Cleavages without Parties: Populism and its Voters in Peru
Abstract
Peru, despite its electoral volatility and the absence of stable parties, exhibits a predictable voting pattern structured around socioeconomic, ethnic, and territorial cleavages. These patterns benefit populist leaders who mobilize voters on the periphery through narratives that claim their identity in opposition to central elites. This article shows that social cleavages can persist without stable parties and that Peruvian populism is rooted in the periphery and its antagonism toward the center.
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Akkerman, A., Mudde, C. y Zaslove, A. (2014). How populist are the people? Measuring populist attitudes in voters. Comparative Political Studies, 47(9), 1324-1353. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414013512600
Alvarado Chávez, M. (2023). Populismo radical en el Perú. Fondo Editorial de la PUCP.
Anria, S. (2018). When movements become parties: The Bolivian MAS in comparative perspective. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108551755
Arce, M. (2014). The persistence of the two Perus. Current History, 113(760), 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2014.113.760.70
Aslanidis, P. (2016). Is populism an ideology? A refutation and a new perspective. Political Studies, 64(S1), 88-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12224
Barrenechea, R. (2019). Populist coalitions in Latin America: Polarization, organization and identity [Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University].
Barrenechea, R. y Encinas, D. (2022). Perú 2021: Democracia por defecto. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 42(2), 407-438. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2022005000115
Barrenechea, R. y Vergara, A. (2023). Peru: The danger of powerless democracy. Journal of Democracy, 34(2), 77-89. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2023.0015
Bartolini, S. y Mair, P. (2007). Identity, competition and electoral availability: The stabilisation of European electorates 1885-1985. ECPR Press.
Basadre, J. (1947). La multitud, la ciudad y el campo en la historia del Perú. Editorial Huascarán.
Carrión, J. F. (2022). A dynamic theory of populism in power: The Andes in comparative perspective. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197572290.001.0001
Collier, R. B. y Collier, D. (2002). Shaping the political arena: Critical junctures, the labor movement, and regime dynamics in Latin America. University of Notre Dame Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpj74pj
Corrales, J. y Penfold, M. (2011). Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela. Brookings Institution Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7864/j.ctt127w6g
Crabtree, J. (1997). Populismo y neopopulismo: la experiencia peruana. Apuntes: Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 40, 97-109. https://doi.org/10.21678/apuntes.40.457
Crabtree, J. (2010). Democracy without parties? Some lessons from Peru. Journal of Latin American Studies, 42(2), 357-382. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X10000477
Darmofal, D. (2006). The political geography of macro-level turnout in American political development. Political Geography, 25(2), 123-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2005.10.001
Degregori, C. I. (1991). El aprendiz de brujo y el curandero chino. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Drinot, P. (2014). Foucault in the land of the Incas: Sovereignty and governmentality in neoliberal Peru. En P. Drinot (Ed.), Peru in theory (pp. 167-189). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137455260_8
Encinas, D. y Zúñiga, A. (2023). Divisiones sin Sendero: identidades radicales y degradación institucional en el Perú contemporáneo. En S. Lerner Febres y E. Salmón (Coords.), Legados de un pasado irresuelto: El Informe Final de la CVR y la crisis de la democracia veinte años después (pp. 231-252). Instituto de Democracia y Derechos Humanos de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (IDEHPUCP). https://doi.org/10.18800/9786124474477.008
Espinosa, A., Janos, E., Pacheco, M., Juárez, J. y Chaparro, H. (2022). Populism in Peru: Populist attitudes and perception of the populist offer and its relationship with political cynicism and attitudes toward democracy. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1070609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1070609
INEI. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. (2017). Censos 2017 (REDATAM). https://censos2017.inei.gob.pe/redatam/
Jansen, R. (2017). Revolutionizing repertoires: The rise of populist mobilization in Peru. University of Chicago Press.
LeBas, A. (2011). From protest to parties: Party-building and democratization in Africa. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546862.001.0001
Levitsky, S. y Cameron, M. A. (2003). Democracy without parties? Political parties and regime change in Fujimori’s Peru. Latin American Politics and Society, 45(3), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00248.x
Levitsky, S. y Loxton, J. (2013). Populism and competitive authoritarianism in the Andes. Democratization, 20(1), 107-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2013.738864
Levitsky, S., Loxton, J., Van Dyck, B. y Domínguez, J. I. (2016). Introduction: Challenges of party-building in Latin America. En Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America (pp. 1-48). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316550564
Levitsky, S. y Roberts, K. M. (2011). The Resurgence of the Latin American Left. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lipset, S. M. y Rokkan, S. (Eds.). (1967). Party systems and voter alignments: Cross-national perspectives. Free Press.
