Justice and Related Matters in the Legacy of Frans de Waal
Abstract Initially, we critically examine the current state of knowledge in the field of Philosophy of Biology pertaining to empathy as a subject of scientific investigation. Subsequently, we delve into the constraints associated with empathy in some primates, including humans, recognizing it as a socially situated and evolved attribute. Additionally, we explore its potential as a political asset among humans. In light of these findings, we reevaluate the dichotomy between perspectives that emphasize altruism and egoism as fundamental principles in the biological and ontological senses. Lastly, we put forth the scientifically defendable idea that significant connections exist between empathy and the concept of justice.
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Benozio, A., & Diesendruck, G. (2015). Parochialism in preschool boys’ resource allocation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(4), 256-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.12.002
Boesch, C., & Boesch-Achermann, H. (2000). The chimpanzees of the Taï Forest: Behavioural ecology and evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198505082.001.0001
Brewer, M. & Campbell, D. (1976). Ethnocentrism and intergroup attitudes: East African evidence.
Brosnan, S. & De Waal, F. (2003). Monkeys rejects unequal pay. Nature, 425(6955), 297-299. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
Brosnan, S. et al. (2004). Fair refusal by capuchin monkeys. Nature, 428, 140. https://doi.org/10.1038/428140b
Brosnan, S. et al. (2010). The interplay of cognition and cooperation. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society (B), 365(1553), 2699-2710. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0154
Buchan, N., Grimalda, G., Wilson, R. et al. (2009). Globalization and human cooperation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 4138-4142. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809520106
Choi, J. & Bowles, S. (2007). The coevolution of parochial altruism and war. Science, 318, 636-640. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144237
Damasio, A. (2001). El error de Descartes. La emoción, la razón y el cerebro humano. Barcelona: Crítica.
De Dreu, C. (2012). Oxytocin modulates cooperation within and competition between groups: an integrative review and research agenda. Hormones and behavior, 61(3), 419-428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.12.009
De Dreu, C. et al. (2010). The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans. Science, 328(5984), 1408-1411. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189047
De Waal, F. (1997). Bien natural. Barcelona: Herder.
De Waal, F. (2003). On the possibility of animal empahy. En T. Manstead, N. Frijda y A. Fisher (Comps.), Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium (pp. 379-399). Cambridge: University Press.
De Waal, F. (2007). El mono que llevamos dentro. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. (2010). Primates y filósofos. La evolución de la moral del simio al hombre. Barcelona: Paidós.
De Waal, F. (2015). La edad de la empatía. Lecciones de la naturaleza para una sociedad más justa y solidaria. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. (2019). El último abrazo. Las emociones de los animales y lo que nos cuentan de nosotros. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. (2022). Diferentes. Lo que los primates nos enseñan sobre el género. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. & Roosemalen, A. (1979). Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 5(1), 55-66. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4599217
Descartes, R. (1991). El tratado del hombre. Madrid: Alianza.
Diekhof, E., Wittmer, S., & Reimers, L. (2014). Does competition really bring out the worst? Testosterone, social distance and inter-male competition shape parochial altruism in human males. PlosOne, 9(7), e98977. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098977
Dobzhansky, T. (1973). Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution. The American Biology Teacher, 35(3), 125-129. https://doi.org/10.2307/4444260
Fearon, J. & Laitin, D. (1996). Explaining interethnic cooperation. American Political Science Review, 90, 715-735. https://doi.org/10.2307/2945838
Fehr, E., Bernhard, H., & Rockenbach, B. (2008). Egalitarianism in young children. Nature, 454(7208), 1079-1083. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07155
Fehr, E., Glätzle-Rützler, D., & Sutter, M. (2013). The development of egalitarianism, altruism, spite and parochialism in childhood and adolescence. European Economic Review, 64, 369-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2013.09.006
Feigin, S. et al. (2014). Theories of human altruism: A systematic review. Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Functions, 1(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.7243/2055-3447-1-5
Fry, D. (2018). The evolutionary logic of human peaceful behavior. En Verbeek, P. & Peters, B. (Eds.), Peace Ethology. Behavioral Processes and Systems of Peace. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 249-265. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118922545.ch14
Fukuyama, F. (2001). Social capital, civil society and development. 2030 Third World Quarterly, 22, 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/713701144
Gazzaniga, M. (2012), ¿Qué nos hace humanos? La explicación científica de nuestra singularidad como especie. Barcelona: Espasa.
