Survey Mode Effects in a Developing Country
Comparing Phone and Face-to-Face Surveys in Costa Rica
Abstract Responses to phone surveys tend to exhibit higher rates of social desirability bias and extreme responses when compared to face-to-face surveys. Yet, studies of mode effects typically compare either representative studies that implausibly assume comparability or experimental studies that rely on convenience samples. Our study compares two national probability samples but uses matching to address comparability. We study Costa Rica, a middle-income democracy, to see whether the conventional wisdom drawn from Western Europe and North America extends to the Global South. We analyze two nationally representative surveys, one fielded by phone and one face-to-face, allowing us to compare identically worded items we placed on both surveys. We find that phone respondents exhibited more socially desirable responding and were more likely to choose negative endpoints on scalar items. This suggests that survey researchers and practitioners should carefully assess the tradeoffs in shifting modes or employing mixed modes.
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Adida, Claire, Jessica Gottlieb, Eric Kramon, and Gwyneth McClendon. 2019. «Response Bias in Survey Measures of Voter Behavior: Implications for Measurement and Inference.» Journal of Experimental Political Science 6(3): 192-8. https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2019.9
Alfaro Córdoba, Marcela, María Paula Villareal Galera, and Gustavo Navarro Cerdas. 2010. «Comparación Metodológica de Encuestas vía Telefonía Fija y Celular en Costa Rica.» Ciencias Económicas 28(1): 51-68. https://doi.org/10.15517/rce.v28i1.7064
Alfaro-Redondo, Ronald, and Felipe Alpízar Rodríguez, eds. 2020. Elecciones 2018 en Costa Rica: Retrato de una Democracia Amenazada. San José: Programa Estado de la Nación.
Alfaro-Redondo, Ronald, and Steffan Gómez-Campos. 2021. «PLN and PAC: Two Costa Rican Parties with Constituencies Evolving in Opposite Directions.» In Diminished Parties: Democratic Representation in Contemporary Latin America, eds. Juan Pablo Luna, Rafael Piñeiro Rodríguez, Fernando Rosenblatt, and Gabriel Vommaro. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 111-28.
Aquilino, William S. 1991. «Telephone Versus Face-to-Face Interviewing for Household Drug Use Surveys.» International Journal of the Addictions 27(1): 71-91. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089109063463
Aquilino, William S. 1994. «Interview Mode Effects in Surveys of Drug and Alcohol Use: A Field Experiment.» Public Opinion Quarterly 58: 210-40. https://doi.org/10.1086/269419
Blackwell, Matthew, Stefano Iacus, Gary King, and Giuseppe Porro. 2009. «cem: Coarsened Exact Matching in Stata.» The Stata Journal 9(4): 524-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0900900402
Blair, Graeme, Alexander Coppock, and Margaret Moor. 2020. «When to Worry about Sensitivity Bias: A Social Reference Theory and Evidence from 30 Years of List Experiments.» American Political Science Review 114(4): 1297-315. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000374
Bowling, Ann. 2005. «Mode of Questionnaire Administration Can Have Serious Effects on Data Quality.» Journal of Public Health 27(3): 281–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdi031
Cassell, Kaitlen J., and Mollie J. Cohen. Forthcoming. «Reducing Item Non-Response to Vote Choice Questions: Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Mexico.» Public Opinion Quarterly. Available at http://nebula.wsimg.com/4f954acc79f53e6189906a4b95ca82ab?AccessKeyId=6C80BA4D3A5A4F2D4389&disposition=0&alloworigin=1
Castorena, Oscar, Noam Lupu, Maita Schade, and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister. Forthcoming. «Online Surveys in Latin America.» PS: Political Science & Politics. Available at https://noamlupu.com/online_samples.pdf.
Christian, Leah Melani, Nicholas L. Parsons, and Don A. Dillman. 2009. «Designing Scalar Questions for Web Surveys.» Sociological Methods & Research 37(3): 393-425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124108330004
Colburn, Forrest D., and Arturo Cruz S. 2018. «Latin America’s Shifting Politics: The Fading of Costa Rica’s Old Parties.» Journal of Democracy 29(4): 43-53. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2018.0061
Courser, Matthew, and Paul J. Lavrakas. 2012. «Item-Nonresponse and the 10-Point Response Scale in Telephone Surveys.» Survey Practice 5(4): 1-7. https://doi.org/10.29115/SP-2012-0021
Dahlberg, Stefan, and Mikael Persson. 2014. «Different Surveys, Different Results? A Comparison of Two Surveys on the 2009 European Parliamentary Election.» West European Politics 37(1): 204-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2013.814961
de Leeuw, Edith D. 2018. «Mixed-Mode: Past, Present, and Future.» Survey Research Methods 12(2): 75-89. https://doi.org/10.18148/srm/2018.v12i2.7402
Díaz González, José Andrés, and Stephanie Cordero Cordero. 2020. «Las Preferencias del Electorado en la Segunda Ronda Presidencial de 2018 en Costa Rica: Un Modelo de Socialización Política.» Política y Gobierno 27(1): 1-22. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1665-20372020000100200&script=sci_arttext
Dillman, Don A. 2009. «Some Consequences of Survey Mode Changes in Longitudinal Surveys.» In Methodology of Longitudinal Surveys, ed. Peter Lynn. London: Wiley, pp. 127-40.