Madrid, R. L. (2012). The rise of ethnic politics in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Mainwaring, S. y Scully, T. (Eds.). (1995). Building democratic institutions: Party systems in Latin America. Stanford University Press.
McClintock, C. (2013). Populism in Peru: From APRA to Ollanta Humala. En C. De la Torre y C. Arnson (Eds.), Latin American populism in the twenty-first century (pp. 203-239). Johns Hopkins University Press.
Meléndez, C. (2022). Populistas: ¿cuán populistas somos los peruanos? Un estudio empírico. Debate.
Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and Opposition, 39(4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
Mudde, C. y Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780190234874.001.0001
Muñoz, P. (2021). Latin America erupts: Peru goes populist. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 48-62. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0033
Murakami, Y. (2023). Perú en la era del Chino: la política no institucionalizada y el pueblo en busca de un salvador. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Nureña, C. R., Toche, C. L. y Pérez-Pachas, J. (2022). El comportamiento electoral en el sur andino peruano frente a candidaturas de la élite criolla de Lima, 1980-2021. Discursos del Sur: Revista de Teoría Crítica en Ciencias Sociales, 10, 31-66. https://doi.org/10.15381/dds.n10.24406
Portocarrero, G. y Oliart, P. (1989). El Perú desde la escuela. Instituto de Apoyo Agrario.
Relea, F. «Toledo llama a la reivindicación étnica en una ceremonia simbólica en el Machu Picchu». El País (July 30, 2001), https://elpais.com/internacional/2001/07/30/actualidad/996444001_850215.html
Rénique, J. (2022). La nación radical: De la utopía indigenista a la tragedia senderista. La Siniestra Ensayos.
Roberts, K. M. (1995). Neoliberalism and the transformation of populism in Latin America: The Peruvian case. World Politics, 48(1), 82-116.
Roberts, K. M. (2022). Populism and polarization in comparative perspective: Constitutive, spatial, and institutional dimensions. Government and Opposition, 57(4), 680-702. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2021.14
Seawright, J. (2012). Party-system collapse: The roots of crisis in Peru and Venezuela. Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqsdz54
Seawright, J. y Barrenechea, R. (2021). Shaping the people: Populism and the politics of identity formation in South America. En D. Kapiszewski, S. Levitsky y D. J. Yashar (Eds.), The inclusionary turn in Latin American democracies (pp. 491-517). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108895835.020
Sulmont, D. (2012). Líneas de frontera y comportamiento electoral en el Perú. Diferencias sociales y tendencias del voto en las elecciones presidenciales peruanas, 1980-2006. En O. Plaza (Ed.), Cambios sociales en el Perú, 1968-2008: En homenaje a Denis Sulmont (pp. 107-134). Fondo Editorial PUCP. https://doi.org/10.18800/9789972429934.004
Taggart, P. (2002). Populism and the pathology of representative politics. En Y. Mény e Y. Surel (Eds.), Democracies and the populist challenge (pp. 62-80). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403920072_4
Tanaka, M. (2005). Democracia sin partidos, Perú, 2000-2005: los problemas de representación y las propuestas de reforma política. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Tanaka, M. y Vera, S. (2010). La dinámica «neodualista» de una democracia sin sistema de partidos: la situación de la democracia en el Perú. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 30(1), 87-114. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2010000100006
Vom Hau, M. y Biffi, V. (2014). Mann in the Andes: State infrastructural power and nationalism in Peru. En P. Drinot (Ed.), Peru in theory (pp. 191-216). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137455260_9
Weyland, K. (1996). Neopopulism and neoliberalism in Latin America: Unexpected affinities. Studies in Comparative International Development, 31(3), 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02738987
Weyland, K. (2001a). Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.2307/422412
Weyland, K. (2001b). ¿La paradoja del éxito? Los determinantes del apoyo político al presidente Fujimori. Debates en Sociología, 25-26, 213-244. https://doi.org/10.18800/debatesensociologia.200125-26.010
Alvarado Chávez, M. (2023). Populismo radical en el Perú. Fondo Editorial de la PUCP.
