Ausentes, pero representados: mecanismos institucionales de representación de emigrantes en América Latina y el Caribe
Resumen Este trabajo, partiendo del marco brindado por los estudios sobre transnacionalismo y representación política, investiga dos de los mecanismos institucionales que 22 Estados de América Latina y el Caribe han diseñado para incorporar en su proceso político a sus emigrantes –la reserva de puestos en cámaras legislativas y los consejos consultivos–. El análisis revela que únicamente la mitad de los Estados de la muestra cuentan con algún mecanismo de representación institucional de emigrantes.
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Asamblea Nacional. Ley orgánica electoral y de organizaciones políticas de la República del Ecuador, 2009.
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Bauböck, Reiner. Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting. Fordham Law Review, 2006, vol. 75 (5): 2393-2447.
Bauböck, Reiner. The Trade-Off between Transnational Citizenship and Political Autonomy. Basingstoke y Nueva York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 69-91
Bauböck, Reiner. Morphing the Demos into the Right Shape. Normative Principles for Enfranchising Resident Aliens and Expatriate Citizens. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 820-839. - https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.988146
Bauböck, Reiner y Faist, Thomas. Diaspora and Transnationalism Concepts, Theories and Methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089642387
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Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Moraes, Natalia. Opportunities and Costs of the Political Transnational Field in the Context of Colombian, Peruvian and Uruguayan Migration to Spain. Revista Via Iuris, 2014, vol. 16: 141-157.
Boccagni, Paolo y Ramírez, Jacques. Building Democracy or Reproducing «Ecuadoreanness»? A Transnational Exploration of Ecuadorean Migrants' External Voting. Journal of Latin America Studies, 2013, vol. 45 (4): 721-750. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X13001181
Calderón Chelius, Leticia. Votar en la distancia: la extensión de los derechos políticos a migrantes, experiencias comparadas. México, D.F.: Instituto Mora, 2004.
Collyer, Michael. Inside out? Directly Elected «Special Representation» of Emigrants in National Legislatures and the Role of Popular Sovereignty. Political Geography, 2014, vol. 3: 1-10. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.01.002
Collyer, Michael y Vathi, Zana. Patterns of Extra-territorial Voting. Working Paper. Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalization and Poverty, 2007: 22: 1-36.
Crisp, Brian; Demirkaya, Betul y Millian, Courtney. The Impact of Formal Paths to Office on Descriptive, Symbolic, and Substantive Representation: Maori in the New Zealand Parliament. Working Paper, 2014.
Délano, Alexandra. Mexico and its Diaspora in the United States: Policies of Emigration Since 1848. Nueva York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. - https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511894848
Délano, Alexandra. The Diffusion of Diaspora Engagement Policies: A Latin American Agenda. Political Geography, 2013, vol. 3: 1-11.
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Gamlen, Alan. The Impacts of Extra-territorial Voting: Swings, Interregnums and Feedback Effects in New Zealand Elections from 1914 to 2011. Political Geography, 2015, vol. 44: 1-8. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.08.005
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Goodin, Robert. Enfranchising All Affected Interests, and its Alternatives. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 2007, 35 (1): 40-68. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.2007.00098.x
Guarnizo, Luis Eduardo; Portes, Alejandro y Haller, Wiliam. Assimilation and Transnationalism: Determinants of Transnational Political Action among Contemporary Migrants. American Journal of Sociology, 2003, vol. 108 (6): 1211-1248. - https://doi.org/10.1086/375195
Hutcheson, Derek y Arrighi, Jean-Thomas. Keeping Pandora's (Ballot) Box Half-Shut: A Comparative Inquiry into the Institutional Limits of External Voting in eu Member States. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 884-905
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.979161
Itzigsohn, José. Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship: The Institutions of Immigrants' Political Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2000, vol. 34 (4): 1126-1154. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2675977
Lafleur, Jean-Michel. The Transnational Political Participation of Latin American and Caribbean Migrants Residing in Europe. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 1-9. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00688.x
Lafleur, Jean-Michel. Transnational Politics and the State: The External Voting Rights of Diasporas. Nueva York: Routledge, 2013.
Mansbridge, Jane. Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent «Yes». The Journal of Politics, 1999, vol. 61 (03): 628-657. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821
Moraes, Natalia; Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Padilla, Beatriz. Estrategias de vinculación de los estados latinoamericanos con sus diásporas: Un análisis de las iniciativas desarrolladas por Colombia, Perú, Brasil y Uruguay. En Escrivá, Ángeles; Bermúdez, Anastasia y Moraes, Natalia (eds.). Migración y participación política. Estados, organizaciones y migrantes latinoamericanos en perspectiva local transnacional. Madrid: csic, 2009.
