Frans de Waal, Legal Philosopher
Abstract The claim that only humans are able to reason and act normatively is deeply inconsistent with evolutionary theory, although it is at the root of many premises assumed to be undisputed in legal theory. Recently, in the last thirty or forty years, ethology and primatology have presented evidence that other animals are also agents capable of cooperating based on social norms. In this context, Frans de Waal’s research offered a fundamental pillar for the investigation of the behavior of primates and other mammals, such as elephants and dolphins. This article intends to present how the work of the ethologist can provide subsidies to the revisitation of classical themes in the theory of law. The text discusses how Frans de Waal makes it possible to incorporate into legal philosophy the adequate understanding of moral cognition as a ground to theorize about the notion of legal subject and animal rights, as well as to architect a counterargument to the naturalistic fallacy as an obstacle to a naturalized conception of law.
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Almeida, Fábio Portela Lopes De (2011). A evolução da mente normativa: origens da cooperação humana. Brasília: Universidade de Brasília.
Almeida, Fábio Portela Lopes De (2013). As origens evolutivas da cooperação humana e suas implicações para a teoria do direito. Revista Direito GV, 9(1), 243-268. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1808-24322013000100009
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Brosnan, Sarah F. & De Waal, Frans (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature, 425(6955), 297-299. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
Brosnan, Sarah F., Houser, Daniel, Leimgruber, Kristin, Xiao, Erte, Chen, Tianwen & de Waal, Frans, B. M. (2010a). Competing demands of prosociality and equity in monkeys. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(4), 279-288.
Brosnan, Sarah F., Talbot, Catherine, Ahlgren, Megan, Lambeth, Susan P. & Schapiro, Steven J. (2010b). Mechanisms underlying responses to inequitable outcomes in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Animal Behaviour, 79(6), 1229-1237.
Burghardt, Gordon M. (1985). Animal awareness: Current perceptions and historical perspective. American psychologist, 40(8), 905.
Byrne, Richard W. & Whiten, Andrew (1988). Machiavellian intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carter, Gerald (2014). The reciprocity controversy. Animal Behavior and Cognition, 1(3), 368-386. https://doi.org/10.12966/abc.08.11.2014
Chediak, Karla (2006). O problema da falácia naturalista para o projeto de uma ética evolucionista. Kriterion: Revista de Filosofia, 47(113), 147-157. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-512X2006000100008
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Contreras, Francisco José (Org.) (2013). The threads of natural law: unravelling a philosophical tradition. London: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5656-4
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Ferraz Junior, Tércio Sampaio (2013). Introdução ao estudo do direito: técnica, decisão, dominação. São Paulo: Atlas.
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Hayek, F. A. (1998). Law, Legislation and Liberty. London: Routledge.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr (1900). Law in science and science in law. The Brief, 2, 105-127.
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Lorini, Giuseppe (2018). Animal norms: an investigation of normativity in the non-human social world. Law, culture and the humanities, 18(3), 652-673. https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872118800008
Maine, Henry Sumner (1906). Ancient law. New York: Henry Bolt and Company.
Moore, G. E. (1993). Principia ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nowak, Martin A. (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science, 314(5805), 1560-1563. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133755
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Plotnik, Joshua M. et al. (2011). Elephants know when they need a helping trunk in a cooperative task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(12), 5116-5121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1101765108
Plotnik, Joshua M., Waal, Frans B. M. De, & Reiss, Diana (2006). Self-recognition in an Asian elephant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(45), 17053-17057. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608062103
Posner, Richard A. (1980). A Theory of primitive society, with special reference to law. The Journal of Law and Economics, 23(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1086/466951
Preston, Stephanie D.; WAAL, Frans De. Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, v. 25, n. 1, p. 1-20, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X02000018
Richardson, Peter J. & Boyd, Robert (2008). Not by genes alone. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sacco, Rodolfo (1995). Mute law. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 43, 455-467. https://doi.org/10.2307/840648
Santos, Moacyr Amaral (2011). Primeiras linhas de direito processual civil (vol. 1). São Paulo: Saraiva.
Silk, Joan B. (2009). Nepotistic cooperation in non-human primate groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1533), 3243-3254. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0118
Singer, Peter (2009). Animal liberation. New York: Open Road.