Anria, S. (2018). When movements become parties: The Bolivian MAS in comparative perspective. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108551755
Arce, M. (2014). The persistence of the two Perus. Current History, 113(760), 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1525/curh.2014.113.760.70
Aslanidis, P. (2016). Is populism an ideology? A refutation and a new perspective. Political Studies, 64(S1), 88-104. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12224
Barrenechea, R. (2019). Populist coalitions in Latin America: Polarization, organization and identity [Doctoral dissertation, Northwestern University].
Barrenechea, R. y Encinas, D. (2022). Perú 2021: Democracia por defecto. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 42(2), 407-438. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2022005000115
Barrenechea, R. y Vergara, A. (2023). Peru: The danger of powerless democracy. Journal of Democracy, 34(2), 77-89. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2023.0015
Bartolini, S. y Mair, P. (2007). Identity, competition and electoral availability: The stabilisation of European electorates 1885-1985. ECPR Press.
Basadre, J. (1947). La multitud, la ciudad y el campo en la historia del Perú. Editorial Huascarán.
Carrión, J. F. (2022). A dynamic theory of populism in power: The Andes in comparative perspective. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780197572290.001.0001
Collier, R. B. y Collier, D. (2002). Shaping the political arena: Critical junctures, the labor movement, and regime dynamics in Latin America. University of Notre Dame Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvpj74pj
Corrales, J. y Penfold, M. (2011). Dragon in the tropics: Hugo Chávez and the political economy of revolution in Venezuela. Brookings Institution Press. https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.7864/j.ctt127w6g
Crabtree, J. (1997). Populismo y neopopulismo: la experiencia peruana. Apuntes: Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 40, 97-109. https://doi.org/10.21678/apuntes.40.457
Crabtree, J. (2010). Democracy without parties? Some lessons from Peru. Journal of Latin American Studies, 42(2), 357-382. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X10000477
Darmofal, D. (2006). The political geography of macro-level turnout in American political development. Political Geography, 25(2), 123-150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2005.10.001
Degregori, C. I. (1991). El aprendiz de brujo y el curandero chino. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Drinot, P. (2014). Foucault in the land of the Incas: Sovereignty and governmentality in neoliberal Peru. En P. Drinot (Ed.), Peru in theory (pp. 167-189). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137455260_8
Encinas, D. y Zúñiga, A. (2023). Divisiones sin Sendero: identidades radicales y degradación institucional en el Perú contemporáneo. En S. Lerner Febres y E. Salmón (Coords.), Legados de un pasado irresuelto: El Informe Final de la CVR y la crisis de la democracia veinte años después (pp. 231-252). Instituto de Democracia y Derechos Humanos de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú (IDEHPUCP). https://doi.org/10.18800/9786124474477.008
Espinosa, A., Janos, E., Pacheco, M., Juárez, J. y Chaparro, H. (2022). Populism in Peru: Populist attitudes and perception of the populist offer and its relationship with political cynicism and attitudes toward democracy. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 1070609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1070609
INEI. Instituto Nacional de Estadística e Informática. (2017). Censos 2017 (REDATAM). https://censos2017.inei.gob.pe/redatam/
Jansen, R. (2017). Revolutionizing repertoires: The rise of populist mobilization in Peru. University of Chicago Press.
LeBas, A. (2011). From protest to parties: Party-building and democratization in Africa. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199546862.001.0001
Levitsky, S. y Cameron, M. A. (2003). Democracy without parties? Political parties and regime change in Fujimori’s Peru. Latin American Politics and Society, 45(3), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1548-2456.2003.tb00248.x
Levitsky, S. y Loxton, J. (2013). Populism and competitive authoritarianism in the Andes. Democratization, 20(1), 107-136. https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2013.738864
Levitsky, S., Loxton, J., Van Dyck, B. y Domínguez, J. I. (2016). Introduction: Challenges of party-building in Latin America. En Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America (pp. 1-48). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316550564
Levitsky, S. y Roberts, K. M. (2011). The Resurgence of the Latin American Left. Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lipset, S. M. y Rokkan, S. (Eds.). (1967). Party systems and voter alignments: Cross-national perspectives. Free Press.
Madrid, R. L. (2012). The rise of ethnic politics in Latin America. Cambridge University Press.
