‘Organism’ Versus ‘Biological Individual’: The Missing Demarcation
Abstract The demarcation of organisms from other biological individuals has received relatively little attention. In this paper, I extricate and systematize the different ways in which the organism–biological individual relationship has been construed: (1) coalescence of the two concepts, (2) biological individual eliminativism, (3) organism eliminativism, (4) organism as a ‘paradigmatic’ biological individual, (5) organism as a limit state towards which biological individuals tend in evolution and development, (6) organism as instantiating the whole in a part-whole hierarchy of biological individuals, (7) organism as equivalent to physiological individual, and (8) organism as a special kind of physiological individual. I show that, in most of these stances, the organism concept is too imprecise to be demarcated from other biological individuals, which fosters some form of eliminativism. I also argue that the comparisons between organisms and biological individuals are performed in two different modes: ‘horizontally’ (i.e., between individuals not related hierarchically) or ‘vertically’ (i.e., between individuals belonging to different levels within the same hierarchy). Finally, I explain the challenges that each of these comparison modes face and suggest that the ‘vertical’ mode adumbrates a potential way forward.
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Arnellos, A. (2018). From organizations of processes to organisms and other biological individuals. En D. J. Nicholson y J. Dupré (eds.), Everything Flows: Towards a Processual Philosophy of Biology (pp. 199-221). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Arnellos, A., Moreno, A. (2016). Integrating constitution and interaction in the transitions from unicellular to multicellular organisms. En K. J. Niklas y S. A. Newman (eds.), Multicellularity: Origins and Evolution (pp. 250-275). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Arnellos, A., Moreno, A., Ruiz-Mirazo, K. (2014). Organizational requirements for multicellular autonomy: insights from a comparative case study. Biology & Philosophy, 29, 851-884. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-013-9387-x
Baedke, J. (2019). O organism, where art thou? Old and new challenges for organism-centered biology. Journal of the History of Biology, 52, 293-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-018-9549-4
Baedke, J., Fábregas-Tejeda, A., Prieto, G. I. (2021). Unknotting reciprocal causation between organism and environment. Biology & Philosophy, 36, 48. doi: 10.1007/s10539-021-09815-0
Benson, K. R. (1989). Biology’s “Phoenix”: Historical perspectives on the importance of the organism. American Zoologist, 29(3), 1067-1074. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/29.3.1067
Bich, L. (2019). The problem of functional boundaries in prebiotic and inter-biological systems. En G. Minati, M. R. Abram y E. Pessa (eds.), Systemics of Incompleteness and Quasi-Systems (pp. 295-302). New York: Springer.
Bich, L., Pradeu, T., Moreau, J-F. (2019). Understanding multicellularity: The functional organization of the intercellular space. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, 1170. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01170
Bouchard, F. (2013). What is a symbiotic superindividual and how do you measure its fitness? En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 243-264). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Bueno, O., Chen, R-L., Fagan, M. B. (2018). Individuation, process, and scientific practices. En O. Bueno, R-L. Chen y M. B. Fagan (eds.), Individuation, Process, and Scientific Practices (pp. 1-18). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Buss, L. W. (1987). The Evolution of Individuality. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Canciani, M., Arnellos, A., Moreno, A. (2019). Revising the superorganism: An organizational approach to complex eusociality. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2653. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02653
Cheung, T. (2006). From the organism of a body to the body of an organism: Occurrence and meaning of the word ‘organism’ from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. The British Journal for the History of Science, 39(3), 319-339. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007087406007953
Cheung, T. (2010). What is an “organism”? On the occurrence of a new term and its conceptual transformations 1680-1850. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32(2/3), 155-194.
Chiu, L., Gilbert, S. F. (2020). Niche construction and the transition to herbivory: Phenotype switching and the organization of new nutritional modes. En H. Levine, M. K. Jolly, P. Kulkarni y V. Nanjundiah (eds.), Phenotypic Switching (pp. 459-482). Cambridge: Academic Press.
