Interviewing business elites in Latin America: network analysis of interlocking directorates and ownership ties in Mexico, Chile, Peru and Brazil
Abstract Interweaving business elites is a call to study the networks among the people and organizations that manage and control the largest corporations. This article visualizes and characterizes business elites in Mexico, Chile, Peru and Brazil on basis of the network analysis of interlocking directorates and ownership ties. Results contribute to theories and debates on elites and power structures grounded on the analysis of Latin American cases.
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Aldrighi, Dante y Postali, Fernando. Business Groups in Brazil. En Colpan, Asli; Hikino, Takashi y Lincoln, James (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Business Groups. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010: 353-386. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552863.003.0013
Alonso, Pablo de Andrés; Blanco Alcántara, David y López de Foronda, Óscar. Los interlocking directorates en Espa-a. Evolución, poder y consejeros independientes. Revista Internacional de Sociología, 2014, vol. 72 (1): 83-114.
https://doi.org/10.3989/ris.2012.03.13
América Economía. Las 500 mayores empresas de América Latina. América Economía, 2013a, en línea: http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/2013/ranking_500_latinoamerica_2013/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
América Economía. Los 250 mayores bancos de América Latina. América Economía, 2013b, en línea: http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/2012/bancos/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
América Economía. Multilatinas 2014. América Economía, 2015, en línea: http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/multilatinas-2014/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Beltrán, Gastón y Castellani, Ana. Cambio estructural y reconfiguración de la elite económica argentina (1976-2001). Al Dorso, 2013, en línea: http://www.aldorso.com/21-SEP-13/ANA%20CASTELLANI-%20Reconfiguracion%20de%20elite%20empresaria.pdf. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Berle, Adolf y Means, Gardiner. Modern Corporation and Private Property. New Brunswick: Transaction, 1932.
Blanco Alcántara, David; López de Foronda, Óscar y Romero-Merino, María Elena. The Convergence between Continental and Anglo-Saxon models of governance: the role of banks in Spain and the United Kingdom. Transformation in Business & Economics, 2012, vol. 11 (3): 222-237.
Borgatti, Steve; Everett, Martin y Freeman, Linton. Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis. Harvard: Analytic Technologies, 2002.
Breiger, Ronald. The Duality of Persons and Groups. Social Forces, 1974, vol. 53 (2): 181-190.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/53.2.181
Camp, Roderic. Las elites del poder en México: perfil de una elite de poder para el siglo xxi. México df: siglo xxi, 2006.
Cárdenas, Julián. Varieties of Corporate Networks: network analysis and fsqca. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2012, vol. 53 (4): 298-322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715212460257
Cárdenas, Julián. El poder económico mundial: análisis de redes de interlocking directorates y variedades de capitalismo. Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 2014.
Cárdenas, Julián. Are Latin America's Corporate Elites Transnationally Interconnected? A Network Analysis of Interlocking Directorates. Global Networks, 2015, vol. 15 (4): 424-445. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12070
Carroll, William y Fennema, Meindert. Problems in the Study of the Transnational Business Community. A Reply to Kentor and Jang. International Sociology, 2004, vol. 19 (3): 369-378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580904045346
Casanova, Lourdes; Fraser, Matthew; Hoeber, Henning; Golstein, Andrea; Molina, Ramón; Arruda, Carlos y Almeida, André. From Multilatinas to Global Latinas: The New Latin American Multinationals. Washington, dc: Inter-American Development Bank, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230235021
Dahl, Robert A. Who Governs? New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961.
Domhoff, G. William. Who Rules America? Challenges to Corporate and Class Dominance. 6.a ed. McGraw-Hill, 2009 [1967].
Durand, Francisco. Las nuevas elites del poder: sue-os económicos y pesadillas políticas. En Pásara, Luis (ed.). Perú ante los desafíos del siglo xxi. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2011: 139-172.