Dillman, Don A., and Leah Melani Christian. 2005. «Survey Mode as a Source of Instability in Responses across Surveys.» Field Methods 17(1): 30–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X04269550
Dillman, Don A., Glenn Phelps, Robert Tortora, Karen Swift, Julie Kohrell, Jodi Berck, and Benjamin L. Messer. 2009. «Response Rate and Measurement Differences in Mixed-Mode Surveys Using Mail, Telephone, Interactive Voice Response (IVR) and the Internet.» Social Science Research 38(1): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.03.007
Gibson, Dustin G. Amanda Pereira, Brooke A. Farrenkopf, Alain B. Labrique, George W. Pariyo, and Adnan A. Hyder. 2017. «Mobile Phone Surveys for Collecting Population-Level Estimates in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Literature Review.» Journal of Medical Internet Research 19(5): 1-12. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7428
Gilbert, Emily E. 2015. «A Comparison of Branched Versus Unbranched Rating Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes in Surveys.» Public Opinion Quarterly 79(2): 443-70. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfu090
Gooch, Andrew, and Lynn Vavreck. 2019. «How Face-to-Face Interviews and Cognitive Skill Affect Item Non-Response: A Randomized Experiment Assigning Mode of Interview.» Political Science Research and Methods 7(1): 143-62. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.20
Greenfield, Thomas K., Lorrain T. Midanik, and John D. Rogers. 2000. «Effects of Telephone versus Face-to-Face Interview Modes on Reports of Alcohol Consumption.» Addiction 95(2). https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95227714.x
Holbrook, Allyson L., Melanie C. Green, and Jon A. Krosnick. 2003. «Telephone versus Face-to-Face Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires: Comparisons of Respondent Satisficing and Social Desirability Response Bias.» Public Opinion Quarterly 67(1): 79-125. https://doi.org/10.1086/346010
Holbrook, Allyson L., and Jon A. Krosnick. 2010. «Social Desirability Bias in Voter Turnout Reports: Tests Using the Item Count Technique.» Public Opinion Quarterly 74(1): 37-67. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfp065
Homola, Jonathan, Natalie Jackson, and Jeff Gill. 2016. «A Measure of Survey Mode Differences.» Electoral Studies 44: 255-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.06.010
Hox, Joop J., and Edith D. de Leeuw. 1994. «A Comparison of Nonresponse in Mail, Telephone, and Face-to-Face Surveys: Applying Multilevel Modeling to Meta-Analysis.» Quality & Quantity 28: 329-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01097014
Jäckle, Annette, Caroline Roberts and Peter Lynn. 2010. «Assessing the Effect of Data Collection Mode on Measurement.» International Statistical Review 78(1): 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00102.x
Karp, Jeffrey A., and David Brockington. 2005. «Social Desirability and Response Validity: A Comparative Analysis of Overreporting Voter Turnout in Five Countries.» Journal of Politics 67(3):825-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00341.x
Kreuter, Frauke, Stanley Presser, and Roger Tourangeau. 2008. «Social Desirability Dias in CATI, IVR, and Web Surveys: The Effects of Mode and Question Sensitivity.» Public Opinion Quarterly 72(5): 847-65. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfn063
Lupu, Noam, and Kristin Michelitch. 2018. «Advances in Survey Methods for the Developing World.» Annual Review of Political Science 21: 195-214. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-052115-021432
Lupu, Noam, J. Daniel Montalvo, Mitchell A. Seligson, Elizabeth J. Zechmeister, and Kirill Zhirkov. 2022. «Comparing Two Common Approaches to Within-Household Sampling: A Field Experiment in Costa Rica.» Unpublished manuscript. Available at https://noamlupu.com/FM_vs_LB.pdf
Malhotra, Neil, Jon A. Krosnick, and Randall K. Thomas. 2009. «Optimal Design of Branching Questions to Measure Bipolar Constructs.» Public Opinion Quarterly 73(2): 304-24. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfp023
Meisenberg, Gerhard, and Amandy Williams. 2008. «Are Acquiescent and Extreme Response Styles Related to Low Intelligence and Education?» Personality and Individual Differences 44(7): 1539-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.010