Soltis, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, & Richardson, Peter J. (1995). Can group-functional behaviors evolve by cultural group selection? An empirical test. Current Anthropology, 36(3), 473-494. https://doi.org/10.1086/204381
Spada, Emanuela Cenami (1997). Amorphism, mechanomorphism, and anthropomorphism. In Mitchell, R. W., Thompson, N. S. and Lyn Miles, H. (Eds.), Anthropomorphism, anecdotes and animals (pp. 37-49). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Waal, Frans De (1989). Chimpanzee politics: power and sex among apes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Paperbacks.
Waal, Frans De (1991). The Chimpanzee’s sense of social regularity and its relation to the human sense of justice. American Behavioral Scientist, 34(3), 335-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764291034003005
Waal, Frans De (2000). Primates: a natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science, 289, 586-590. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5479.586
Waal, Frans De (2009). Darwin’s last laugh. Nature, 460(7252), 175-175.
Waal, Frans De (2010). Age of empathy: nature’s lessons for a kinder society. New York: Harmony Books.
Waal, Frans De (2014). Natural normativity: the ‘is’ and ‘ought’ of animal behavior. Behaviour, 151(2-3), 185-204. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003146
Waal, Frans De et al. (2006). Primates and philosophers: how morality evolved. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Waal, Frans De, van Hoof, Jan A. R. A. M., & Netto, Willem J. (1976). An ethological analysis of types of agonistic interaction in a captive group of Java-monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Primates, 17(3), 257-290. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02382785
Wright, Robert (2006). The uses of anthropomorphism. In Frans De Waal et al., Primates and philosophers: how morality evolved. Princeton: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830336-007
Almeida, Fábio Portela Lopes De (2011). A evolução da mente normativa: origens da cooperação humana. Brasília: Universidade de Brasília.
Almeida, Fábio Portela Lopes De (2013). As origens evolutivas da cooperação humana e suas implicações para a teoria do direito. Revista Direito GV, 9(1), 243-268. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1808-24322013000100009
Almeida, Fábio Portela Lopes De (2020). Constitution: the Darwinian evolution of a societal structure. Baden-Baden: Nomos. https://doi.org/10.5771/9783748905547
Alvim, José Eduardo Carreira (2001). Elementos de teoria geral do processo. Rio de Janeiro: Forense.
Brosnan, Sarah F. & De Waal, Frans (2003). Monkeys reject unequal pay. Nature, 425(6955), 297-299. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
Brosnan, Sarah F., Houser, Daniel, Leimgruber, Kristin, Xiao, Erte, Chen, Tianwen & de Waal, Frans, B. M. (2010a). Competing demands of prosociality and equity in monkeys. Evolution and Human Behavior, 31(4), 279-288.
Brosnan, Sarah F., Talbot, Catherine, Ahlgren, Megan, Lambeth, Susan P. & Schapiro, Steven J. (2010b). Mechanisms underlying responses to inequitable outcomes in chimpanzees, Pan troglodytes. Animal Behaviour, 79(6), 1229-1237.
Burghardt, Gordon M. (1985). Animal awareness: Current perceptions and historical perspective. American psychologist, 40(8), 905.
Byrne, Richard W. & Whiten, Andrew (1988). Machiavellian intelligence. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Carter, Gerald (2014). The reciprocity controversy. Animal Behavior and Cognition, 1(3), 368-386. https://doi.org/10.12966/abc.08.11.2014
Chediak, Karla (2006). O problema da falácia naturalista para o projeto de uma ética evolucionista. Kriterion: Revista de Filosofia, 47(113), 147-157. https://doi.org/10.1590/S0100-512X2006000100008
Chernillo, Daniel (2013). The natural law foundations of modern Social Theory. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511842511
Contreras, Francisco José (Org.) (2013). The threads of natural law: unravelling a philosophical tradition. London: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5656-4
Das, Marjolijn (2000). Conflict management via third parties: post-conflict affiliation of the aggressor. In Frans de Waal, & Filippo Aureli (Org.), Natural conflict resolution (pp. 263-280). Berkeley & Los Angeles: University of California Press. https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520924932-019
Dunbar, Robin (1998). Grooming, gossip, and the evolution of language. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Ferraz Junior, Tércio Sampaio (2013). Introdução ao estudo do direito: técnica, decisão, dominação. São Paulo: Atlas.