Fama, Eugene y Jensen, Michael. Separation of Ownership and Control. Journal of Law and Economics, 1983, vol. 26 (2): 301-325. https://doi.org/10.1086/467037
Forbes. The World's Billionaires, 2007, en línea: https://web.archive.org/web/20070713222850/http://www.forbes.com/lists/2007/10/07billionaires_The-Worlds-Billionaires-Latin-America_6Rank.html. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Forbes. The World's Billionaires, 2014, en línea: https://web.archive.org/web/20140414063141/http://www.forbes.com/billionaires/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Gutiérrez, Luis; Pombo, Carlos y Taborda, Rodrigo. Ownership and control in Colombian corporations. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 2008, vol. 48 (1): 22-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2006.01.002
Hoshino, Taeko. Business Groups in Mexico. En Colpan, Asli; Hikino, Takashi y Lincoln, James (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Business Groups. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010: 424-457. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552863.003.0015
Jacobo, Edmundo; Luna, Matilde y Tirado, Ricardo (eds.). Empresarios de México: Aspectos Históricos, Económicos e Ideológicos. Guadalajara: Universidad de Guadalajara, 1989.
Jeidels, Otto. Grossbanken zur Industrie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Eisenindustrie. Liepzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1905.
Lefort, Fernando. Ownership structure and corporate governance in Latin America. Revista Abante, 2005, vol. 8 (1): 55-84.
Lefort, Fernando. Business Groups in Chile. En Colpan, Asli; Hikino, Takashi y Lincoln, James (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Business Groups. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010: 387-423. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552863.003.0014
Lefort, Fernando y Walker, Eduardo. Ownership and Capital Structure of Chilean Conglomerates: Facts and Hypotheses for Governance. Revista Abante, 2000a, vol. 3 (1): 3-27.
Lefort, Fernando y Walker, Eduardo. The Effects of Economic and Political Shocks on Corporate Governance Systems In Chile. Revista Abante, 2000b, vol. 2 (2): 183-206.
Marquis, Christopher; Davis, Gerald y Glynn, Mary Ann. Golfing Alone? Corporations, Elites, and Nonprofit Growth in 100 American Communities. Organization Science, 2013, vol. 24 (1): 39-57. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1110.0717
Mendes-da-Silva, Wesley. Small worlds and board interlocking in Brazil: a longitudinal study of corporate networks, 1997-2007. Brazilian Review of Finance, 2011, vol. 9 (4): 521-548. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1944993
Mills, C. Wright. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.
Mizruchi, Mark. What do Interlocks do? An Analysis, Critique, and Assessment of Research on Interlocking Directorates. Annual Review of Sociology, 1996, vol. 22 (1): 271-298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.271
Mizruchi, Mark. The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013.
https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674075368
Mizruchi, Mark y Stearns, Linda. A Longitudinal Study of Borrowing by Large American Corporations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1994, vol. 39: 118-140.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2393496
Murray, Joshua. Evidence of a Transnational Capitalist Class-for-Itself: The Determinants of pac Activity among Foreign Firms in the Global Fortune 500, 2000-2006. Global Networks, 2014, vol. 14 (2): 230-250. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12037
Musacchio, Aldo y Read, Ian. Bankers, Industrialists, and their Cliques: Elite Networks in Mexico and Brazil during Early Industrialization. Enterprise and Society, 2007, vol. 8 (4): 842-880. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1467222700006479
Ossandón, José y Tironi, Eugenio (eds.). Adaptación. La empresa chilena después de Friedman. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Universidad Diego Portales, 2013.
Paredes, Diego. Directorios cruzados: un estudio sobre la cúpula empresarial en la Argentina actual. Trabajo y Sociedad, 2011, vol. 16: 39-51.
Piketty, Thomas. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542
Puga, Cristina y Tirado, Ricardo. Los Empresarios mexicanos, ayer y hoy. México df: unam, 1992.
Rodríguez, José. Revisitando el Poder: Cambios en la Estructura Social del Poder en Espa-a (1991-2000). Sistema, 2003, vol. 172: 3-26.
Rodríguez, José. Análisis Estructural y de Redes. Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 2005.
Salas-Porras, Alejandra. Fuerzas centrípetas y centrífugas en la red corporativa mexicana (1981-2001). Revista Mexicana de Sociología, 2006, vol. 68 (2): 331-375.
Salvaj, Erica. Cohesión y homogeneidad. Evolución de la red de directorios de las grandes empresas en Chile, 1969-2005. En Ossandón, José y Tironi, Eugenio (eds.). Adaptación. La empresa chilena después de Friedman. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Universidad Diego Portales, 2013: 55-84.