Montalvo, J. Daniel, Georgina Pizzolitto, and Luke Plutowski. 2022. «Telephone Sampling in the 2021 AmericasBarometer.» LAPOP Methodological Note No. 009. Available at https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/insights/IMN009en.pdf
Perelló, Lucas, and Patricio Navia. 2021. «Abrupt and Gradual Realignments: The Case of Costa Rica, 1958-2018.» Journal of Politics in Latin America 13(1): 86-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X20967733
Pignataro, Adrián, and Ilka Treminio. 2019. «Reto Económico, Valores y Religión en las Elecciones Nacionales de Costa Rica 2018.» Revista de Ciencia Política 39(2): 239-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2019000200239
Roberts, Caroline, and Annette Jäckle. 2012. «Causes of Mode Effects: Separating Out Interviewer and Stimulus Effects in Comparisons of Face-to-Face and Telephone Surveys.» ISER Working Paper No. 2012-27. Available at https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/91682
Rosenfeld, Bryn, Kosuke Imai, and Jacob N. Shapiro. 2016. «An Empirical Validation Study of Popular Survey Methodologies for Sensitive Questions.» American Journal of Political Science 60(3): 783-802. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12205
Schwarz, Norbert, Fritz Strack, Hans-J. Hippler, and George Bishop. 1991. «The Impact of Administration Mode on Response Effects in Survey Measurement.» Applied Cognitive Psychology 5: 193-212. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350050304
Seligson, Mitchell A. 2020. «The Seligson Political Culture Survey Archive: Costa Rica, 1973-2005.» LAPOP Insights Series No. 143. https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/insights/IO943en.pdf
Shino, Enrijeta, and Michael D. Martinez. 2021. «The Different Faces of Public Opinion: Is the American Voter Tinted by Mode?» International Journal of Public Opinion Research 33(4): 756-78. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edab003
Vannieuwenhuyze, Jorre, Geert Loosveldt, and Geert Molenberghs. 2010. «A Method for Evaluating Mode Effects in Mixed-Mode Surveys.» Public Opinion Quarterly 74(5) 1027-45. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfq059
Alfaro Córdoba, Marcela, María Paula Villareal Galera, and Gustavo Navarro Cerdas. 2010. «Comparación Metodológica de Encuestas vía Telefonía Fija y Celular en Costa Rica.» Ciencias Económicas 28(1): 51-68. https://doi.org/10.15517/rce.v28i1.7064
Alfaro-Redondo, Ronald, and Felipe Alpízar Rodríguez, eds. 2020. Elecciones 2018 en Costa Rica: Retrato de una Democracia Amenazada. San José: Programa Estado de la Nación.
Alfaro-Redondo, Ronald, and Steffan Gómez-Campos. 2021. «PLN and PAC: Two Costa Rican Parties with Constituencies Evolving in Opposite Directions.» In Diminished Parties: Democratic Representation in Contemporary Latin America, eds. Juan Pablo Luna, Rafael Piñeiro Rodríguez, Fernando Rosenblatt, and Gabriel Vommaro. New York: Cambridge University Press, pp. 111-28.
Aquilino, William S. 1991. «Telephone Versus Face-to-Face Interviewing for Household Drug Use Surveys.» International Journal of the Addictions 27(1): 71-91. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826089109063463
Aquilino, William S. 1994. «Interview Mode Effects in Surveys of Drug and Alcohol Use: A Field Experiment.» Public Opinion Quarterly 58: 210-40. https://doi.org/10.1086/269419
Blackwell, Matthew, Stefano Iacus, Gary King, and Giuseppe Porro. 2009. «cem: Coarsened Exact Matching in Stata.» The Stata Journal 9(4): 524-46. https://doi.org/10.1177/1536867X0900900402
Blair, Graeme, Alexander Coppock, and Margaret Moor. 2020. «When to Worry about Sensitivity Bias: A Social Reference Theory and Evidence from 30 Years of List Experiments.» American Political Science Review 114(4): 1297-315. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000374
Bowling, Ann. 2005. «Mode of Questionnaire Administration Can Have Serious Effects on Data Quality.» Journal of Public Health 27(3): 281–91. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdi031
Cassell, Kaitlen J., and Mollie J. Cohen. Forthcoming. «Reducing Item Non-Response to Vote Choice Questions: Evidence from a Survey Experiment in Mexico.» Public Opinion Quarterly. Available at http://nebula.wsimg.com/4f954acc79f53e6189906a4b95ca82ab?AccessKeyId=6C80BA4D3A5A4F2D4389&disposition=0&alloworigin=1
Castorena, Oscar, Noam Lupu, Maita Schade, and Elizabeth J. Zechmeister. Forthcoming. «Online Surveys in Latin America.» PS: Political Science & Politics. Available at https://noamlupu.com/online_samples.pdf.