Hart, Herbert L. (1994). The concept of law. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hayek, F. A. (1998). Law, Legislation and Liberty. London: Routledge.
Holmes, Oliver Wendell Jr (1900). Law in science and science in law. The Brief, 2, 105-127.
Hume, David (2009). Tratado da natureza humana. São Paulo: UNESP.
Jordan, Fiona M et al. (2013). Cultural evolution of the structure of human groups. In Peter Richerson & Morten Christiansen (Org.), Cultural evolution: society, technology, language, and religion (pp. 87-116). Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Lorini, Giuseppe (2018). Animal norms: an investigation of normativity in the non-human social world. Law, culture and the humanities, 18(3), 652-673. https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872118800008
Maine, Henry Sumner (1906). Ancient law. New York: Henry Bolt and Company.
Moore, G. E. (1993). Principia ethica. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nowak, Martin A. (2006). Five rules for the evolution of cooperation. Science, 314(5805), 1560-1563. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1133755
Nuccetelli, Susana (2021). The Routledge guidebook to Moore’s Principia Ethica. London: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429275975
Plotnik, Joshua M. et al. (2011). Elephants know when they need a helping trunk in a cooperative task. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(12), 5116-5121. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1101765108
Plotnik, Joshua M., Waal, Frans B. M. De, & Reiss, Diana (2006). Self-recognition in an Asian elephant. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 103(45), 17053-17057. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0608062103
Posner, Richard A. (1980). A Theory of primitive society, with special reference to law. The Journal of Law and Economics, 23(1), 53. https://doi.org/10.1086/466951
Preston, Stephanie D.; WAAL, Frans De. Empathy: Its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences, v. 25, n. 1, p. 1-20, 2001. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0140525X02000018
Richardson, Peter J. & Boyd, Robert (2008). Not by genes alone. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Sacco, Rodolfo (1995). Mute law. The American Journal of Comparative Law, 43, 455-467. https://doi.org/10.2307/840648
Santos, Moacyr Amaral (2011). Primeiras linhas de direito processual civil (vol. 1). São Paulo: Saraiva.
Silk, Joan B. (2009). Nepotistic cooperation in non-human primate groups. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 364(1533), 3243-3254. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0118
Singer, Peter (2009). Animal liberation. New York: Open Road.
Soltis, Joseph, Boyd, Robert, & Richardson, Peter J. (1995). Can group-functional behaviors evolve by cultural group selection? An empirical test. Current Anthropology, 36(3), 473-494. https://doi.org/10.1086/204381
Spada, Emanuela Cenami (1997). Amorphism, mechanomorphism, and anthropomorphism. In Mitchell, R. W., Thompson, N. S. and Lyn Miles, H. (Eds.), Anthropomorphism, anecdotes and animals (pp. 37-49). Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
Waal, Frans De (1989). Chimpanzee politics: power and sex among apes. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Paperbacks.
Waal, Frans De (1991). The Chimpanzee’s sense of social regularity and its relation to the human sense of justice. American Behavioral Scientist, 34(3), 335-349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764291034003005
Waal, Frans De (2000). Primates: a natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science, 289, 586-590. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5479.586
Waal, Frans De (2009). Darwin’s last laugh. Nature, 460(7252), 175-175.
Waal, Frans De (2010). Age of empathy: nature’s lessons for a kinder society. New York: Harmony Books.
Waal, Frans De (2014). Natural normativity: the ‘is’ and ‘ought’ of animal behavior. Behaviour, 151(2-3), 185-204. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003146
Waal, Frans De et al. (2006). Primates and philosophers: how morality evolved. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Waal, Frans De, van Hoof, Jan A. R. A. M., & Netto, Willem J. (1976). An ethological analysis of types of agonistic interaction in a captive group of Java-monkeys (Macaca fascicularis). Primates, 17(3), 257-290. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02382785
Wright, Robert (2006). The uses of anthropomorphism. In Frans De Waal et al., Primates and philosophers: how morality evolved. Princeton: Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400830336-007
Portela Lopes De Almeida, F. (2024). Frans de Waal, Legal Philosopher. ArtefaCToS. Revista De Estudios Sobre La Ciencia Y La tecnología, 13(1), 139–166. https://doi.org/10.14201/art2024.31172
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