Østergaard-Nielsen, Eva. International Migration and Sending Countries: Perceptions, Policies, and Transnational Relations. Basingstoke: Macmillan Palgrave, 2003. - https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230512429
Padilla, Beatriz. Engagement Policies and Practices: Expanding the Citizenship of the Brazilian Diaspora. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 10-29. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00694.x
Pitkin, Hanna. The Concept of Representation. Berkley: University of California Press, 1967.
Portes, Alejandro; Guarnizo, Luis E. y Landolt, Patricia. The Study of Transnationalism: Pitfalls and Promise of an Emergent Research Field. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1999, vol. 22 (2): 217-37. - https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329468
Rhodes, Sybil y Harutyunyan, Arus. Extending Citizenship to Emigrants: Democratic Contestation and a New Global Norm. International Political Science Review, 2010, vol. 31(4): 470-493. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512110374044
Rubio-Marín, Ruth. Transnational Politics and the Democratic Nation-State: Normative Challenges of Expatriate Voting and Nationality Retention of Emigrants. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 117-147.
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie. Political Power and Women's Representation in Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731954.001.0001
Spiro, Peter. Perfecting Political Diaspora. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 207-233.
Turcu, Anca y Urbatsch, R. Diffusion of Diaspora Enfranchisement Norms A Multinational Study. Comparative Political Studies, 2014, vol. 48 (4): 407-437. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414014546331
Vono de Vilhena, Daniela. Vinculación de los emigrados latinoamericanos y caribe-os con su país de origen: transnacionalismo y políticas públicas. Santiago de Chile: Naciones Unidas, 2006.
Wucker, Michele. Remittances: The Perpetual Migration Machine. World Policy Journal, 2004, vol. 21 (2): 37-46. - https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2004-3008
Bauböck, Reiner. Towards a Political Theory of Migrant Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2003, vol. 37 (3): 700-723. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x
Bauböck, Reiner. Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting. Fordham Law Review, 2006, vol. 75 (5): 2393-2447.
Bauböck, Reiner. The Trade-Off between Transnational Citizenship and Political Autonomy. Basingstoke y Nueva York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 69-91
Bauböck, Reiner. Morphing the Demos into the Right Shape. Normative Principles for Enfranchising Resident Aliens and Expatriate Citizens. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 820-839. - https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.988146
Bauböck, Reiner y Faist, Thomas. Diaspora and Transnationalism Concepts, Theories and Methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089642387
Bermúdez, Anastasia. The Transnational Political Practices of Colombians in Spain and the uk: Politics 'Here' and 'There'. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2010, vol. 33 (1): 75-91. - https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870903125838
Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Moraes, Natalia. Opportunities and Costs of the Political Transnational Field in the Context of Colombian, Peruvian and Uruguayan Migration to Spain. Revista Via Iuris, 2014, vol. 16: 141-157.
Boccagni, Paolo y Ramírez, Jacques. Building Democracy or Reproducing «Ecuadoreanness»? A Transnational Exploration of Ecuadorean Migrants' External Voting. Journal of Latin America Studies, 2013, vol. 45 (4): 721-750. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X13001181
Calderón Chelius, Leticia. Votar en la distancia: la extensión de los derechos políticos a migrantes, experiencias comparadas. México, D.F.: Instituto Mora, 2004.
Collyer, Michael. Inside out? Directly Elected «Special Representation» of Emigrants in National Legislatures and the Role of Popular Sovereignty. Political Geography, 2014, vol. 3: 1-10. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.01.002
Collyer, Michael y Vathi, Zana. Patterns of Extra-territorial Voting. Working Paper. Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalization and Poverty, 2007: 22: 1-36.
Crisp, Brian; Demirkaya, Betul y Millian, Courtney. The Impact of Formal Paths to Office on Descriptive, Symbolic, and Substantive Representation: Maori in the New Zealand Parliament. Working Paper, 2014.
Délano, Alexandra. Mexico and its Diaspora in the United States: Policies of Emigration Since 1848. Nueva York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. - https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511894848
Délano, Alexandra. The Diffusion of Diaspora Engagement Policies: A Latin American Agenda. Political Geography, 2013, vol. 3: 1-11.
Congreso Constituyente Democrático. Ley Orgánica de Elecciones, 1997.
Congreso Nacional. Ley Número 136-11 que regula el voto de los dominicanos y dominicanas en el exterior, 2011.
