¿Víctimas o verdugos?: La representación de las mujeres militantes de Daesh por la prensa española entre los años 2014 y 2023
Resumen Las mujeres han llevado a cabo actos de violencia política desde el origen del fenómeno del terrorismo en la Revolución Francesa. No obstante, la representación que se ha hecho de estas ha estado influenciada por estereotipos de género desde su incursión. Estas han sido identificadas como víctimas, seres con trastornos de conducta o como una suerte de femme fatale durante siglos. Este artículo analiza la construcción del discurso mediático que la prensa generalista española ha realizado sobre la militancia femenina de Daesh en el país. Para lograrlo, se realiza un análisis de contenido de la información recogida en los diarios El País y El Mundo sobre tres de las principales operaciones policiales españolas en las que fueron detenidas mujeres por su vinculación con la organización yihadista.
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Bakker, Edwin y de Leede, Seran (2015): «European Female jihadist in Syria: Exploring and Under-Researched Topic», International Centre for Counter-Terrorism The Hague Background Note, 2, icct Background Not. Tomado de https://www.icct.nl/publication/european-female-jihadists-syria-exploring-under-researched-topic [20 de junio de 2023].
Bleich, Erik; Stonebraker, Hannah; Nisar, Hasher y Rana, Abdelhamid (2015): «Media Portrayals of Minorities: Muslims in British Newspapers Headlines, 2001-2012», Journal of Ethic and Migration Studies, 41/6, pp. 942-962.
Bloom, Mia (2011): Bombshell: Women and terrorism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Cook, Joana y Vale, Gina (2018): From Daesh to ‘Diaspora’: Tracing the women and minors of Islamic State. Londres: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (icsr), King’s College London.
Conway, Maura y Mcinerney, Lisa (2012): «What’s love got to do with it? Framing “‘Jihad Jane” in the US press», Media, War & Conflict, 5/1, pp. 6-21.
Cunningham, Karla (2003): «Cross-National Trends in Female Terrorism» Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 26/3, pp. 171-195.
Davis, Jessica (2017): Women in Modern Terrorism: from Liberation Wars to Global Jihad and the Islamic State. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefiel.
Della Porta, Donatella (1992): «Political socialization in left-wing underground organizations: Biographies of Italian and German militants», International Social Movement Research, 4, pp. 259-90.
Denham, Bryan (2008): «Folk devils, news icons, and the construction of moral panics. Heroin chic and the amplification of drug threats in contemporary society», Journalism Studies, 9/6, pp. 945-961.
Eager, Paige Whaley (2008): From freedom fighters to terrorists: women and political violence. Londres: Routledge.
Eltantawy, Nahed Mohamed (2007): U.S. newspaper representation of Muslim and Arab women post 9/11. Tesis doctoral inédita, Georgia State University.
Entman, Robert, M (2007): «Framing bias: media in the distribution of power. Journal of Communication», 57/1, pp. 163-173.
Europol, European Union Terrorism situation and trend report 2017 (tesat 2017), Europol, Disponible en: https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-events/main-reports/eu-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-te-sat-2017
García García, María Isabel (2022): Radicalización femenina en España. Mujeres condenadas por su vinculación a Daesh. Madrid: Dykinson.
Gasztold, Aleksandra (2020): Feminist Perspectives on Terrorism. Critical Approaches to Security Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Garrison, Arthur H. (2004): «Defining Terrorism: Philosophy of the Bomb, Propaganda by Deed and Change Through Fear and Violence», Criminal Justice Studies. 17/3, pp. 259-279.
Gardner, Elizabeth (2007): «Is there method to the madness?», Journalism Studies, 8/6, pp. 909-929.
Gielen, Amy-Jane (2018): «Exit programmes for female jihadists: A proposal for conducting realistic evaluation of the Dutch approach», International Sociology, 33/4: pp. 454-472.
Herschinger, Eva (2014): «Political Science, Terrorism and Gender», Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung, 39/3, 149, pp. 46-66.
Issacharoff, Avi (2006): «The Palestinian and Israeli Media on Female Suicide Terrorists», en Yoram Schweitzer (ed.): Female Suicide Bombers: Dying for Equality? Tel Aviv: Jaffee Centre for Strategic Studies, pp. 43-50.
Jenkins, Brian (1975): «International Terrorism: A Balance Sheet», Survival, 17/4, pp. 158-164.
Kanhai, Ashna y Abbas, Tahir (2020): «A Second Chance? Dutch Muslim Women on the Reintegration of Female Returnees from Islamic State», Journal For Deradicalization, 22, pp. 155-187.