Salvaj, Erica y Couyoumdjian, Juan Pablo. «Interlocked» business groups and the state in Chile (1970-2010). Business History, 2016, vol. 58 (1): 129-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2015.1044517
Santos, Rafael Liza; Da Silveira, Alexandre di Miceli y Barros, Lucas Ayres. Board Interlocking in Brazil: Directors' Participation in Multiple Companies and Its Effect on Firm Value and Profitability. Latin American Business Review, 2012, vol. 13 (1): 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10978526.2012.673419
Schneider, Ben Ross. Economic liberalization and corporate governance: the resilience of business groups in Latin America. Comparative Politics, 2008, vol. 40 (4): 379-397. https://doi.org/10.5129/001041508X12911362383237
Scott, John. The Sociology of Elites: Volumes i, ii, iii. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1990.
Scott, John. Social Network Analysis. London: Sage, 1991.
Silva, Francisca; Majluf, Nicolás y Paredes, Ricardo. Family ties, interlocking directors and performance of business groups in emerging countries: The case of Chile. Journal of Business Research, 2006, vol. 59 (3): 315-321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2005.09.004
Solimano, Andrés. Capitalismo a la chilena y la prosperidad de las élites. Catalonia, 2012.
Stokman, Francis; Ziegler, Ronald y Scott, John. Networks of Corporate Power: A Comparative Analysis of Ten Countries. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985.
Useem, Michel. The Inner Circle. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
Vitali, Stefania; Glattfelder, James y Battiston, Stefano. The Network of Global Corporate Control. plos one, 2011, vol. 6 (10): e25995.
Windolf, Paul. Coordination and Control in Corporate Networks: United States and Germany in Comparison, 1896-1938. European Sociological Review, 2009, vol. 25 (4): 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcn059
World Bank. World Bank Open Data, 2015, en línea: http://data.worldbank.org/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Zeitlin, Maurice; Ewen, Linda Ann y Ratcliff, Richard Earl. New Princes' for Old? The Large Corporation and the Capitalist Class in Chile. American Journal of Sociology, 1974, vol. 80 (1): 87-123. https://doi.org/10.1086/225763
Alonso, Pablo de Andrés; Blanco Alcántara, David y López de Foronda, Óscar. Los interlocking directorates en Espa-a. Evolución, poder y consejeros independientes. Revista Internacional de Sociología, 2014, vol. 72 (1): 83-114.
https://doi.org/10.3989/ris.2012.03.13
América Economía. Las 500 mayores empresas de América Latina. América Economía, 2013a, en línea: http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/2013/ranking_500_latinoamerica_2013/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
América Economía. Los 250 mayores bancos de América Latina. América Economía, 2013b, en línea: http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/2012/bancos/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
América Economía. Multilatinas 2014. América Economía, 2015, en línea: http://rankings.americaeconomia.com/multilatinas-2014/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Beltrán, Gastón y Castellani, Ana. Cambio estructural y reconfiguración de la elite económica argentina (1976-2001). Al Dorso, 2013, en línea: http://www.aldorso.com/21-SEP-13/ANA%20CASTELLANI-%20Reconfiguracion%20de%20elite%20empresaria.pdf. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Berle, Adolf y Means, Gardiner. Modern Corporation and Private Property. New Brunswick: Transaction, 1932.
Blanco Alcántara, David; López de Foronda, Óscar y Romero-Merino, María Elena. The Convergence between Continental and Anglo-Saxon models of governance: the role of banks in Spain and the United Kingdom. Transformation in Business & Economics, 2012, vol. 11 (3): 222-237.
Borgatti, Steve; Everett, Martin y Freeman, Linton. Ucinet for Windows: Software for Social Network Analysis. Harvard: Analytic Technologies, 2002.
Breiger, Ronald. The Duality of Persons and Groups. Social Forces, 1974, vol. 53 (2): 181-190.
https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/53.2.181
Camp, Roderic. Las elites del poder en México: perfil de una elite de poder para el siglo xxi. México df: siglo xxi, 2006.
Cárdenas, Julián. Varieties of Corporate Networks: network analysis and fsqca. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 2012, vol. 53 (4): 298-322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020715212460257
Cárdenas, Julián. El poder económico mundial: análisis de redes de interlocking directorates y variedades de capitalismo. Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 2014.