Clarke, E. (2010). The problem of biological individuality. Biological Theory, 5(4), 312-325. https://doi.org/10.1162/BIOT_a_00068
Clarke, E. (2013). The multiple realizability of biological individuals. The Journal of Philosophy, 110(8), 413-435.
Clarke, E. (2016). A levels-of-selection approach to evolutionary individuality. Biology & Philosophy, 31, 893-911. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-016-9540-4
Dupré, J. (2012). Postgenomic Darwinism. En J. Dupré (ed.), Processes of Life: Essays in the Philosophy of Biology (pp. 143-160). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dupré, J., O’Malley, M. A. (2009). Varieties of living things: Life at the intersection of lineage and metabolism. Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology, 1, e003. https://doi.org/10.3998/ptb.6959004.0001.003
Ereshefsky, M., Pedroso, M. (2016). What biofilms can teach us about individuality. En A. Guay y T. Pradeu (eds.), Individuals Across the Sciences (pp. 103-121). New York: Oxford University Press.
Etxeberria, A., Umerez, J. (2006). Organismo y organización en la biología teórica: ¿Vuelta al organicismo? Ludus Vitalis, 14(26), 3-38.
Folse III, H. J., Roughgarden, J. (2010). What is an individual organism? A multilevel selection perspective. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 85(4), 447-472. https://doi.org/10.1086/656905
Gardner, A., Grafen, A. (2009). Capturing the superorganism: a formal theory of group adaptation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 22, 659-671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01681.x
Gawne, R., Boomsma, J. J. (2022). Foreword. En J. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Gilbert, S. F., Sarkar, S. (2000). Embracing complexity: Organicism for the 21st century. Developmental Dynamics, 219, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0177(2000)9999:9999<::AID-DVDY1036>3.0.CO;2-A
Gilbert, S. F., Sapp, J., Tauber, A. I. (2012). A symbiotic view of life: We have never been individuals. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 87(4), 325-341. https://doi.org/10.1086/668166
Godfrey-Smith, P. (2009). Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Godfrey-Smith, P. (2013). Darwinian individuals. En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 17-36). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Goodnight, C. J. (2013). Defining the individual. En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 37-53). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Goodwin, B., Dawkins, R. (1995). What is an organism?: A discussion. En N. S. Thompson (ed.), Perspectives in Ethology: Vol. 11. Behavioral Design (pp. 47-60). New York & London: Plenum Press.
Griesemer, J. (2018). Individuation of developmental systems: A reproducer perspective. En O. Bueno, R.-L. Chen y M. B. Fagan (eds.), Individuation, Process, and Scientific Practices (pp. 137-164). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haber, M. (2013). Colonies are individuals: Revisiting the superorganism revival. En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 195-217). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, I. Allgemeine Anatomie der Organismen. Berlin: Georg Reimer Verlag.
Hermida, M. (2021). Composition at the same level [Conference presentation]. “Going Up?” Realisation and Composition across the Sciences Conference, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom. Abstract retrieved from: https://metascience.xyz/racats#52344330-5c74-4156-994e-b9d2cebcbb7b. Talk available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nu36sL96NKU&ab_channel=MetaScienceEU
Herron, M. D., Rashidi, A., Shelton, D. E., Driscoll, W. W. (2013). Cellular differentiation and individuality in the ‘minor’ multicellular taxa. Biological Reviews, 88, 844-861. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12031
Hull, D. L. (1980). Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11, 311-332.
Huneman, P. (2010). Assessing the prospects for a return of organisms in evolutionary biology. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32(2/3), 341-372.
Huneman, P. (2021). Biological individuals as “weak individuals” and their identity: Exploring a radical hypothesis in the metaphysics of science. En A. S. Meincke y J. Dupré (eds.), Biological Identity: Perspectives from Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Biology (pp. 40-62). New York: Routledge.
Huxley, J. S. (2022). The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. Cambridge: MIT Press. (Original work published 1912).