Kruglanski, Arie W. Bélanger, Jocelyn J. y Gunaratna, Rohan (2019): The Three pillars of radicalization: needs, narratives, and networks. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lahoud, Nelly. (2014): «The neglected sex: The jihadis’exclusion of women from jihad», Terrorism and Political Violence, 26/5, pp. 780-802.
Laqueur, Walter (1976): «The Futility of Terrorism», Harper’s Magazine, 252, p. 106.
Lavie-Dinur, Amit; Yarchi, Moran y Karniel, Yubal (2021): «Online news coverage of female perpetrators during the October 2015 wave of violence of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict», Media, War & Conflict, 14/1, pp. 75-92.
Martini, Alice (2018): «Making women terrorists into «jihadi brides”: an analysis of media narratives on women joining isis», Critical Studies on Terrorism, 11/3, pp. 458-477.
Mcluhan, Marshall (1964): Understanding media: The extensions of Man. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The mit Press.
Mcmanus, Anne-Marie (2013): «Sentimental terror narratives: Gendering violence, dividing sympathy», Journal of Middle East Women Studies, 9/2, pp. 80-107.
Most, Johann (1885): Action as propaganda. Tomado de: http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html [20 de junio de 2023]
Naaman, Dorit (2007): «Brides of Palestine/Angels of Death: Media, Gender, and Performance in the Case of the Palestinian Female Suicide Bombers», Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 32/4, pp. 933-955.
Nacos, Brigitte (2002): Mass-Mediated Terrorism. The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Nacos, Brigitte (2005): «The portrayal of female terrorists in the media: similar framing patterns in the news coverage of women in politics and in terrorism», Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28/5, pp. 435-451.
Ness, Cindy D. (2005): «In the name of the cause: women’s work in secular and religious terrorism», Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28/5, pp. 353-373.
Plaza, Juan, Rivas-Nieto, Pedro y Rey-García, Pablo (2017): «La representación de las mujeres terroristas y víctimas del terrorismo en prensa española. El caso de El País», Revista Latina de Comunicación Social (rlcs), 72, pp. 129-144.
Sageman, Marc (2004), Understanding terror networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Schmid, Alex P. (2021): «Prevention of (Ab-)Use of Mass Media by Terrorists (and vice versa)», en Schmid, Alex (ed.), Handbook of Terrorism Prevention and Preparedness. La Haya: International Centre For Counter-Terrorism.
Schmid, Rachel (2020): «Duped: Examining Gender Stereotypes in Disengagement and Deradicalization Practices», Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 45/11: 953-976.
Schraut, Sylvia y Weinhauer, Klaus (2014): «Terrorism, Gender, and History. Introduction», Historical Social Research, Special Issue: «Terrorism, Gender, and History. State of Research, Concepts, Case Studies», 39/3, pp. 7-45.
Schweitzer, Yoram y Mendelboim, Aviad (2018): Report on suicide attacks in 2017: fewer attacks, more women bombers, The Institute for National Security Studies (inss), n.º 1008. Tomado de: https://www.inss.org.il/publication/report-suicide-attacks-2017-fewer-attacks-women/ [20 de junio de 2023].
Shaban, Sara (2020): «Teenager, Terrorism, and Technopanic: How British Newspapers Framed Female Isis Recruits as Victims of Social Media», International Journal of Communication, 14, pp. 535-555.
Shoemaker, Pamela y Reese, Stephen D. (1996): Mediating the message: Theories of Influence on Mass Media Content. New York, NY: Longman Publishers.
Simcox, Robin (2018, junio/julio): «The 2016 french female attack cell: a case study», ctc Sentinel, 11/6. Tomado de: https://ctc.westpoint.edu/2016-french-female-attack-cell-case-study/ [20 de junio de 2023].
Sjoberg, Laura y Gentry, Caron. E. (2007): Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women’s Violence in Global Politics. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Sjoberg, Laura. y Gentry, Caron. E. (2008): «Reduced to Bad Sex: Narratives of Violent Women from de Bible to the war on Terror», International Relations, 22/1, pp. 5-23.
Sjoberg, Laura y Gentry, Caron. E. (2011): Women, Gender and Terrorism. University of Georgia Press.
Sjoberg, Laura. (2018): «Jihadi brides and female volunteers: Reading the Islamic State’s war to see gender and agency in conflict dynamics», 35/3, pp. 296-311.
Strømmen, Ester E. J. (2017) «Jihadi Brides or Female Foreign Fighters? Women in Da’esh – from Recruitment to Sentencing», Gps Policy Brief, 1. Oslo: prio.
Vale, Gina (2019): «Women in Islamic State: From Caliphate to camps», icct Policy Brief. La Haya: International Centre For Counter-Terrorism.
