 (August 14, 2018).
Peres Milani, Livia. 2021. “US Foreign Policy to South America since 9/11: Neglect or Militarisation?” Contexto Internacional 43(1): 121-46.
Ray, Rebecca, Kevin Gallagher, Andres López, and Cynthia Sanborn. 2017. China and Sustainable Development in Latin America: The Social and Environmental Dimension. Anthem Press.
“Reinvigorating U.S.-Colombia Relations.” 2022. https://www.foreign.senate.gov/press/dem/release/_for-immediate-release-february-16-2022—-contact-juan-pachon—-chairman-menendez-opening-remarks-at-full-committee-hearing-reinvigorating-us-colombia-relations- (March 28, 2023).
Roy, Diana. 2022. China’s Growing Influence in Latin America. Council on Foreign Relations. Backgrounder. https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/china-influence-latin-america-argentina-
brazil-venezuela-security-energy-bri
Sargent, John, and Linda Matthews. 2009. “China versus Mexico in the Global EPZ Industry: Maquiladoras, FDI Quality, and Plant Mortality.” World Development 37(6): 1069-82.
Scheller, Stefan. 2017. Nobody Builds Walls Better than Me —: US Policy towards Latin America under Donald Trump. Federal Academy for Security Policy. https://www.jstor.org/stable/resrep22222 (March 29, 2023).
Stoutenborough, James W., Shelbi G. Sturgess, and Arnold Vedlitz. 2013. “Knowledge, Risk, and Policy Support: Public Perceptions of Nuclear Power.” Energy Policy 62: 176-84.
Symmes Cobb, Julia. 2022. “Road Blockades Remain around Zijin’s Colombia Project.” Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/americas/road-blockades-remain-around-zijins-
colombia-project-2022-08-19/
The Economist. 2013. “Vueltiao to Sender - Colombian Headgear.” https://www.economist.com/americas-view/2013/01/29/vueltiao-to-sender (August 14, 2018).
Tickner, and Felipe Botero. 2011. Colombia y el mundo 2010. Opinión pública y política internacional. Bogotá: Universidad de los Andes.
Vaillant, Marcel. 2021. “Why Uruguay’s Bet on China Matters for Latin America.” Americas Quarterly. https://americasquarterly.org/article/why-uruguays-bet-on-china-matters-for-latin-america/ (October 12, 2021).
Wang, Hongying. 2015. “The Missing Link in Sino-American Relations.” Journal of Contemporary China 24(95): 922-42.
Williams, Richard. 2016. “Understanding and Interpreting Generalized Ordered Logit Models.” The Journal of Mathematical Sociology 40(1): 7-20.
World Bank. 2018. “World Integrated Trade Solution (WITS) | Data on Export, Import, Tariff, NTM.” WITS World Integrated Trade Solution. https://wits.worldbank.org/Default.aspx?lang=en (August 14, 2018).
Wu, Baiyi, Weiguang Liu, and Tongchang Cai. 2011. Yellow Book of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2010-2011. Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press.
Wu, Baiyi, Weiguang Liu, and Tongchang Cai. 2012. Yellow Book of Latin America and the Caribbean, 2011-2012. Beijing: Social Sciences Academic Press.
Wu, Changsheng. 2015. “Why is Li Keqiang visiting four Latin American Countries?” Takungpao News: Online.
Xu, Chensheng, Feng Yao, Fan Zhang, and Yonghong Wang. 2020. “An Investigation of Confucius Institute’s Effects on China’s OFDI via Cultural Difference and Institutional Quality.” Journal of Asia Business Studies 14(3): 241-63.
Yang, Zhimin. 2015. “The Roles Played by Three Categories of Actors in China’s Engagement in Latin America to Develop Economic Ties with the Region.” Journal of Chinese Political Science 20(3): 289-300.
Johnson, G., & Lin, Z. (2023). Does China’s Rise influence anti-Americanism? Evidence from Colombia. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 12(1), 69–91. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.31137
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