Christian, Leah Melani, Nicholas L. Parsons, and Don A. Dillman. 2009. «Designing Scalar Questions for Web Surveys.» Sociological Methods & Research 37(3): 393-425. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124108330004
Colburn, Forrest D., and Arturo Cruz S. 2018. «Latin America’s Shifting Politics: The Fading of Costa Rica’s Old Parties.» Journal of Democracy 29(4): 43-53. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2018.0061
Courser, Matthew, and Paul J. Lavrakas. 2012. «Item-Nonresponse and the 10-Point Response Scale in Telephone Surveys.» Survey Practice 5(4): 1-7. https://doi.org/10.29115/SP-2012-0021
Dahlberg, Stefan, and Mikael Persson. 2014. «Different Surveys, Different Results? A Comparison of Two Surveys on the 2009 European Parliamentary Election.» West European Politics 37(1): 204-221. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2013.814961
de Leeuw, Edith D. 2018. «Mixed-Mode: Past, Present, and Future.» Survey Research Methods 12(2): 75-89. https://doi.org/10.18148/srm/2018.v12i2.7402
Díaz González, José Andrés, and Stephanie Cordero Cordero. 2020. «Las Preferencias del Electorado en la Segunda Ronda Presidencial de 2018 en Costa Rica: Un Modelo de Socialización Política.» Política y Gobierno 27(1): 1-22. https://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid=S1665-20372020000100200&script=sci_arttext
Dillman, Don A. 2009. «Some Consequences of Survey Mode Changes in Longitudinal Surveys.» In Methodology of Longitudinal Surveys, ed. Peter Lynn. London: Wiley, pp. 127-40.
Dillman, Don A., and Leah Melani Christian. 2005. «Survey Mode as a Source of Instability in Responses across Surveys.» Field Methods 17(1): 30–52. https://doi.org/10.1177/1525822X04269550
Dillman, Don A., Glenn Phelps, Robert Tortora, Karen Swift, Julie Kohrell, Jodi Berck, and Benjamin L. Messer. 2009. «Response Rate and Measurement Differences in Mixed-Mode Surveys Using Mail, Telephone, Interactive Voice Response (IVR) and the Internet.» Social Science Research 38(1): 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2008.03.007
Gibson, Dustin G. Amanda Pereira, Brooke A. Farrenkopf, Alain B. Labrique, George W. Pariyo, and Adnan A. Hyder. 2017. «Mobile Phone Surveys for Collecting Population-Level Estimates in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Literature Review.» Journal of Medical Internet Research 19(5): 1-12. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.7428
Gilbert, Emily E. 2015. «A Comparison of Branched Versus Unbranched Rating Scales for the Measurement of Attitudes in Surveys.» Public Opinion Quarterly 79(2): 443-70. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfu090
Gooch, Andrew, and Lynn Vavreck. 2019. «How Face-to-Face Interviews and Cognitive Skill Affect Item Non-Response: A Randomized Experiment Assigning Mode of Interview.» Political Science Research and Methods 7(1): 143-62. https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2016.20
Greenfield, Thomas K., Lorrain T. Midanik, and John D. Rogers. 2000. «Effects of Telephone versus Face-to-Face Interview Modes on Reports of Alcohol Consumption.» Addiction 95(2). https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.95227714.x
Holbrook, Allyson L., Melanie C. Green, and Jon A. Krosnick. 2003. «Telephone versus Face-to-Face Interviewing of National Probability Samples with Long Questionnaires: Comparisons of Respondent Satisficing and Social Desirability Response Bias.» Public Opinion Quarterly 67(1): 79-125. https://doi.org/10.1086/346010
Holbrook, Allyson L., and Jon A. Krosnick. 2010. «Social Desirability Bias in Voter Turnout Reports: Tests Using the Item Count Technique.» Public Opinion Quarterly 74(1): 37-67. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfp065
Homola, Jonathan, Natalie Jackson, and Jeff Gill. 2016. «A Measure of Survey Mode Differences.» Electoral Studies 44: 255-74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.06.010
Hox, Joop J., and Edith D. de Leeuw. 1994. «A Comparison of Nonresponse in Mail, Telephone, and Face-to-Face Surveys: Applying Multilevel Modeling to Meta-Analysis.» Quality & Quantity 28: 329-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01097014