Ghiselin, M. (1974), The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Greene, J. (2013). Moral tribes: Emotion, reason, and the gap between us and them. London: Penguin.
Hill, K. (2002). Altruistic cooperation during foraging by the Ache, and the evolved human predisposition to cooperate. Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective, 13(1), 105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-002-1016-0
Hoffman, M. (1981). Is altruism part of human nature? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 121–137.
Hrdy, S. (2007). Evolutionary context of human development: The cooperative breeding model. En Catherine A. Salmon and Todd K. Shackelford (Eds.), Family Relationships: An Evolutionary Perspective. New York: Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320510.003.0003
Hruschka, D. & Henrich, J. (2013). Economic and evolutionary hypotheses for cross-population variation in parochialism. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 559. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00559
Hruschka, D. et al. (2014). Impartial institutions, pathogen stress and the expanding social network. Human Nature, 25, 567-579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-014-9217-0
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Las neuronas espejo. Empatía, neuropolítica, autismo, imitación o de cómo entendemos a los otros. Buenos Aires: Katz Editores. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvm7bdfw
Kustov, A. (2021). Borders of compassion: Immigration preferences and parochial altruism. Comparative Political Studies, 54(3-4), 445-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414020938087
Lemoine, S., Samuni, L., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. (2022). Parochial cooperation in wild chimpanzees: a model to explain the evolution of parochial altruism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 377(1851), 20210149. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0149
Levina, M. (2017). Under Lenin’s watchful eye: Growing up in the former Soviet Union. Surveillance & Society, 15(3/4), 529-534. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v15i3/4.6640
Lucchesi, S. et al. (2020). Beyond the group: how food, mates, and group size influence intergroup encounters in wild bonobos. Behavioral Ecology, 31(2), 519-532. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arz214
Mau, S., Mewes, J. & Zimmermann, A. (2008). Cosmopolitan attitudes through transnational social practices? Global Networks, 8, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2008.00183.x
Morris-Drake, A., Christensen, C., Kern, J. & Radford, A. (2019). Experimental field evidence that out-group threats influence within-group behavior. Behavioral Ecology, 30(5), 1425-1435. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arz095
Mosser, A., & Packer, C. (2009). Group territoriality and the benefits of sociality in the African lion, Panthera leo. Animal Behaviour, 78(2), 359-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.04.024
Parsons, K. et al. (2003). Male-Male Aggression Renders Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops Truncatus) Unconscious. Aquatic Mammals, 29(3), 360-362. https://doi.org/10.1578/01675420360736532
Pisor, A. et al. (2020). Preferences and constraints: The value of economic games for studying Human Behaviour. Royal Society Open Science, 7, 192090. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.192090
Radford, A. (2011). Preparing for battle? Potential intergroup conflict promotes current intragroup affiliation. Biology Letters, 7(1), 26-29. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0507
Radford, A., Majolo, B., & Aureli, F. (2016). Within-group behavioural consequences of between-group conflict: a prospective review. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1843), 20161567. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1567
Reimers, L., & Diekhof, E. (2015). Testosterone is associated with cooperation during intergroup competition by enhancing parochial altruism. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, 183. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00183
Rizzolatti, G. & Sinigaglia, C. (2006). Las neuronas espejo. Los mecanismos de la empatía emocional. Barcelona: Paidós.
Samuni, L., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. (2021). Group-level cooperation in chimpanzees is shaped by strong social ties. Nature communications, 12(1), 539. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20709-9
Samuni, L., Preis, A., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. (2017). Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(2), 268-273. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616812114
Silva, A. & Mace, R. (2014). Cooperation and conflict: Field experiments in Northern Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281, 20141435. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1435
Singer, P. (1981). The expanding circle: Ethics, evolution, and moral progress. Princeton: University Press.
