El encanto del personalismo: explicando el ascenso de Nayib Bukele en El Salvador
Resumen La apelación a las características individuales de los candidatos con fines electorales es un fenómeno de alcance global. Este artículo analiza cómo funciona el personalismo electoral a partir del caso de Nayib Bukele en El Salvador. A partir de un análisis de su discurso en redes sociales, se reconstruye su estrategia de movilización y persuasión electoral. El artículo contribuye a la literatura al desentrañar el funcionamiento específico de la diferenciación personalista e identifica sus principales atributos.
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Aguilar, L., Rodríguez, L. y Santos, G. (2023). De la partidocracia al populismo en El Salvador. En M. Casullo y H. Brown (Coords.), El populismo en América Central. Buenos Aires (pp. 147-173). Siglo XXI.
Andrews-Lee, C. (2019). The Power of Charisma: Investigating the Neglected Citizen-Politician Linkage in Hugo Chávez’s Venezuela. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 11(3), https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X19891472
Andrews-Lee, C. (2020). The Power of Charisma: Investigating the Neglected Citizen-Politician Linkage in Hugo Chávez’s Venezuela. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 11(3): 298-322.
Andrews-Lee, C. (2021). The Emergence and Revival of Charismatic Movements: Argentine Peronism and Venezuelan Chavismo. Cambridge University Press.
Azpuru, D. (2010). The salience of ideology: Fifteen years of presidential elections in El Salvador. Latin American Politics and Society, 52(2), 103-138.
Baldovinos, R. (2021). Nayib Bukele: Populismo e implosión democrática en El Salvador. Andamios, 18(46), 233-255. https://doi.org/10.29092/uacm.v18i46.844
Brown, H. y Casullo, M. E. (2023). Democratization and neopatrimonialism: Is there a populist wave in Central America? Revista Mexicana de Sociología, 85, 95-122.
Casullo, M. E. (2019). ¿Por qué funciona el populismo?: El discurso que sabe construir explicaciones convincentes de un mundo en crisis. Siglo XXI.
Casullo, M. E. y Brown, H. (2023). Introducción. Reconstruyendo mitos populistas en América Central. En M. Casullo y H. Brown (Coords.), El populismo en América Central (pp. 17-38). Siglo XXI.
Cervi, L., Tejedor, S. y Villar, M. G. (2023). Twitting Against the Enemy: Populist Radical Right Parties Discourse Against the (Political) «Other». Politics and Governance, 11(2), 235-248. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v11i2.6391
Cox, G. W. (1997). Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174954
Cyr, J. (2017). The Fates of Political Parties: Institutional Crisis, Continuity, and Change in Latin America. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316995723
Dalton, R. y Wattenberg, M. (2002). Parties Without Partisans: Political Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies. OUP Oxford.
El Faro. (2018, abril 30). El error del FMLN es haber hecho exactamente lo que Nayib quería. https://elfaro.net/es/201804/el_salvador/21778/%E2%80%9CEl-error-del-FMLN-es-haber-hecho-exactamente-lo-que-Nayib-quer%C3%ADa%E2%80%9D.htm
Enli, G. S. y Skogerbø, E. (2013). Personalized Campaigns in Party-Centred Politics. Information, Communication & Society, 16(5), 757-774. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.782330
Frantz, E., Kendall-Taylor, A., Nietsche, C. y Wright, J. (2021). How Personalist Politics Is Changing Democracies. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 94-108. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0036
Frantz, E., Kendall-Taylor, A., Wright, J. y Xu, X. (2020). Personalization of power and repression in dictatorships. The Journal of Politics, 82(1), 372-377.
Garzia, D., Ferreira Da Silva, F. y De Angelis, A. (2021). Leaders without partisans: Dealignment, media change, and the personalization of politics. ECPR Press. https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/75302
Gilardi, F., Gessler, T., Kubli, M. y Müller, S. (2022). Social Media and Political Agenda Setting. Political Communication, 39(1), 39-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2021.1910390
Grassetti, J. (2022). El discurso político de Nayib Bukele en Twitter. Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios en Diseño y Comunicación. Ensayos, 112, 245-269. https://doi.org/10.18682/cdc.vi112.4102
Jacobs, K. y Spierings, N. (2018). A populist paradise? Examining populists’ Twitter adoption and use. Information, Communication & Society, 22(12), 1681-1696. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1449883
Jungherr, A. (2016). Twitter use in election campaigns: A systematic literature review. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 13(1), 72-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2015.1132401
Kartsounidou, E., Papaxanthi, D. y Andreadis, I. (2023). Measuring the impact of candidates’ tweets on their electoral results. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 20(2), 154-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2022.2069181
Kendall-Taylor, A., Frantz, E. y Wright, J (2017). The global rise of personalized politics: it’s not just dictators anymore. The Washington Quarterly, 40(1), 7-19.
