Self-assessment as a concept used in education, specifically in learning, first appears between the 1930s and 1940s, when the first research on it was conducted, mainly in the United States (Brew, 1995). As a result of the student-centered curriculum reform processes in the United Kingdom, Australia, Norway, and Sweden in the late 1970s (Gairin, 1997) and the «discourses on student autonomy and independence in the 1970s and 1980s [which] caused a rift between tutors and students» (Taras, 2015, p. 3), self-assessment of learning gained importance and aroused research and academic interest. Since the 1990s, it began to be applied more frequently in university classrooms (Boud, 1995), although more so in some countries than others.

Over the past 30 years, there has been a great amount of research focused on self-assessment of learning. The classic works of Boud and Falchikov (1989) and Falchikov and Boud (1989) analyzed the existing studies on self-assessment up to that moment, where quantitative methodologies prevailed, with the purpose of demonstrating how close students' self-assessment, expressed in numbers, was to the assessment made by their teachers. They also sought to discover the impact of different variables on self-assessment, such as, age, semester at university, sex. Most subsequent research, including current research, continues the same trend of measurement and contrast.

In short, the existing literature has focused mainly on analyzing self-assessment based on its validity and reliability and on the search for aspects that influence it. However, other important elements that could favor a better understanding and, therefore, application in the university classroom, have been left aside. In this sense, it is also important to note that, although higher education institutions conduct self-assessment as a mandatory requirement for accreditation, students’ self-assessment of learning is not a requirement since it is occasional and voluntary. This leads to the question: should not self-assessment rather be planned, systematic, and intentional as part of the teaching-learning process [object of study of didactics] where teachers have the essential role of motivating and promoting its application (Kambourova, 2020)?

Thus, the main objective of this study¹ is to establish the state of the art on self-assessment of learning in higher education by means of a literature review. In this study, self-assessment is analyzed from a different perspective. On the one hand, in relation to assessment, objectives, contents, and teaching methods, which are recognized components of the educational system; on the other hand, as part of a humanistic didactics, by recognizing and respecting students as human beings whom teachers guide in the process of developing their abilities for lifelong learning. This review can be a guide for teachers in general, and university teachers, in particular, in understanding the dimensions of self-assessment in current research, looking to different ones in the future. It could also be a subject of deep reflection leading to transformations in the pedagogical practices of teachers.

Scientific production on self-assessment has considerably increased in the last 20 years. Therefore, nowadays much more is known about it than three decades ago; for example, its relationship to teachers’ grades and multiple other variables. However, it is imperative to recognize that there is still plenty of research to do and do it from other perspectives.

In general, the discussions included in the studied articles contribute to proving the benefits for students of self-assessment of learning. But at the same time, there are still doubts about its objectivity. Several studies emphasize the need to include it in university courses to make it a habit. Self-assessment is understood as an act of individuals themselves (students) but stimulated and supported by others (teachers) from outside. In this act of interdependence, the didactic sense of self-assessment is revealed. This is particularly the case when a global assessment is used, in which teachers assess and students self-assess; when it relates to assessment, objectives, methods, and content, all of which are coherent and aligned with each other to achieve lasting learning.

However, these didactic aspects are little addressed in depth; therefore, they could be subjects for future research. Likewise, it is possible to examine the detected inconsistency between teachers’ beliefs and actions concerning the application of self-assessment; for example, to problematize how the imaginary of teachers about their role as educators in university is related to the practice of self-assessment.

On the other hand, it is striking that there is still a marked tendency to check the effectiveness of self-assessment and its consistency with teachers’ grades, while there are limited studies that emphasize self-assessment as an ontological issue, in which students are valued as human beings and not only from their role as students who can have a grade similar to that of teachers. Lack of confidence in students, as an expression of a preponderant and destructive position, could be a matter of new research on self-assessment; that is, it could be explored from other viewpoints and approaches. These could include longitudinal studies of graduates as professionals in action.

