Absent but represented: institutional mechanisms of representation of emigrants in Latin America and the Caribbean
Abstract This paper, using the framework provided by studies on transnationalism and political representation, analyzes the institutional mechanisms that 22 states of Latin America and the Caribbean have designed to formally incorporate emigrants into their political process –reserved seats in their legislative chambers and advisory boards–. This analysis reveals that almost half of the states included in the sample do have a mechanism of institutional representation for emigrants.
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Asamblea Nacional. Ley orgánica electoral y de organizaciones políticas de la República del Ecuador, 2009.
Bauböck, Reiner. Towards a Political Theory of Migrant Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2003, vol. 37 (3): 700-723. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x
Bauböck, Reiner. Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting. Fordham Law Review, 2006, vol. 75 (5): 2393-2447.
Bauböck, Reiner. The Trade-Off between Transnational Citizenship and Political Autonomy. Basingstoke y Nueva York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 69-91
Bauböck, Reiner. Morphing the Demos into the Right Shape. Normative Principles for Enfranchising Resident Aliens and Expatriate Citizens. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 820-839. - https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.988146
Bauböck, Reiner y Faist, Thomas. Diaspora and Transnationalism Concepts, Theories and Methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089642387
Bermúdez, Anastasia. The Transnational Political Practices of Colombians in Spain and the uk: Politics 'Here' and 'There'. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2010, vol. 33 (1): 75-91. - https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870903125838
Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Moraes, Natalia. Opportunities and Costs of the Political Transnational Field in the Context of Colombian, Peruvian and Uruguayan Migration to Spain. Revista Via Iuris, 2014, vol. 16: 141-157.
Boccagni, Paolo y Ramírez, Jacques. Building Democracy or Reproducing «Ecuadoreanness»? A Transnational Exploration of Ecuadorean Migrants' External Voting. Journal of Latin America Studies, 2013, vol. 45 (4): 721-750. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X13001181
Calderón Chelius, Leticia. Votar en la distancia: la extensión de los derechos políticos a migrantes, experiencias comparadas. México, D.F.: Instituto Mora, 2004.
Collyer, Michael. Inside out? Directly Elected «Special Representation» of Emigrants in National Legislatures and the Role of Popular Sovereignty. Political Geography, 2014, vol. 3: 1-10. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.01.002
Collyer, Michael y Vathi, Zana. Patterns of Extra-territorial Voting. Working Paper. Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalization and Poverty, 2007: 22: 1-36.
Crisp, Brian; Demirkaya, Betul y Millian, Courtney. The Impact of Formal Paths to Office on Descriptive, Symbolic, and Substantive Representation: Maori in the New Zealand Parliament. Working Paper, 2014.
Délano, Alexandra. Mexico and its Diaspora in the United States: Policies of Emigration Since 1848. Nueva York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. - https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511894848
Délano, Alexandra. The Diffusion of Diaspora Engagement Policies: A Latin American Agenda. Political Geography, 2013, vol. 3: 1-11.
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https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.979161
Itzigsohn, José. Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship: The Institutions of Immigrants' Political Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2000, vol. 34 (4): 1126-1154. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2675977
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Lafleur, Jean-Michel. Transnational Politics and the State: The External Voting Rights of Diasporas. Nueva York: Routledge, 2013.
Mansbridge, Jane. Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent «Yes». The Journal of Politics, 1999, vol. 61 (03): 628-657. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821
Moraes, Natalia; Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Padilla, Beatriz. Estrategias de vinculación de los estados latinoamericanos con sus diásporas: Un análisis de las iniciativas desarrolladas por Colombia, Perú, Brasil y Uruguay. En Escrivá, Ángeles; Bermúdez, Anastasia y Moraes, Natalia (eds.). Migración y participación política. Estados, organizaciones y migrantes latinoamericanos en perspectiva local transnacional. Madrid: csic, 2009.
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Padilla, Beatriz. Engagement Policies and Practices: Expanding the Citizenship of the Brazilian Diaspora. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 10-29. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00694.x
Pitkin, Hanna. The Concept of Representation. Berkley: University of California Press, 1967.
Portes, Alejandro; Guarnizo, Luis E. y Landolt, Patricia. The Study of Transnationalism: Pitfalls and Promise of an Emergent Research Field. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1999, vol. 22 (2): 217-37. - https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329468
Rhodes, Sybil y Harutyunyan, Arus. Extending Citizenship to Emigrants: Democratic Contestation and a New Global Norm. International Political Science Review, 2010, vol. 31(4): 470-493. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512110374044
Rubio-Marín, Ruth. Transnational Politics and the Democratic Nation-State: Normative Challenges of Expatriate Voting and Nationality Retention of Emigrants. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 117-147.