Varanese, Joseph (2016): Follow me so I can dm you back: an exploratory analysis of a female pro-isis twitter network. Trabajo de Fin de Máster, University of Western Ontario. Tomado de: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6001&context=etd [20 de junio de 2023].
Bleich, Erik; Stonebraker, Hannah; Nisar, Hasher y Rana, Abdelhamid (2015): «Media Portrayals of Minorities: Muslims in British Newspapers Headlines, 2001-2012», Journal of Ethic and Migration Studies, 41/6, pp. 942-962.
Bloom, Mia (2011): Bombshell: Women and terrorism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Cook, Joana y Vale, Gina (2018): From Daesh to ‘Diaspora’: Tracing the women and minors of Islamic State. Londres: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation (icsr), King’s College London.
Conway, Maura y Mcinerney, Lisa (2012): «What’s love got to do with it? Framing “‘Jihad Jane” in the US press», Media, War & Conflict, 5/1, pp. 6-21.
Cunningham, Karla (2003): «Cross-National Trends in Female Terrorism» Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 26/3, pp. 171-195.
Davis, Jessica (2017): Women in Modern Terrorism: from Liberation Wars to Global Jihad and the Islamic State. Maryland: Rowman & Littlefiel.
Della Porta, Donatella (1992): «Political socialization in left-wing underground organizations: Biographies of Italian and German militants», International Social Movement Research, 4, pp. 259-90.
Denham, Bryan (2008): «Folk devils, news icons, and the construction of moral panics. Heroin chic and the amplification of drug threats in contemporary society», Journalism Studies, 9/6, pp. 945-961.
Eager, Paige Whaley (2008): From freedom fighters to terrorists: women and political violence. Londres: Routledge.
Eltantawy, Nahed Mohamed (2007): U.S. newspaper representation of Muslim and Arab women post 9/11. Tesis doctoral inédita, Georgia State University.
Entman, Robert, M (2007): «Framing bias: media in the distribution of power. Journal of Communication», 57/1, pp. 163-173.
Europol, European Union Terrorism situation and trend report 2017 (tesat 2017), Europol, Disponible en: https://www.europol.europa.eu/publications-events/main-reports/eu-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-te-sat-2017
García García, María Isabel (2022): Radicalización femenina en España. Mujeres condenadas por su vinculación a Daesh. Madrid: Dykinson.
Gasztold, Aleksandra (2020): Feminist Perspectives on Terrorism. Critical Approaches to Security Studies. Cham: Springer International Publishing.
Garrison, Arthur H. (2004): «Defining Terrorism: Philosophy of the Bomb, Propaganda by Deed and Change Through Fear and Violence», Criminal Justice Studies. 17/3, pp. 259-279.
Gardner, Elizabeth (2007): «Is there method to the madness?», Journalism Studies, 8/6, pp. 909-929.
Gielen, Amy-Jane (2018): «Exit programmes for female jihadists: A proposal for conducting realistic evaluation of the Dutch approach», International Sociology, 33/4: pp. 454-472.
Herschinger, Eva (2014): «Political Science, Terrorism and Gender», Historical Social Research / Historische Sozialforschung, 39/3, 149, pp. 46-66.
Issacharoff, Avi (2006): «The Palestinian and Israeli Media on Female Suicide Terrorists», en Yoram Schweitzer (ed.): Female Suicide Bombers: Dying for Equality? Tel Aviv: Jaffee Centre for Strategic Studies, pp. 43-50.
Jenkins, Brian (1975): «International Terrorism: A Balance Sheet», Survival, 17/4, pp. 158-164.
Kanhai, Ashna y Abbas, Tahir (2020): «A Second Chance? Dutch Muslim Women on the Reintegration of Female Returnees from Islamic State», Journal For Deradicalization, 22, pp. 155-187.
Kruglanski, Arie W. Bélanger, Jocelyn J. y Gunaratna, Rohan (2019): The Three pillars of radicalization: needs, narratives, and networks. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Lahoud, Nelly. (2014): «The neglected sex: The jihadis’exclusion of women from jihad», Terrorism and Political Violence, 26/5, pp. 780-802.
Laqueur, Walter (1976): «The Futility of Terrorism», Harper’s Magazine, 252, p. 106.
Lavie-Dinur, Amit; Yarchi, Moran y Karniel, Yubal (2021): «Online news coverage of female perpetrators during the October 2015 wave of violence of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict», Media, War & Conflict, 14/1, pp. 75-92.
Martini, Alice (2018): «Making women terrorists into «jihadi brides”: an analysis of media narratives on women joining isis», Critical Studies on Terrorism, 11/3, pp. 458-477.