Escobar, Cristina y Kopp, Milena. El voto en el exterior. Estudio comparativo de las elecciones colombianas legislativas y presidenciales. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, 2015.
Gamlen, Alan. The emigration state and the modern geopolitical imagination. Political Geography, 2008, vol. 27 (8): 840-856. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2008.10.004
Gamlen, Alan. Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance. International Migration Review, 2014, vol. 48 (1): S180-S217. - https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12136
Gamlen, Alan. The Impacts of Extra-territorial Voting: Swings, Interregnums and Feedback Effects in New Zealand Elections from 1914 to 2011. Political Geography, 2015, vol. 44: 1-8. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.08.005
González, Olga. El voto de los colombianos en el exterior: elecciones entre disfuncionamientos y rebusque. Ciencia Política, 2010, vol. 9: 62-77.
Goodin, Robert. Enfranchising All Affected Interests, and its Alternatives. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 2007, 35 (1): 40-68. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.2007.00098.x
Guarnizo, Luis Eduardo; Portes, Alejandro y Haller, Wiliam. Assimilation and Transnationalism: Determinants of Transnational Political Action among Contemporary Migrants. American Journal of Sociology, 2003, vol. 108 (6): 1211-1248. - https://doi.org/10.1086/375195
Hutcheson, Derek y Arrighi, Jean-Thomas. Keeping Pandora's (Ballot) Box Half-Shut: A Comparative Inquiry into the Institutional Limits of External Voting in eu Member States. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 884-905
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.979161
Itzigsohn, José. Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship: The Institutions of Immigrants' Political Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2000, vol. 34 (4): 1126-1154. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2675977
Lafleur, Jean-Michel. The Transnational Political Participation of Latin American and Caribbean Migrants Residing in Europe. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 1-9. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00688.x
Lafleur, Jean-Michel. Transnational Politics and the State: The External Voting Rights of Diasporas. Nueva York: Routledge, 2013.
Mansbridge, Jane. Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent «Yes». The Journal of Politics, 1999, vol. 61 (03): 628-657. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821
Moraes, Natalia; Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Padilla, Beatriz. Estrategias de vinculación de los estados latinoamericanos con sus diásporas: Un análisis de las iniciativas desarrolladas por Colombia, Perú, Brasil y Uruguay. En Escrivá, Ángeles; Bermúdez, Anastasia y Moraes, Natalia (eds.). Migración y participación política. Estados, organizaciones y migrantes latinoamericanos en perspectiva local transnacional. Madrid: csic, 2009.
Østergaard-Nielsen, Eva. International Migration and Sending Countries: Perceptions, Policies, and Transnational Relations. Basingstoke: Macmillan Palgrave, 2003. - https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230512429
Padilla, Beatriz. Engagement Policies and Practices: Expanding the Citizenship of the Brazilian Diaspora. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 10-29. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00694.x
Pitkin, Hanna. The Concept of Representation. Berkley: University of California Press, 1967.
Portes, Alejandro; Guarnizo, Luis E. y Landolt, Patricia. The Study of Transnationalism: Pitfalls and Promise of an Emergent Research Field. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1999, vol. 22 (2): 217-37. - https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329468
Rhodes, Sybil y Harutyunyan, Arus. Extending Citizenship to Emigrants: Democratic Contestation and a New Global Norm. International Political Science Review, 2010, vol. 31(4): 470-493. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512110374044
Rubio-Marín, Ruth. Transnational Politics and the Democratic Nation-State: Normative Challenges of Expatriate Voting and Nationality Retention of Emigrants. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 117-147.
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie. Political Power and Women's Representation in Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731954.001.0001
Spiro, Peter. Perfecting Political Diaspora. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 207-233.
Turcu, Anca y Urbatsch, R. Diffusion of Diaspora Enfranchisement Norms A Multinational Study. Comparative Political Studies, 2014, vol. 48 (4): 407-437. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414014546331
Vono de Vilhena, Daniela. Vinculación de los emigrados latinoamericanos y caribe-os con su país de origen: transnacionalismo y políticas públicas. Santiago de Chile: Naciones Unidas, 2006.
Wucker, Michele. Remittances: The Perpetual Migration Machine. World Policy Journal, 2004, vol. 21 (2): 37-46. - https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2004-3008
Palop Garcia, P. (2017). Ausentes, pero representados: mecanismos institucionales de representación de emigrantes en América Latina y el Caribe. América Latina Hoy, 76, 15–34. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh2017761534
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