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie. Political Power and Women's Representation in Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731954.001.0001
Spiro, Peter. Perfecting Political Diaspora. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 207-233.
Turcu, Anca y Urbatsch, R. Diffusion of Diaspora Enfranchisement Norms A Multinational Study. Comparative Political Studies, 2014, vol. 48 (4): 407-437. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414014546331
Vono de Vilhena, Daniela. Vinculación de los emigrados latinoamericanos y caribe-os con su país de origen: transnacionalismo y políticas públicas. Santiago de Chile: Naciones Unidas, 2006.
Wucker, Michele. Remittances: The Perpetual Migration Machine. World Policy Journal, 2004, vol. 21 (2): 37-46. - https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2004-3008
Bauböck, Reiner. Towards a Political Theory of Migrant Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2003, vol. 37 (3): 700-723. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2003.tb00155.x
Bauböck, Reiner. Stakeholder Citizenship and Transnational Political Participation: A Normative Evaluation of External Voting. Fordham Law Review, 2006, vol. 75 (5): 2393-2447.
Bauböck, Reiner. The Trade-Off between Transnational Citizenship and Political Autonomy. Basingstoke y Nueva York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007: 69-91
Bauböck, Reiner. Morphing the Demos into the Right Shape. Normative Principles for Enfranchising Resident Aliens and Expatriate Citizens. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 820-839. - https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.988146
Bauböck, Reiner y Faist, Thomas. Diaspora and Transnationalism Concepts, Theories and Methods. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.5117/9789089642387
Bermúdez, Anastasia. The Transnational Political Practices of Colombians in Spain and the uk: Politics 'Here' and 'There'. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 2010, vol. 33 (1): 75-91. - https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870903125838
Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Moraes, Natalia. Opportunities and Costs of the Political Transnational Field in the Context of Colombian, Peruvian and Uruguayan Migration to Spain. Revista Via Iuris, 2014, vol. 16: 141-157.
Boccagni, Paolo y Ramírez, Jacques. Building Democracy or Reproducing «Ecuadoreanness»? A Transnational Exploration of Ecuadorean Migrants' External Voting. Journal of Latin America Studies, 2013, vol. 45 (4): 721-750. - https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X13001181
Calderón Chelius, Leticia. Votar en la distancia: la extensión de los derechos políticos a migrantes, experiencias comparadas. México, D.F.: Instituto Mora, 2004.
Collyer, Michael. Inside out? Directly Elected «Special Representation» of Emigrants in National Legislatures and the Role of Popular Sovereignty. Political Geography, 2014, vol. 3: 1-10. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.01.002
Collyer, Michael y Vathi, Zana. Patterns of Extra-territorial Voting. Working Paper. Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalization and Poverty, 2007: 22: 1-36.
Crisp, Brian; Demirkaya, Betul y Millian, Courtney. The Impact of Formal Paths to Office on Descriptive, Symbolic, and Substantive Representation: Maori in the New Zealand Parliament. Working Paper, 2014.
Délano, Alexandra. Mexico and its Diaspora in the United States: Policies of Emigration Since 1848. Nueva York: Cambridge University Press, 2011. - https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511894848
Délano, Alexandra. The Diffusion of Diaspora Engagement Policies: A Latin American Agenda. Political Geography, 2013, vol. 3: 1-11.
Congreso Constituyente Democrático. Ley Orgánica de Elecciones, 1997.
Congreso Nacional. Ley Número 136-11 que regula el voto de los dominicanos y dominicanas en el exterior, 2011.
Escobar, Cristina y Kopp, Milena. El voto en el exterior. Estudio comparativo de las elecciones colombianas legislativas y presidenciales. Bogotá: Universidad Externado de Colombia, 2015.
Gamlen, Alan. The emigration state and the modern geopolitical imagination. Political Geography, 2008, vol. 27 (8): 840-856. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2008.10.004
Gamlen, Alan. Diaspora Institutions and Diaspora Governance. International Migration Review, 2014, vol. 48 (1): S180-S217. - https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12136
Gamlen, Alan. The Impacts of Extra-territorial Voting: Swings, Interregnums and Feedback Effects in New Zealand Elections from 1914 to 2011. Political Geography, 2015, vol. 44: 1-8. - https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2014.08.005
González, Olga. El voto de los colombianos en el exterior: elecciones entre disfuncionamientos y rebusque. Ciencia Política, 2010, vol. 9: 62-77.