Ten Velden, F., Daughters, K., & De Dreu, C. (2017). Oxytocin promotes intuitive rather than deliberated cooperation with the in-group. Hormones and behavior, 92, 164-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.06.005
Thompson, F., Marshall, H., Vitikainen, E., & Cant, M. (2017). Causes and consequences of intergroup conflict in cooperative banded mongooses. Animal Behaviour, 126, 31-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.01.017
Tokuyama, N., Sakamaki, T., & Furuichi, T. (2019). Inter-group aggressive interaction patterns indicate male mate defense and female cooperation across bonobo groups at Wamba, Democratic Republic of the Congo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 170(4), 535-550. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23939
Wechkin, S. et al. (1964). Shock to a Conspecific as an Aversive Stimulus. Psychonomic Science, 1, 47-48. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03342783
Westermarck, E. (1912). The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. London: Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.2307/1413437
Wilson, M., Hauser, M., & Wrangham, R. (2001). Does participation in intergroup conflict depend on numerical assessment, range location, or rank for wild chimpanzees? Animal Behaviour, 61(6), 1203-1216. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1706
Wilson, M., Hauser, M., & Wrangham, R. (2007). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) modify grouping and vocal behaviour in response to location-specific risk. Behaviour, 144(12), 1621-1653. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853907782512137
Wilson, M. et al. (2014). Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts. Nature, 513(7518), 414-417. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13727
Wrangham, R. & Glowacki, L. (2012). Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and war in nomadic hunter-gatherers: Evaluating the chimpanzee model. Human nature, 23, 5-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-012-9132-1
Wrangham, R., Lundy, R., Crofoot, M., & Gilby, I. (2007). Use of overlap zones among group-living primates: a test of the risk hypothesis. Behaviour, 144(12), 1599-1619. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853907782512092
Benozio, A., & Diesendruck, G. (2015). Parochialism in preschool boys’ resource allocation. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(4), 256-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.12.002
Boesch, C., & Boesch-Achermann, H. (2000). The chimpanzees of the Taï Forest: Behavioural ecology and evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press, USA. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198505082.001.0001
Brewer, M. & Campbell, D. (1976). Ethnocentrism and intergroup attitudes: East African evidence.
Brosnan, S. & De Waal, F. (2003). Monkeys rejects unequal pay. Nature, 425(6955), 297-299. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01963
Brosnan, S. et al. (2004). Fair refusal by capuchin monkeys. Nature, 428, 140. https://doi.org/10.1038/428140b
Brosnan, S. et al. (2010). The interplay of cognition and cooperation. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society (B), 365(1553), 2699-2710. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0154
Buchan, N., Grimalda, G., Wilson, R. et al. (2009). Globalization and human cooperation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106, 4138-4142. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0809520106
Choi, J. & Bowles, S. (2007). The coevolution of parochial altruism and war. Science, 318, 636-640. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1144237
Damasio, A. (2001). El error de Descartes. La emoción, la razón y el cerebro humano. Barcelona: Crítica.
De Dreu, C. (2012). Oxytocin modulates cooperation within and competition between groups: an integrative review and research agenda. Hormones and behavior, 61(3), 419-428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2011.12.009
De Dreu, C. et al. (2010). The neuropeptide oxytocin regulates parochial altruism in intergroup conflict among humans. Science, 328(5984), 1408-1411. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1189047
De Waal, F. (1997). Bien natural. Barcelona: Herder.
De Waal, F. (2003). On the possibility of animal empahy. En T. Manstead, N. Frijda y A. Fisher (Comps.), Feelings and emotions: The Amsterdam Symposium (pp. 379-399). Cambridge: University Press.
De Waal, F. (2007). El mono que llevamos dentro. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. (2010). Primates y filósofos. La evolución de la moral del simio al hombre. Barcelona: Paidós.
De Waal, F. (2015). La edad de la empatía. Lecciones de la naturaleza para una sociedad más justa y solidaria. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. (2019). El último abrazo. Las emociones de los animales y lo que nos cuentan de nosotros. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. (2022). Diferentes. Lo que los primates nos enseñan sobre el género. Barcelona: Tusquets.
De Waal, F. & Roosemalen, A. (1979). Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology, 5(1), 55-66. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4599217
Descartes, R. (1991). El tratado del hombre. Madrid: Alianza.