Kitschelt, H. (2000). Linkages between citizens and politicians in democratic polities. Comparative Political Studies, 33(6-7).
La Prensa Gráfica. (2017, octubre 11). Nayib Bukele, expulsado del FMLN por estas razones. https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/Nayib-Bukele-expulsado-del-FMLN-20171010-0075.html
Larsson, A. O. (2016). Online, all the time? A quantitative assessment of the permanent campaign on Facebook. New Media & Society, 18(2), 274-292.
Levitsky, S., Loxton, J., Dyck, B. V. y Domínguez, J. I. (2016). Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Luján, D., y Acosta y Lara, F. (2024). Assessing Electoral Personalism in Latin American Presidential Elections. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X241250034
Lupu, N. (2016). Party brands in crisis: Partisanship, brand dilution, and the breakdown of political parties in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Madsen, D. y Snow, P. G. (1991). The charismatic bond: Political behavior in time of crisis. Harvard University Press.
Martínez, G. (2016). Estabilidad y cambio del sistema de partidos en El Salvador. En F. Freidenberg (Ed.), Los sistemas de partidos en América Latina (1978-2015) (pp. 111-160). Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM.
Meléndez, M. (2021). Latin America Erupts: Millennial Authoritarianism in El Salvador. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 19-32. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0031
Moraes, J. A. y Béjar, S. (2023). Electoral volatility and political polarization in developing democracies: Evidence from Latin America, 1993-2016. Party Politics, 29(4), 636-647.
Mudde, C. y Kaltwasser, C. R. (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
Nilsson, M. (2022). Nayib Bukele: Populism and autocratization, or a very popular democratically elected president? Journal of Geography, Politics and Society, 12(2), 16-26.
Parmelee, J. H. (2014). The agenda-building function of political tweets. New Media & Society, 16(3), 434-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487955
Perelló, L. y Navia, P. (2022). The disruption of an institutionalised and polarised party system: Discontent with democracy and the rise of Nayib Bukele in El Salvador. Politics, 42(3), 267-288. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957221077181
Peterson, R. D. (2012). To tweet or not to tweet: Exploring the determinants of early adoption of Twitter by House members in the 111th Congress. The Social Science Journal, 49(4), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2012.07.002
Poguntke, T. y Webb, P. (Eds.) (2005). The presidentialization of politics: A comparative study of modern democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rahat, G. y Kenig, O. (2018). From party politics to personalized politics? Party change and political personalization in democracies. Oxford University Press.
Rahat, G. y Sheafer, T. (2007). The personalization(s) of politics: Israel, 1949-2003. Political Communication, 24(1): 65-80.
Rhodes-Purdy, M. y Madrid, R. (2020). The perils of personalism. Democratization, 27(2), 321-339.
Roberts, K. M. (2014). Changing Course in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Siles, I., Guevara, E., Tristán-Jiménez, L. y Carazo, C. (2023). Populism, religion, and social media in Central America. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 28(1), 138-159.
Singer, M. (2016). Elite Polarization and The Electoral Impact of Left-Right Placements: Evidence from Latin America, 1995-2009. Latin American Research Review, 51(2), 174-194. https://doi.org/10.1353/lar.2016.0022
The Guardian. (2021, septiembre 26). Nayib Bukele calls himself the ‘world’s coolest dictator’ – but is he joking? https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/26/naybib-bukele-el-salvador-president-coolest-dictator
Theocharis, Y., Barberá, P., Fazekas, Z. y Popa, S. A. (2020). The Dynamics of Political Incivility on Twitter. SAGE Open, 10(2), 2158244020919447. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020919447
Turner, J. R. (2022). Guerrillas and authoritarians: Partners in post-war polarization. Party Politics, 28(1), 163-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068820968409
Wade, C. (2023). El Salvador: Democracy in Peril? En H. Kline y C. Wade (Eds.), Latin American Politics and Development Tenth Edition (pp. 418-435). Routledge.
Wattenberg, M. (1990). From a Partisan to a Candidate-centered Electorate. En A. King, The New American Political System. (pp. 139-174). Macmillan Education.
Wattenberg, M. (2011). US party leaders: Exploring the meaning of candidate-centered politics. En K. Aarts, A. Blais y H. Schmitt (Eds.). Political leaders and democratic elections (pp. 76-90). OUP Oxford.