Mcluhan, Marshall (1964): Understanding media: The extensions of Man. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The mit Press.
Mcmanus, Anne-Marie (2013): «Sentimental terror narratives: Gendering violence, dividing sympathy», Journal of Middle East Women Studies, 9/2, pp. 80-107.
Most, Johann (1885): Action as propaganda. Tomado de: http://dwardmac.pitzer.edu/Anarchist_Archives/bright/most/actionprop.html [20 de junio de 2023]
Naaman, Dorit (2007): «Brides of Palestine/Angels of Death: Media, Gender, and Performance in the Case of the Palestinian Female Suicide Bombers», Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society, 32/4, pp. 933-955.
Nacos, Brigitte (2002): Mass-Mediated Terrorism. The Central Role of the Media in Terrorism and Counterterrorism. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield.
Nacos, Brigitte (2005): «The portrayal of female terrorists in the media: similar framing patterns in the news coverage of women in politics and in terrorism», Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28/5, pp. 435-451.
Ness, Cindy D. (2005): «In the name of the cause: women’s work in secular and religious terrorism», Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28/5, pp. 353-373.
Plaza, Juan, Rivas-Nieto, Pedro y Rey-García, Pablo (2017): «La representación de las mujeres terroristas y víctimas del terrorismo en prensa española. El caso de El País», Revista Latina de Comunicación Social (rlcs), 72, pp. 129-144.
Sageman, Marc (2004), Understanding terror networks. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Schmid, Alex P. (2021): «Prevention of (Ab-)Use of Mass Media by Terrorists (and vice versa)», en Schmid, Alex (ed.), Handbook of Terrorism Prevention and Preparedness. La Haya: International Centre For Counter-Terrorism.
Schmid, Rachel (2020): «Duped: Examining Gender Stereotypes in Disengagement and Deradicalization Practices», Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 45/11: 953-976.
Schraut, Sylvia y Weinhauer, Klaus (2014): «Terrorism, Gender, and History. Introduction», Historical Social Research, Special Issue: «Terrorism, Gender, and History. State of Research, Concepts, Case Studies», 39/3, pp. 7-45.
Schweitzer, Yoram y Mendelboim, Aviad (2018): Report on suicide attacks in 2017: fewer attacks, more women bombers, The Institute for National Security Studies (inss), n.º 1008. Tomado de: https://www.inss.org.il/publication/report-suicide-attacks-2017-fewer-attacks-women/ [20 de junio de 2023].
Shaban, Sara (2020): «Teenager, Terrorism, and Technopanic: How British Newspapers Framed Female Isis Recruits as Victims of Social Media», International Journal of Communication, 14, pp. 535-555.
Shoemaker, Pamela y Reese, Stephen D. (1996): Mediating the message: Theories of Influence on Mass Media Content. New York, NY: Longman Publishers.
Simcox, Robin (2018, junio/julio): «The 2016 french female attack cell: a case study», ctc Sentinel, 11/6. Tomado de: https://ctc.westpoint.edu/2016-french-female-attack-cell-case-study/ [20 de junio de 2023].
Sjoberg, Laura y Gentry, Caron. E. (2007): Mothers, Monsters, Whores: Women’s Violence in Global Politics. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Sjoberg, Laura. y Gentry, Caron. E. (2008): «Reduced to Bad Sex: Narratives of Violent Women from de Bible to the war on Terror», International Relations, 22/1, pp. 5-23.
Sjoberg, Laura y Gentry, Caron. E. (2011): Women, Gender and Terrorism. University of Georgia Press.
Sjoberg, Laura. (2018): «Jihadi brides and female volunteers: Reading the Islamic State’s war to see gender and agency in conflict dynamics», 35/3, pp. 296-311.
Strømmen, Ester E. J. (2017) «Jihadi Brides or Female Foreign Fighters? Women in Da’esh – from Recruitment to Sentencing», Gps Policy Brief, 1. Oslo: prio.
Vale, Gina (2019): «Women in Islamic State: From Caliphate to camps», icct Policy Brief. La Haya: International Centre For Counter-Terrorism.
Varanese, Joseph (2016): Follow me so I can dm you back: an exploratory analysis of a female pro-isis twitter network. Trabajo de Fin de Máster, University of Western Ontario. Tomado de: https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=6001&context=etd [20 de junio de 2023].
Garcia Garcia, M. I. (2023). ¿Víctimas o verdugos?: La representación de las mujeres militantes de Daesh por la prensa española entre los años 2014 y 2023. Studia Historica. Historia Contemporánea, 41, 39–56. https://doi.org/10.14201/shhc2023413956
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