Jeuken, M. (1952). The concept “individual” in biology. Acta Biotheoretica, 10, 57-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01845805
Kaiser, M. I. (2018). Individuating part-whole relations in the biological world. En O. Bueno, R-L. Chen y M. B. Fagan (eds.), Individuation, Process, and Scientific Practices (pp. 63-87). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kaiser, M. I., Trappes, R. (2021). Broadening the problem agenda of biological individuality: individual differences, uniqueness and temporality. Biology & Philosophy, 36, 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-021-09791-5
Kingma, E. (2020). Biological individuality, pregnancy, and (Mammalian) reproduction. Philosophy of Science, 87(5), 1037-1048. https://doi.org/10.1086/710612
Lidgard, S., Nyhart, L. K. (2017). The work of biological individuality: Concepts and contexts. En S. Lidgard y L. K. Nyhart (eds.), Biological Individuality: Integrating Scientific, Philosophical, and Historical Perspectives (pp. 1-16). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mahner, M., Bunge, M. (1996). Foundations of Biophilosophy. Berlin & Heidelberg: Springer.
Martens, J. (2010). Organisms in evolution. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32, 373-400.
Maynard Smith, J., Szathmáry, E. (1995). The Major Transitions in Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Militello, G., Bich, L., Moreno, A. (2021). Functional integration and individuality in prokaryotic collective organisations. Acta Biotheoretica, 69, 391-415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10441-020-09390-z
Moreno, A., Mossio, M. (2015). Biological Autonomy: A Philosophical and Theoretical Enquiry. Dordrecht: Springer.
Morgan, W. (2022). Biological individuality and the foetus problem. Erkenntnis. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-022-00556-4
Nicholson, D. J. (2014). The return of the organism as a fundamental explanatory concept in biology. Philosophy Compass, 9(5), 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12128
Nicholson, D. J., Gawne, R. (2015). Neither logical empiricism nor vitalism, but organicism: what the philosophy of biology was. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 37, 345-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40656-015-0085-7
Nunes-Neto, N., Moreno, A., El-Hani, C. N. (2014). Function in ecology: an organizational approach. Biology & Philosophy, 29, 123-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-013-9398-7
Oderberg, D. S. (2021). Siphonophores: A metaphysical case study. En A. S. Meincke y J. Dupré (eds.), Biological Identity: Perspectives from Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Biology (pp. 22-39). New York: Routledge.
Okasha, S. (2011). Biological ontology and hierarchical organization: A defense of rank freedom. En B. Calcott y K. Sterelny (eds.), The Major Transitions in Evolution Revisited (pp. 53-64). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Okasha, S. (2022). On the very idea of biological individuality. http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/20868/ [Preprint].
Pepper, J. W., Herron, M. D. (2008). Does biology need an organism concept? Biological Reviews, 83, 621-627. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00057.x
Pradeu, T. (2012). The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pradeu, T. (2016a). The many faces of biological individuality. Biology & Philosophy, 31, 761-773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-016-9553-z
Pradeu, T. (2016b). Organisms or biological individuals? Combining physiological and evolutionary individuality. Biology & Philosophy, 31, 797-817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-016-9551-1
Prévot, K. (2014). Organisme et individu. En T. Hoquet y F. Merlin (eds.), Précis de Philosophie de la Biologie (pp. 211-220). Paris: Vuibert.
Queller, D. C., Strassmann, J. E. (2009). Beyond society: the evolution of organismality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364, 3143-3155. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0095
Ruiz-Mirazo, K., Etxeberria, A., Moreno, A., Ibáñez, J. (2000). Organisms and their place in biology. Theory in Biosciences, 119, 209-233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12064-000-0017-1
Santelices, B. (1999). How many kinds of individual are there? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14(4), 152-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01519-5
Smith, S. E. (2017). Organisms as persisters. Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology, 9, 14. https://doi.org/10.3998/ptb.6959004.0009.014
Toepfer, G. (2011). Historisches Wörterbuch der Biologie. Geschichte und Theorie der Biologischen Grundbegriffe (Vol. 2). Stuttgart & Weimar: J. B. Metzler.
von Bertalanffy, L. (1952). Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought. New York: Harper & Brothers.