Diekhof, E., Wittmer, S., & Reimers, L. (2014). Does competition really bring out the worst? Testosterone, social distance and inter-male competition shape parochial altruism in human males. PlosOne, 9(7), e98977. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0098977
Dobzhansky, T. (1973). Nothing in Biology Makes Sense Except in the Light of Evolution. The American Biology Teacher, 35(3), 125-129. https://doi.org/10.2307/4444260
Fearon, J. & Laitin, D. (1996). Explaining interethnic cooperation. American Political Science Review, 90, 715-735. https://doi.org/10.2307/2945838
Fehr, E., Bernhard, H., & Rockenbach, B. (2008). Egalitarianism in young children. Nature, 454(7208), 1079-1083. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07155
Fehr, E., Glätzle-Rützler, D., & Sutter, M. (2013). The development of egalitarianism, altruism, spite and parochialism in childhood and adolescence. European Economic Review, 64, 369-383. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2013.09.006
Feigin, S. et al. (2014). Theories of human altruism: A systematic review. Journal of Psychiatry and Brain Functions, 1(1), 5. https://doi.org/10.7243/2055-3447-1-5
Fry, D. (2018). The evolutionary logic of human peaceful behavior. En Verbeek, P. & Peters, B. (Eds.), Peace Ethology. Behavioral Processes and Systems of Peace. John Wiley & Sons Ltd., 249-265. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118922545.ch14
Fukuyama, F. (2001). Social capital, civil society and development. 2030 Third World Quarterly, 22, 7-20. https://doi.org/10.1080/713701144
Gazzaniga, M. (2012), ¿Qué nos hace humanos? La explicación científica de nuestra singularidad como especie. Barcelona: Espasa.
Ghiselin, M. (1974), The Economy of Nature and the Evolution of Sex. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Goodall, J. (1986). The chimpanzees of Gombe: Patterns of behavior. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
Greene, J. (2013). Moral tribes: Emotion, reason, and the gap between us and them. London: Penguin.
Hill, K. (2002). Altruistic cooperation during foraging by the Ache, and the evolved human predisposition to cooperate. Human Nature: An Interdisciplinary Biosocial Perspective, 13(1), 105. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-002-1016-0
Hoffman, M. (1981). Is altruism part of human nature? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40, 121–137.
Hrdy, S. (2007). Evolutionary context of human development: The cooperative breeding model. En Catherine A. Salmon and Todd K. Shackelford (Eds.), Family Relationships: An Evolutionary Perspective. New York: Oxford Academic. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195320510.003.0003
Hruschka, D. & Henrich, J. (2013). Economic and evolutionary hypotheses for cross-population variation in parochialism. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7, 559. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00559
Hruschka, D. et al. (2014). Impartial institutions, pathogen stress and the expanding social network. Human Nature, 25, 567-579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-014-9217-0
Iacoboni, M. (2009). Las neuronas espejo. Empatía, neuropolítica, autismo, imitación o de cómo entendemos a los otros. Buenos Aires: Katz Editores. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvm7bdfw
Kustov, A. (2021). Borders of compassion: Immigration preferences and parochial altruism. Comparative Political Studies, 54(3-4), 445-481. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414020938087
Lemoine, S., Samuni, L., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. (2022). Parochial cooperation in wild chimpanzees: a model to explain the evolution of parochial altruism. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 377(1851), 20210149. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0149
Levina, M. (2017). Under Lenin’s watchful eye: Growing up in the former Soviet Union. Surveillance & Society, 15(3/4), 529-534. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v15i3/4.6640
Lucchesi, S. et al. (2020). Beyond the group: how food, mates, and group size influence intergroup encounters in wild bonobos. Behavioral Ecology, 31(2), 519-532. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arz214
Mau, S., Mewes, J. & Zimmermann, A. (2008). Cosmopolitan attitudes through transnational social practices? Global Networks, 8, 1-24. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-0374.2008.00183.x
Morris-Drake, A., Christensen, C., Kern, J. & Radford, A. (2019). Experimental field evidence that out-group threats influence within-group behavior. Behavioral Ecology, 30(5), 1425-1435. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/arz095
Mosser, A., & Packer, C. (2009). Group territoriality and the benefits of sociality in the African lion, Panthera leo. Animal Behaviour, 78(2), 359-370. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.04.024