Cárdenas, Julián. Are Latin America's Corporate Elites Transnationally Interconnected? A Network Analysis of Interlocking Directorates. Global Networks, 2015, vol. 15 (4): 424-445. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12070
Carroll, William y Fennema, Meindert. Problems in the Study of the Transnational Business Community. A Reply to Kentor and Jang. International Sociology, 2004, vol. 19 (3): 369-378. https://doi.org/10.1177/0268580904045346
Casanova, Lourdes; Fraser, Matthew; Hoeber, Henning; Golstein, Andrea; Molina, Ramón; Arruda, Carlos y Almeida, André. From Multilatinas to Global Latinas: The New Latin American Multinationals. Washington, dc: Inter-American Development Bank, 2009. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230235021
Dahl, Robert A. Who Governs? New Haven: Yale University Press, 1961.
Domhoff, G. William. Who Rules America? Challenges to Corporate and Class Dominance. 6.a ed. McGraw-Hill, 2009 [1967].
Durand, Francisco. Las nuevas elites del poder: sue-os económicos y pesadillas políticas. En Pásara, Luis (ed.). Perú ante los desafíos del siglo xxi. Lima: Fondo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú, 2011: 139-172.
Fama, Eugene y Jensen, Michael. Separation of Ownership and Control. Journal of Law and Economics, 1983, vol. 26 (2): 301-325. https://doi.org/10.1086/467037
Forbes. The World's Billionaires, 2007, en línea: https://web.archive.org/web/20070713222850/http://www.forbes.com/lists/2007/10/07billionaires_The-Worlds-Billionaires-Latin-America_6Rank.html. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Forbes. The World's Billionaires, 2014, en línea: https://web.archive.org/web/20140414063141/http://www.forbes.com/billionaires/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Gutiérrez, Luis; Pombo, Carlos y Taborda, Rodrigo. Ownership and control in Colombian corporations. The Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 2008, vol. 48 (1): 22-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2006.01.002
Hoshino, Taeko. Business Groups in Mexico. En Colpan, Asli; Hikino, Takashi y Lincoln, James (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Business Groups. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010: 424-457. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552863.003.0015
Jacobo, Edmundo; Luna, Matilde y Tirado, Ricardo (eds.). Empresarios de México: Aspectos Históricos, Económicos e Ideológicos. Guadalajara: Universidad de Guadalajara, 1989.
Jeidels, Otto. Grossbanken zur Industrie mit besonderer Berücksichtigung der Eisenindustrie. Liepzig: Duncker & Humblot, 1905.
Lefort, Fernando. Ownership structure and corporate governance in Latin America. Revista Abante, 2005, vol. 8 (1): 55-84.
Lefort, Fernando. Business Groups in Chile. En Colpan, Asli; Hikino, Takashi y Lincoln, James (eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Business Groups. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010: 387-423. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199552863.003.0014
Lefort, Fernando y Walker, Eduardo. Ownership and Capital Structure of Chilean Conglomerates: Facts and Hypotheses for Governance. Revista Abante, 2000a, vol. 3 (1): 3-27.
Lefort, Fernando y Walker, Eduardo. The Effects of Economic and Political Shocks on Corporate Governance Systems In Chile. Revista Abante, 2000b, vol. 2 (2): 183-206.
Marquis, Christopher; Davis, Gerald y Glynn, Mary Ann. Golfing Alone? Corporations, Elites, and Nonprofit Growth in 100 American Communities. Organization Science, 2013, vol. 24 (1): 39-57. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1110.0717
Mendes-da-Silva, Wesley. Small worlds and board interlocking in Brazil: a longitudinal study of corporate networks, 1997-2007. Brazilian Review of Finance, 2011, vol. 9 (4): 521-548. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1944993
Mills, C. Wright. The Power Elite. New York: Oxford University Press, 1956.