Wilson, J. (1999). Biological Individuality: The Identity and Persistence of Living Entities. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Wilson, J. A. (2000). Ontological butchery: Organism concepts and biological generalizations. Philosophy of Science, 67(S3), S301-S311. https://doi.org/10.1086/392827
Wolfe, C. T. (2010). Do organisms have an ontological status? History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32(2/3), 195-231.
Arnellos, A., Moreno, A. (2016). Integrating constitution and interaction in the transitions from unicellular to multicellular organisms. En K. J. Niklas y S. A. Newman (eds.), Multicellularity: Origins and Evolution (pp. 250-275). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Arnellos, A., Moreno, A., Ruiz-Mirazo, K. (2014). Organizational requirements for multicellular autonomy: insights from a comparative case study. Biology & Philosophy, 29, 851-884. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-013-9387-x
Baedke, J. (2019). O organism, where art thou? Old and new challenges for organism-centered biology. Journal of the History of Biology, 52, 293-324. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10739-018-9549-4
Baedke, J., Fábregas-Tejeda, A., Prieto, G. I. (2021). Unknotting reciprocal causation between organism and environment. Biology & Philosophy, 36, 48. doi: 10.1007/s10539-021-09815-0
Benson, K. R. (1989). Biology’s “Phoenix”: Historical perspectives on the importance of the organism. American Zoologist, 29(3), 1067-1074. https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/29.3.1067
Bich, L. (2019). The problem of functional boundaries in prebiotic and inter-biological systems. En G. Minati, M. R. Abram y E. Pessa (eds.), Systemics of Incompleteness and Quasi-Systems (pp. 295-302). New York: Springer.
Bich, L., Pradeu, T., Moreau, J-F. (2019). Understanding multicellularity: The functional organization of the intercellular space. Frontiers in Physiology, 10, 1170. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2019.01170
Bouchard, F. (2013). What is a symbiotic superindividual and how do you measure its fitness? En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 243-264). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Bueno, O., Chen, R-L., Fagan, M. B. (2018). Individuation, process, and scientific practices. En O. Bueno, R-L. Chen y M. B. Fagan (eds.), Individuation, Process, and Scientific Practices (pp. 1-18). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Buss, L. W. (1987). The Evolution of Individuality. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Canciani, M., Arnellos, A., Moreno, A. (2019). Revising the superorganism: An organizational approach to complex eusociality. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 2653. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.02653
Cheung, T. (2006). From the organism of a body to the body of an organism: Occurrence and meaning of the word ‘organism’ from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries. The British Journal for the History of Science, 39(3), 319-339. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007087406007953
Cheung, T. (2010). What is an “organism”? On the occurrence of a new term and its conceptual transformations 1680-1850. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32(2/3), 155-194.
Chiu, L., Gilbert, S. F. (2020). Niche construction and the transition to herbivory: Phenotype switching and the organization of new nutritional modes. En H. Levine, M. K. Jolly, P. Kulkarni y V. Nanjundiah (eds.), Phenotypic Switching (pp. 459-482). Cambridge: Academic Press.
Clarke, E. (2010). The problem of biological individuality. Biological Theory, 5(4), 312-325. https://doi.org/10.1162/BIOT_a_00068
Clarke, E. (2013). The multiple realizability of biological individuals. The Journal of Philosophy, 110(8), 413-435.
Clarke, E. (2016). A levels-of-selection approach to evolutionary individuality. Biology & Philosophy, 31, 893-911. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-016-9540-4
Dupré, J. (2012). Postgenomic Darwinism. En J. Dupré (ed.), Processes of Life: Essays in the Philosophy of Biology (pp. 143-160). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Dupré, J., O’Malley, M. A. (2009). Varieties of living things: Life at the intersection of lineage and metabolism. Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology, 1, e003. https://doi.org/10.3998/ptb.6959004.0001.003
Ereshefsky, M., Pedroso, M. (2016). What biofilms can teach us about individuality. En A. Guay y T. Pradeu (eds.), Individuals Across the Sciences (pp. 103-121). New York: Oxford University Press.