Mainwaring, S. y Scully, T. (Eds.). (1995). Building democratic institutions: Party systems in Latin America. Stanford University Press.
McClintock, C. (2013). Populism in Peru: From APRA to Ollanta Humala. En C. De la Torre y C. Arnson (Eds.), Latin American populism in the twenty-first century (pp. 203-239). Johns Hopkins University Press.
Meléndez, C. (2022). Populistas: ¿cuán populistas somos los peruanos? Un estudio empírico. Debate.
Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and Opposition, 39(4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
Mudde, C. y Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780190234874.001.0001
Muñoz, P. (2021). Latin America erupts: Peru goes populist. Journal of Democracy, 32(3), 48-62. https://doi.org/10.1353/jod.2021.0033
Murakami, Y. (2023). Perú en la era del Chino: la política no institucionalizada y el pueblo en busca de un salvador. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Nureña, C. R., Toche, C. L. y Pérez-Pachas, J. (2022). El comportamiento electoral en el sur andino peruano frente a candidaturas de la élite criolla de Lima, 1980-2021. Discursos del Sur: Revista de Teoría Crítica en Ciencias Sociales, 10, 31-66. https://doi.org/10.15381/dds.n10.24406
Portocarrero, G. y Oliart, P. (1989). El Perú desde la escuela. Instituto de Apoyo Agrario.
Relea, F. «Toledo llama a la reivindicación étnica en una ceremonia simbólica en el Machu Picchu». El País (July 30, 2001), https://elpais.com/internacional/2001/07/30/actualidad/996444001_850215.html
Rénique, J. (2022). La nación radical: De la utopía indigenista a la tragedia senderista. La Siniestra Ensayos.
Roberts, K. M. (1995). Neoliberalism and the transformation of populism in Latin America: The Peruvian case. World Politics, 48(1), 82-116.
Roberts, K. M. (2022). Populism and polarization in comparative perspective: Constitutive, spatial, and institutional dimensions. Government and Opposition, 57(4), 680-702. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2021.14
Seawright, J. (2012). Party-system collapse: The roots of crisis in Peru and Venezuela. Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqsdz54
Seawright, J. y Barrenechea, R. (2021). Shaping the people: Populism and the politics of identity formation in South America. En D. Kapiszewski, S. Levitsky y D. J. Yashar (Eds.), The inclusionary turn in Latin American democracies (pp. 491-517). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108895835.020
Sulmont, D. (2012). Líneas de frontera y comportamiento electoral en el Perú. Diferencias sociales y tendencias del voto en las elecciones presidenciales peruanas, 1980-2006. En O. Plaza (Ed.), Cambios sociales en el Perú, 1968-2008: En homenaje a Denis Sulmont (pp. 107-134). Fondo Editorial PUCP. https://doi.org/10.18800/9789972429934.004
Taggart, P. (2002). Populism and the pathology of representative politics. En Y. Mény e Y. Surel (Eds.), Democracies and the populist challenge (pp. 62-80). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781403920072_4
Tanaka, M. (2005). Democracia sin partidos, Perú, 2000-2005: los problemas de representación y las propuestas de reforma política. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos.
Tanaka, M. y Vera, S. (2010). La dinámica «neodualista» de una democracia sin sistema de partidos: la situación de la democracia en el Perú. Revista de Ciencia Política (Santiago), 30(1), 87-114. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-090X2010000100006
Vom Hau, M. y Biffi, V. (2014). Mann in the Andes: State infrastructural power and nationalism in Peru. En P. Drinot (Ed.), Peru in theory (pp. 191-216). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137455260_9
Weyland, K. (1996). Neopopulism and neoliberalism in Latin America: Unexpected affinities. Studies in Comparative International Development, 31(3), 3-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02738987
Weyland, K. (2001a). Clarifying a contested concept: Populism in the study of Latin American politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.2307/422412
Weyland, K. (2001b). ¿La paradoja del éxito? Los determinantes del apoyo político al presidente Fujimori. Debates en Sociología, 25-26, 213-244. https://doi.org/10.18800/debatesensociologia.200125-26.010
Barrenechea, R., & Encinas, D. (2025). Cleavages without Parties: Populism and its Voters in Peru. América Latina Hoy , 95, e32458. https://doi.org/10.14201/alh.32458
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