Mizruchi, Mark. What do Interlocks do? An Analysis, Critique, and Assessment of Research on Interlocking Directorates. Annual Review of Sociology, 1996, vol. 22 (1): 271-298. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.22.1.271
Mizruchi, Mark. The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2013.
https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674075368
Mizruchi, Mark y Stearns, Linda. A Longitudinal Study of Borrowing by Large American Corporations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 1994, vol. 39: 118-140.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2393496
Murray, Joshua. Evidence of a Transnational Capitalist Class-for-Itself: The Determinants of pac Activity among Foreign Firms in the Global Fortune 500, 2000-2006. Global Networks, 2014, vol. 14 (2): 230-250. https://doi.org/10.1111/glob.12037
Musacchio, Aldo y Read, Ian. Bankers, Industrialists, and their Cliques: Elite Networks in Mexico and Brazil during Early Industrialization. Enterprise and Society, 2007, vol. 8 (4): 842-880. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1467222700006479
Ossandón, José y Tironi, Eugenio (eds.). Adaptación. La empresa chilena después de Friedman. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Universidad Diego Portales, 2013.
Paredes, Diego. Directorios cruzados: un estudio sobre la cúpula empresarial en la Argentina actual. Trabajo y Sociedad, 2011, vol. 16: 39-51.
Piketty, Thomas. Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2014. https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674369542
Puga, Cristina y Tirado, Ricardo. Los Empresarios mexicanos, ayer y hoy. México df: unam, 1992.
Rodríguez, José. Revisitando el Poder: Cambios en la Estructura Social del Poder en Espa-a (1991-2000). Sistema, 2003, vol. 172: 3-26.
Rodríguez, José. Análisis Estructural y de Redes. Madrid: Centro de Investigaciones Sociológicas, 2005.
Salas-Porras, Alejandra. Fuerzas centrípetas y centrífugas en la red corporativa mexicana (1981-2001). Revista Mexicana de Sociología, 2006, vol. 68 (2): 331-375.
Salvaj, Erica. Cohesión y homogeneidad. Evolución de la red de directorios de las grandes empresas en Chile, 1969-2005. En Ossandón, José y Tironi, Eugenio (eds.). Adaptación. La empresa chilena después de Friedman. Santiago de Chile: Ediciones Universidad Diego Portales, 2013: 55-84.
Salvaj, Erica y Couyoumdjian, Juan Pablo. «Interlocked» business groups and the state in Chile (1970-2010). Business History, 2016, vol. 58 (1): 129-148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00076791.2015.1044517
Santos, Rafael Liza; Da Silveira, Alexandre di Miceli y Barros, Lucas Ayres. Board Interlocking in Brazil: Directors' Participation in Multiple Companies and Its Effect on Firm Value and Profitability. Latin American Business Review, 2012, vol. 13 (1): 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1080/10978526.2012.673419
Schneider, Ben Ross. Economic liberalization and corporate governance: the resilience of business groups in Latin America. Comparative Politics, 2008, vol. 40 (4): 379-397. https://doi.org/10.5129/001041508X12911362383237
Scott, John. The Sociology of Elites: Volumes i, ii, iii. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 1990.
Scott, John. Social Network Analysis. London: Sage, 1991.
Silva, Francisca; Majluf, Nicolás y Paredes, Ricardo. Family ties, interlocking directors and performance of business groups in emerging countries: The case of Chile. Journal of Business Research, 2006, vol. 59 (3): 315-321. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2005.09.004
Solimano, Andrés. Capitalismo a la chilena y la prosperidad de las élites. Catalonia, 2012.
Stokman, Francis; Ziegler, Ronald y Scott, John. Networks of Corporate Power: A Comparative Analysis of Ten Countries. New York: Basil Blackwell, 1985.
Useem, Michel. The Inner Circle. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984.
Vitali, Stefania; Glattfelder, James y Battiston, Stefano. The Network of Global Corporate Control. plos one, 2011, vol. 6 (10): e25995.
Windolf, Paul. Coordination and Control in Corporate Networks: United States and Germany in Comparison, 1896-1938. European Sociological Review, 2009, vol. 25 (4): 443-457. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcn059
World Bank. World Bank Open Data, 2015, en línea: http://data.worldbank.org/. Fecha de consulta: 25 diciembre 2015.
Zeitlin, Maurice; Ewen, Linda Ann y Ratcliff, Richard Earl. New Princes' for Old? The Large Corporation and the Capitalist Class in Chile. American Journal of Sociology, 1974, vol. 80 (1): 87-123. https://doi.org/10.1086/225763
Cárdenas, J. (2016). Interviewing business elites in Latin America: network analysis of interlocking directorates and ownership ties in Mexico, Chile, Peru and Brazil. América Latina Hoy, 73, 15–44. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh2016731544
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