Etxeberria, A., Umerez, J. (2006). Organismo y organización en la biología teórica: ¿Vuelta al organicismo? Ludus Vitalis, 14(26), 3-38.
Folse III, H. J., Roughgarden, J. (2010). What is an individual organism? A multilevel selection perspective. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 85(4), 447-472. https://doi.org/10.1086/656905
Gardner, A., Grafen, A. (2009). Capturing the superorganism: a formal theory of group adaptation. Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 22, 659-671. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01681.x
Gawne, R., Boomsma, J. J. (2022). Foreword. En J. Huxley, The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. Cambridge: MIT Press.
Gilbert, S. F., Sarkar, S. (2000). Embracing complexity: Organicism for the 21st century. Developmental Dynamics, 219, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/1097-0177(2000)9999:9999<::AID-DVDY1036>3.0.CO;2-A
Gilbert, S. F., Sapp, J., Tauber, A. I. (2012). A symbiotic view of life: We have never been individuals. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 87(4), 325-341. https://doi.org/10.1086/668166
Godfrey-Smith, P. (2009). Darwinian Populations and Natural Selection. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Godfrey-Smith, P. (2013). Darwinian individuals. En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 17-36). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Goodnight, C. J. (2013). Defining the individual. En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 37-53). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Goodwin, B., Dawkins, R. (1995). What is an organism?: A discussion. En N. S. Thompson (ed.), Perspectives in Ethology: Vol. 11. Behavioral Design (pp. 47-60). New York & London: Plenum Press.
Griesemer, J. (2018). Individuation of developmental systems: A reproducer perspective. En O. Bueno, R.-L. Chen y M. B. Fagan (eds.), Individuation, Process, and Scientific Practices (pp. 137-164). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Haber, M. (2013). Colonies are individuals: Revisiting the superorganism revival. En F. Bouchard y P. Huneman (eds.), From Groups to Individuals: Evolution and Emerging Individuality (pp. 195-217). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Haeckel, E. (1866). Generelle Morphologie der Organismen, I. Allgemeine Anatomie der Organismen. Berlin: Georg Reimer Verlag.
Hermida, M. (2021). Composition at the same level [Conference presentation]. “Going Up?” Realisation and Composition across the Sciences Conference, University of Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom. Abstract retrieved from: https://metascience.xyz/racats#52344330-5c74-4156-994e-b9d2cebcbb7b. Talk available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nu36sL96NKU&ab_channel=MetaScienceEU
Herron, M. D., Rashidi, A., Shelton, D. E., Driscoll, W. W. (2013). Cellular differentiation and individuality in the ‘minor’ multicellular taxa. Biological Reviews, 88, 844-861. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12031
Hull, D. L. (1980). Individuality and selection. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 11, 311-332.
Huneman, P. (2010). Assessing the prospects for a return of organisms in evolutionary biology. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32(2/3), 341-372.
Huneman, P. (2021). Biological individuals as “weak individuals” and their identity: Exploring a radical hypothesis in the metaphysics of science. En A. S. Meincke y J. Dupré (eds.), Biological Identity: Perspectives from Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Biology (pp. 40-62). New York: Routledge.
Huxley, J. S. (2022). The Individual in the Animal Kingdom. Cambridge: MIT Press. (Original work published 1912).
Jeuken, M. (1952). The concept “individual” in biology. Acta Biotheoretica, 10, 57-86. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01845805
Kaiser, M. I. (2018). Individuating part-whole relations in the biological world. En O. Bueno, R-L. Chen y M. B. Fagan (eds.), Individuation, Process, and Scientific Practices (pp. 63-87). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kaiser, M. I., Trappes, R. (2021). Broadening the problem agenda of biological individuality: individual differences, uniqueness and temporality. Biology & Philosophy, 36, 15. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-021-09791-5
Kingma, E. (2020). Biological individuality, pregnancy, and (Mammalian) reproduction. Philosophy of Science, 87(5), 1037-1048. https://doi.org/10.1086/710612
Lidgard, S., Nyhart, L. K. (2017). The work of biological individuality: Concepts and contexts. En S. Lidgard y L. K. Nyhart (eds.), Biological Individuality: Integrating Scientific, Philosophical, and Historical Perspectives (pp. 1-16). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Mahner, M., Bunge, M. (1996). Foundations of Biophilosophy. Berlin & Heidelberg: Springer.