Weber, M. (2002 [1922]). Economía y Sociedad. Esbozo de sociología comprensiva. Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Andrews-Lee, C. (2019). The Power of Charisma: Investigating the Neglected Citizen-Politician Linkage in Hugo Chávez’s Venezuela. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 11(3), https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X19891472
Andrews-Lee, C. (2020). The Power of Charisma: Investigating the Neglected Citizen-Politician Linkage in Hugo Chávez’s Venezuela. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 11(3): 298-322.
Andrews-Lee, C. (2021). The Emergence and Revival of Charismatic Movements: Argentine Peronism and Venezuelan Chavismo. Cambridge University Press.
Azpuru, D. (2010). The salience of ideology: Fifteen years of presidential elections in El Salvador. Latin American Politics and Society, 52(2), 103-138.
Baldovinos, R. (2021). Nayib Bukele: Populismo e implosión democrática en El Salvador. Andamios, 18(46), 233-255. https://doi.org/10.29092/uacm.v18i46.844
Brown, H. y Casullo, M. E. (2023). Democratization and neopatrimonialism: Is there a populist wave in Central America? Revista Mexicana de Sociología, 85, 95-122.
Casullo, M. E. (2019). ¿Por qué funciona el populismo?: El discurso que sabe construir explicaciones convincentes de un mundo en crisis. Siglo XXI.
Casullo, M. E. y Brown, H. (2023). Introducción. Reconstruyendo mitos populistas en América Central. En M. Casullo y H. Brown (Coords.), El populismo en América Central (pp. 17-38). Siglo XXI.
Cervi, L., Tejedor, S. y Villar, M. G. (2023). Twitting Against the Enemy: Populist Radical Right Parties Discourse Against the (Political) «Other». Politics and Governance, 11(2), 235-248. https://doi.org/10.17645/pag.v11i2.6391
Cox, G. W. (1997). Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174954
Cyr, J. (2017). The Fates of Political Parties: Institutional Crisis, Continuity, and Change in Latin America. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316995723
Dalton, R. y Wattenberg, M. (2002). Parties Without Partisans: Political Change in Advanced Industrial Democracies. OUP Oxford.
El Faro. (2018, abril 30). El error del FMLN es haber hecho exactamente lo que Nayib quería. https://elfaro.net/es/201804/el_salvador/21778/%E2%80%9CEl-error-del-FMLN-es-haber-hecho-exactamente-lo-que-Nayib-quer%C3%ADa%E2%80%9D.htm
Enli, G. S. y Skogerbø, E. (2013). Personalized Campaigns in Party-Centred Politics. Information, Communication & Society, 16(5), 757-774. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2013.782330
Frantz, E., Kendall-Taylor, A., Nietsche, C. y Wright, J. (2021). How Personalist Politics Is Changing Democracies. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 94-108. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0036
Frantz, E., Kendall-Taylor, A., Wright, J. y Xu, X. (2020). Personalization of power and repression in dictatorships. The Journal of Politics, 82(1), 372-377.
Garzia, D., Ferreira Da Silva, F. y De Angelis, A. (2021). Leaders without partisans: Dealignment, media change, and the personalization of politics. ECPR Press. https://cadmus.eui.eu/handle/1814/75302
Gilardi, F., Gessler, T., Kubli, M. y Müller, S. (2022). Social Media and Political Agenda Setting. Political Communication, 39(1), 39-60. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2021.1910390
Grassetti, J. (2022). El discurso político de Nayib Bukele en Twitter. Cuadernos del Centro de Estudios en Diseño y Comunicación. Ensayos, 112, 245-269. https://doi.org/10.18682/cdc.vi112.4102
Jacobs, K. y Spierings, N. (2018). A populist paradise? Examining populists’ Twitter adoption and use. Information, Communication & Society, 22(12), 1681-1696. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2018.1449883
Jungherr, A. (2016). Twitter use in election campaigns: A systematic literature review. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 13(1), 72-91. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2015.1132401
Kartsounidou, E., Papaxanthi, D. y Andreadis, I. (2023). Measuring the impact of candidates’ tweets on their electoral results. Journal of Information Technology & Politics, 20(2), 154-168. https://doi.org/10.1080/19331681.2022.2069181
Kendall-Taylor, A., Frantz, E. y Wright, J (2017). The global rise of personalized politics: it’s not just dictators anymore. The Washington Quarterly, 40(1), 7-19.
Kitschelt, H. (2000). Linkages between citizens and politicians in democratic polities. Comparative Political Studies, 33(6-7).