Goodin, Robert. Enfranchising All Affected Interests, and its Alternatives. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 2007, 35 (1): 40-68. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1088-4963.2007.00098.x
Guarnizo, Luis Eduardo; Portes, Alejandro y Haller, Wiliam. Assimilation and Transnationalism: Determinants of Transnational Political Action among Contemporary Migrants. American Journal of Sociology, 2003, vol. 108 (6): 1211-1248. - https://doi.org/10.1086/375195
Hutcheson, Derek y Arrighi, Jean-Thomas. Keeping Pandora's (Ballot) Box Half-Shut: A Comparative Inquiry into the Institutional Limits of External Voting in eu Member States. Democratization, 2015, vol. 22 (5): 884-905
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2014.979161
Itzigsohn, José. Immigration and the Boundaries of Citizenship: The Institutions of Immigrants' Political Transnationalism. International Migration Review, 2000, vol. 34 (4): 1126-1154. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2675977
Lafleur, Jean-Michel. The Transnational Political Participation of Latin American and Caribbean Migrants Residing in Europe. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 1-9. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00688.x
Lafleur, Jean-Michel. Transnational Politics and the State: The External Voting Rights of Diasporas. Nueva York: Routledge, 2013.
Mansbridge, Jane. Should Blacks Represent Blacks and Women Represent Women? A Contingent «Yes». The Journal of Politics, 1999, vol. 61 (03): 628-657. - https://doi.org/10.2307/2647821
Moraes, Natalia; Bermúdez, Anastasia; Escrivá, Ángeles y Padilla, Beatriz. Estrategias de vinculación de los estados latinoamericanos con sus diásporas: Un análisis de las iniciativas desarrolladas por Colombia, Perú, Brasil y Uruguay. En Escrivá, Ángeles; Bermúdez, Anastasia y Moraes, Natalia (eds.). Migración y participación política. Estados, organizaciones y migrantes latinoamericanos en perspectiva local transnacional. Madrid: csic, 2009.
Østergaard-Nielsen, Eva. International Migration and Sending Countries: Perceptions, Policies, and Transnational Relations. Basingstoke: Macmillan Palgrave, 2003. - https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230512429
Padilla, Beatriz. Engagement Policies and Practices: Expanding the Citizenship of the Brazilian Diaspora. International Migration, 2011, vol. 49 (3): 10-29. - https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2435.2011.00694.x
Pitkin, Hanna. The Concept of Representation. Berkley: University of California Press, 1967.
Portes, Alejandro; Guarnizo, Luis E. y Landolt, Patricia. The Study of Transnationalism: Pitfalls and Promise of an Emergent Research Field. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 1999, vol. 22 (2): 217-37. - https://doi.org/10.1080/014198799329468
Rhodes, Sybil y Harutyunyan, Arus. Extending Citizenship to Emigrants: Democratic Contestation and a New Global Norm. International Political Science Review, 2010, vol. 31(4): 470-493. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512110374044
Rubio-Marín, Ruth. Transnational Politics and the Democratic Nation-State: Normative Challenges of Expatriate Voting and Nationality Retention of Emigrants. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 117-147.
Schwindt-Bayer, Leslie. Political Power and Women's Representation in Latin America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. - https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199731954.001.0001
Spiro, Peter. Perfecting Political Diaspora. New York University Law Review, 2006, vol. 81: 207-233.
Turcu, Anca y Urbatsch, R. Diffusion of Diaspora Enfranchisement Norms A Multinational Study. Comparative Political Studies, 2014, vol. 48 (4): 407-437. - https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414014546331
Vono de Vilhena, Daniela. Vinculación de los emigrados latinoamericanos y caribe-os con su país de origen: transnacionalismo y políticas públicas. Santiago de Chile: Naciones Unidas, 2006.
Wucker, Michele. Remittances: The Perpetual Migration Machine. World Policy Journal, 2004, vol. 21 (2): 37-46. - https://doi.org/10.1215/07402775-2004-3008
Palop Garcia, P. (2017). Absent but represented: institutional mechanisms of representation of emigrants in Latin America and the Caribbean. América Latina Hoy, 76, 15–34. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh2017761534
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