Jäckle, Annette, Caroline Roberts and Peter Lynn. 2010. «Assessing the Effect of Data Collection Mode on Measurement.» International Statistical Review 78(1): 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-5823.2010.00102.x
Karp, Jeffrey A., and David Brockington. 2005. «Social Desirability and Response Validity: A Comparative Analysis of Overreporting Voter Turnout in Five Countries.» Journal of Politics 67(3):825-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00341.x
Kreuter, Frauke, Stanley Presser, and Roger Tourangeau. 2008. «Social Desirability Dias in CATI, IVR, and Web Surveys: The Effects of Mode and Question Sensitivity.» Public Opinion Quarterly 72(5): 847-65. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfn063
Lupu, Noam, and Kristin Michelitch. 2018. «Advances in Survey Methods for the Developing World.» Annual Review of Political Science 21: 195-214. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-polisci-052115-021432
Lupu, Noam, J. Daniel Montalvo, Mitchell A. Seligson, Elizabeth J. Zechmeister, and Kirill Zhirkov. 2022. «Comparing Two Common Approaches to Within-Household Sampling: A Field Experiment in Costa Rica.» Unpublished manuscript. Available at https://noamlupu.com/FM_vs_LB.pdf
Malhotra, Neil, Jon A. Krosnick, and Randall K. Thomas. 2009. «Optimal Design of Branching Questions to Measure Bipolar Constructs.» Public Opinion Quarterly 73(2): 304-24. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfp023
Meisenberg, Gerhard, and Amandy Williams. 2008. «Are Acquiescent and Extreme Response Styles Related to Low Intelligence and Education?» Personality and Individual Differences 44(7): 1539-50. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2008.01.010
Montalvo, J. Daniel, Georgina Pizzolitto, and Luke Plutowski. 2022. «Telephone Sampling in the 2021 AmericasBarometer.» LAPOP Methodological Note No. 009. Available at https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/insights/IMN009en.pdf
Perelló, Lucas, and Patricio Navia. 2021. «Abrupt and Gradual Realignments: The Case of Costa Rica, 1958-2018.» Journal of Politics in Latin America 13(1): 86-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X20967733
Pignataro, Adrián, and Ilka Treminio. 2019. «Reto Económico, Valores y Religión en las Elecciones Nacionales de Costa Rica 2018.» Revista de Ciencia Política 39(2): 239-64. http://dx.doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2019000200239
Roberts, Caroline, and Annette Jäckle. 2012. «Causes of Mode Effects: Separating Out Interviewer and Stimulus Effects in Comparisons of Face-to-Face and Telephone Surveys.» ISER Working Paper No. 2012-27. Available at https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/91682
Rosenfeld, Bryn, Kosuke Imai, and Jacob N. Shapiro. 2016. «An Empirical Validation Study of Popular Survey Methodologies for Sensitive Questions.» American Journal of Political Science 60(3): 783-802. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12205
Schwarz, Norbert, Fritz Strack, Hans-J. Hippler, and George Bishop. 1991. «The Impact of Administration Mode on Response Effects in Survey Measurement.» Applied Cognitive Psychology 5: 193-212. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.2350050304
Seligson, Mitchell A. 2020. «The Seligson Political Culture Survey Archive: Costa Rica, 1973-2005.» LAPOP Insights Series No. 143. https://www.vanderbilt.edu/lapop/insights/IO943en.pdf
Shino, Enrijeta, and Michael D. Martinez. 2021. «The Different Faces of Public Opinion: Is the American Voter Tinted by Mode?» International Journal of Public Opinion Research 33(4): 756-78. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edab003
Vannieuwenhuyze, Jorre, Geert Loosveldt, and Geert Molenberghs. 2010. «A Method for Evaluating Mode Effects in Mixed-Mode Surveys.» Public Opinion Quarterly 74(5) 1027-45. https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfq059
Lupu, N., & Wolsky, A. (2023). Survey Mode Effects in a Developing Country: Comparing Phone and Face-to-Face Surveys in Costa Rica. Revista Latinoamericana De Opinión Pública, 11(2), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.14201/rlop.30159
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