La Prensa Gráfica. (2017, octubre 11). Nayib Bukele, expulsado del FMLN por estas razones. https://www.laprensagrafica.com/elsalvador/Nayib-Bukele-expulsado-del-FMLN-20171010-0075.html
Larsson, A. O. (2016). Online, all the time? A quantitative assessment of the permanent campaign on Facebook. New Media & Society, 18(2), 274-292.
Levitsky, S., Loxton, J., Dyck, B. V. y Domínguez, J. I. (2016). Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Luján, D., y Acosta y Lara, F. (2024). Assessing Electoral Personalism in Latin American Presidential Elections. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X241250034
Lupu, N. (2016). Party brands in crisis: Partisanship, brand dilution, and the breakdown of political parties in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Madsen, D. y Snow, P. G. (1991). The charismatic bond: Political behavior in time of crisis. Harvard University Press.
Martínez, G. (2016). Estabilidad y cambio del sistema de partidos en El Salvador. En F. Freidenberg (Ed.), Los sistemas de partidos en América Latina (1978-2015) (pp. 111-160). Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas de la UNAM.
Meléndez, M. (2021). Latin America Erupts: Millennial Authoritarianism in El Salvador. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 19-32. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0031
Moraes, J. A. y Béjar, S. (2023). Electoral volatility and political polarization in developing democracies: Evidence from Latin America, 1993-2016. Party Politics, 29(4), 636-647.
Mudde, C. y Kaltwasser, C. R. (2017). Populism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press.
Nilsson, M. (2022). Nayib Bukele: Populism and autocratization, or a very popular democratically elected president? Journal of Geography, Politics and Society, 12(2), 16-26.
Parmelee, J. H. (2014). The agenda-building function of political tweets. New Media & Society, 16(3), 434-450. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444813487955
Perelló, L. y Navia, P. (2022). The disruption of an institutionalised and polarised party system: Discontent with democracy and the rise of Nayib Bukele in El Salvador. Politics, 42(3), 267-288. https://doi.org/10.1177/02633957221077181
Peterson, R. D. (2012). To tweet or not to tweet: Exploring the determinants of early adoption of Twitter by House members in the 111th Congress. The Social Science Journal, 49(4), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soscij.2012.07.002
Poguntke, T. y Webb, P. (Eds.) (2005). The presidentialization of politics: A comparative study of modern democracies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Rahat, G. y Kenig, O. (2018). From party politics to personalized politics? Party change and political personalization in democracies. Oxford University Press.
Rahat, G. y Sheafer, T. (2007). The personalization(s) of politics: Israel, 1949-2003. Political Communication, 24(1): 65-80.
Rhodes-Purdy, M. y Madrid, R. (2020). The perils of personalism. Democratization, 27(2), 321-339.
Roberts, K. M. (2014). Changing Course in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Siles, I., Guevara, E., Tristán-Jiménez, L. y Carazo, C. (2023). Populism, religion, and social media in Central America. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 28(1), 138-159.
Singer, M. (2016). Elite Polarization and The Electoral Impact of Left-Right Placements: Evidence from Latin America, 1995-2009. Latin American Research Review, 51(2), 174-194. https://doi.org/10.1353/lar.2016.0022
The Guardian. (2021, septiembre 26). Nayib Bukele calls himself the ‘world’s coolest dictator’ – but is he joking? https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/sep/26/naybib-bukele-el-salvador-president-coolest-dictator
Theocharis, Y., Barberá, P., Fazekas, Z. y Popa, S. A. (2020). The Dynamics of Political Incivility on Twitter. SAGE Open, 10(2), 2158244020919447. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244020919447
Turner, J. R. (2022). Guerrillas and authoritarians: Partners in post-war polarization. Party Politics, 28(1), 163-173. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068820968409
Wade, C. (2023). El Salvador: Democracy in Peril? En H. Kline y C. Wade (Eds.), Latin American Politics and Development Tenth Edition (pp. 418-435). Routledge.
Wattenberg, M. (1990). From a Partisan to a Candidate-centered Electorate. En A. King, The New American Political System. (pp. 139-174). Macmillan Education.
Wattenberg, M. (2011). US party leaders: Exploring the meaning of candidate-centered politics. En K. Aarts, A. Blais y H. Schmitt (Eds.). Political leaders and democratic elections (pp. 76-90). OUP Oxford.
Weber, M. (2002 [1922]). Economía y Sociedad. Esbozo de sociología comprensiva. Fondo de Cultura Económica.
Luján, D., & Puig Lombardi, G. (2024). El encanto del personalismo: explicando el ascenso de Nayib Bukele en El Salvador. América Latina Hoy, 94, e31891. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh.31891
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