Martens, J. (2010). Organisms in evolution. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 32, 373-400.
Maynard Smith, J., Szathmáry, E. (1995). The Major Transitions in Evolution. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Militello, G., Bich, L., Moreno, A. (2021). Functional integration and individuality in prokaryotic collective organisations. Acta Biotheoretica, 69, 391-415. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10441-020-09390-z
Moreno, A., Mossio, M. (2015). Biological Autonomy: A Philosophical and Theoretical Enquiry. Dordrecht: Springer.
Morgan, W. (2022). Biological individuality and the foetus problem. Erkenntnis. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10670-022-00556-4
Nicholson, D. J. (2014). The return of the organism as a fundamental explanatory concept in biology. Philosophy Compass, 9(5), 347-359. https://doi.org/10.1111/phc3.12128
Nicholson, D. J., Gawne, R. (2015). Neither logical empiricism nor vitalism, but organicism: what the philosophy of biology was. History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences, 37, 345-381. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40656-015-0085-7
Nunes-Neto, N., Moreno, A., El-Hani, C. N. (2014). Function in ecology: an organizational approach. Biology & Philosophy, 29, 123-141. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-013-9398-7
Oderberg, D. S. (2021). Siphonophores: A metaphysical case study. En A. S. Meincke y J. Dupré (eds.), Biological Identity: Perspectives from Metaphysics and the Philosophy of Biology (pp. 22-39). New York: Routledge.
Okasha, S. (2011). Biological ontology and hierarchical organization: A defense of rank freedom. En B. Calcott y K. Sterelny (eds.), The Major Transitions in Evolution Revisited (pp. 53-64). Cambridge & London: MIT Press.
Okasha, S. (2022). On the very idea of biological individuality. http://philsci-archive.pitt.edu/20868/ [Preprint].
Pepper, J. W., Herron, M. D. (2008). Does biology need an organism concept? Biological Reviews, 83, 621-627. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00057.x
Pradeu, T. (2012). The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity. New York: Oxford University Press.
Pradeu, T. (2016a). The many faces of biological individuality. Biology & Philosophy, 31, 761-773. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-016-9553-z
Pradeu, T. (2016b). Organisms or biological individuals? Combining physiological and evolutionary individuality. Biology & Philosophy, 31, 797-817. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10539-016-9551-1
Prévot, K. (2014). Organisme et individu. En T. Hoquet y F. Merlin (eds.), Précis de Philosophie de la Biologie (pp. 211-220). Paris: Vuibert.
Queller, D. C., Strassmann, J. E. (2009). Beyond society: the evolution of organismality. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B, 364, 3143-3155. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2009.0095
Ruiz-Mirazo, K., Etxeberria, A., Moreno, A., Ibáñez, J. (2000). Organisms and their place in biology. Theory in Biosciences, 119, 209-233. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12064-000-0017-1
Santelices, B. (1999). How many kinds of individual are there? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 14(4), 152-155. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01519-5
Smith, S. E. (2017). Organisms as persisters. Philosophy, Theory, and Practice in Biology, 9, 14. https://doi.org/10.3998/ptb.6959004.0009.014
Toepfer, G. (2011). Historisches Wörterbuch der Biologie. Geschichte und Theorie der Biologischen Grundbegriffe (Vol. 2). Stuttgart & Weimar: J. B. Metzler.
von Bertalanffy, L. (1952). Problems of Life: An Evaluation of Modern Biological and Scientific Thought. New York: Harper & Brothers.
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