Parsons, K. et al. (2003). Male-Male Aggression Renders Bottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops Truncatus) Unconscious. Aquatic Mammals, 29(3), 360-362. https://doi.org/10.1578/01675420360736532
Pisor, A. et al. (2020). Preferences and constraints: The value of economic games for studying Human Behaviour. Royal Society Open Science, 7, 192090. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.192090
Radford, A. (2011). Preparing for battle? Potential intergroup conflict promotes current intragroup affiliation. Biology Letters, 7(1), 26-29. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2010.0507
Radford, A., Majolo, B., & Aureli, F. (2016). Within-group behavioural consequences of between-group conflict: a prospective review. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 283(1843), 20161567. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2016.1567
Reimers, L., & Diekhof, E. (2015). Testosterone is associated with cooperation during intergroup competition by enhancing parochial altruism. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 9, 183. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2015.00183
Rizzolatti, G. & Sinigaglia, C. (2006). Las neuronas espejo. Los mecanismos de la empatía emocional. Barcelona: Paidós.
Samuni, L., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. (2021). Group-level cooperation in chimpanzees is shaped by strong social ties. Nature communications, 12(1), 539. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-020-20709-9
Samuni, L., Preis, A., Mundry, R., Deschner, T., Crockford, C., & Wittig, R. (2017). Oxytocin reactivity during intergroup conflict in wild chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 114(2), 268-273. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1616812114
Silva, A. & Mace, R. (2014). Cooperation and conflict: Field experiments in Northern Ireland. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 281, 20141435. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2014.1435
Singer, P. (1981). The expanding circle: Ethics, evolution, and moral progress. Princeton: University Press.
Ten Velden, F., Daughters, K., & De Dreu, C. (2017). Oxytocin promotes intuitive rather than deliberated cooperation with the in-group. Hormones and behavior, 92, 164-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2016.06.005
Thompson, F., Marshall, H., Vitikainen, E., & Cant, M. (2017). Causes and consequences of intergroup conflict in cooperative banded mongooses. Animal Behaviour, 126, 31-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2017.01.017
Tokuyama, N., Sakamaki, T., & Furuichi, T. (2019). Inter-group aggressive interaction patterns indicate male mate defense and female cooperation across bonobo groups at Wamba, Democratic Republic of the Congo. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 170(4), 535-550. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.23939
Wechkin, S. et al. (1964). Shock to a Conspecific as an Aversive Stimulus. Psychonomic Science, 1, 47-48. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03342783
Westermarck, E. (1912). The Origin and Development of the Moral Ideas. London: Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.2307/1413437
Wilson, M., Hauser, M., & Wrangham, R. (2001). Does participation in intergroup conflict depend on numerical assessment, range location, or rank for wild chimpanzees? Animal Behaviour, 61(6), 1203-1216. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2000.1706
Wilson, M., Hauser, M., & Wrangham, R. (2007). Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) modify grouping and vocal behaviour in response to location-specific risk. Behaviour, 144(12), 1621-1653. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853907782512137
Wilson, M. et al. (2014). Lethal aggression in Pan is better explained by adaptive strategies than human impacts. Nature, 513(7518), 414-417. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature13727
Wrangham, R. & Glowacki, L. (2012). Intergroup aggression in chimpanzees and war in nomadic hunter-gatherers: Evaluating the chimpanzee model. Human nature, 23, 5-29. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12110-012-9132-1
Wrangham, R., Lundy, R., Crofoot, M., & Gilby, I. (2007). Use of overlap zones among group-living primates: a test of the risk hypothesis. Behaviour, 144(12), 1599-1619. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853907782512092
Claramonte Sanz, V., & Guarinos Rico, R. (2024). Justice and Related Matters in the Legacy of Frans de Waal. ArtefaCToS. Revista De Estudios Sobre La Ciencia Y La tecnología, 13(1), 57–83. https://doi.org/10.14201/art2024.31453
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