Regarding the research that measured differences between men and women, between outstanding and non-outstanding students, and other variables concerning self-assessment, it can be observed that there are many contradictory data; therefore, it would be dangerous to generalize. Nevertheless, this review does not intend to generalize results; the aim here is to understand the contexts and the people involved in them, the students, who build their own image in a relation to others. Thus, in a process in which self-assessment plays an important role for education, it would be more relevant to carry out interpretative research than to seek this type of comparison or generalization.

As for the methodology used in the articles, it should be noted that studies were identified with designs in which insufficient information on the research is presented, leaving unresolved issues. For this reason, it would be necessary to perfect the designs and the report of the studies.

At this point, it is interesting to make a parallel with a meta-analysis and a literature review, since some common aspects between them and this study were detected. The first aspect is the well-known study by Falchikov and Boud (1989), who stated «that it is advisable for researchers to pay attention to a proper design and adequate reporting of self-assessment studies.» (p. 395). The second is the research of Pastore (2017), who inquired into the methods and designs used for self-assessment in university. The author analyzed studies from ten European journals in English on higher education, between 2004 and 2014. She reported few studies in general. None of the eleven selected had a quasi-experimental design and the experimental ones were rare. Contrary to what the author found, three quasi-experimental studies were reported in the present review. Non-experimental designs and case studies were the most frequent according to the author, so Pastore (2017, pp. 262- 263) concludes that this fact:

confirms how research in higher education tends to be more local and conducted in a micro-context. In this perspective, emphasis on purely qualitative methods or purely quantitative methods is a limitation in the field of higher education research [in her review no mixed research was found, but there were 7 in this review]... The results of the research remain at the contextual level of a single institution. Therefore, further work is needed to continue with in-depth international comparisons [...]. We need a scientific reflection that can expand its epistemological, ontological, and methodological horizons in higher education to highlight the common points and differences of conceptions and principles on self-assessment.

The author considers that not only should perceptions about self-assessment be known, but also that «regulatory norms should be developed that work for the correct choice of methodologies, values, theories, requests, and research criteria.» (p. 263).

While there are points of disagreement already noted with some of Pastore’s findings, the need for further research on self-assessment is recognized. A multicultural approach is suggested when conducting research with qualitative and/or mixed methodology in universities in different countries, since it seems that self-assessment is more accepted in some cultures than in others. On the other hand, it is also essential to increase scientific production on this subject in general in Latin American countries and to carry out reviews that also include several languages —although many are published in English— to obtain a global view of this research in the world.

Finally, it is worth mentioning the following limitations of this review: the search was carried out only on electronic media and the review included only databases in the field of education, given the particular interest of addressing the didactic aspect.

ANNEX 1

Authors	Year of publication	Methodological design	Results
Acedo, M. y Ruiz-Cabestre, F.	2011	Experience. Tests of difference of means of related samples	Results indicate that there are no relevant differences between the grades of self-assessment, peer assessment and the assessment of the teacher. Autonomous assessment should be considered as one more assessment tool used for assessing learning.
Achury, D., Díaz, J. y Rueda, M.	2013	Observational evaluative study	Results showed that from two self-assessments carried out, the second presents higher scores than the first one. This is due to the implementation of extrinsic motivation strategies, such as self-learning and self-assessment, which allow a change in the students’ learning process because empowerment and consciousness are promoted in their educational progress. Fulfillment of subject objectives is achieved this way.
Aguilar, V.	2013	Quantitative, quasi-experimental with pre-test – post-test	Global results reflect that assisted self-assessment caused a decrease of 0.21% in self-regulation, while self-assessment caused an increase of 0.16% in the same variable. Statistically, there is not enough evidence to say that the median of self-regulation is different in the pre-test and the post-test before the application of self-assessment.
Álvarez, V., Padilla, M., Rodríguez, J., Torres, J., y Suárez, M.	2011	Descriptive	In this study, it could be evidenced that 43% of the teachers who participated, perceived self-assessment as desirable and necessary, but they do not apply it in their practice. On the other hand, analyzing the programs of different subjects, there is little registration of students’ participation in them, that is, self-assessment is not included in the programs.
Aydeniz, M. & Gilchrist, M.	2013	Quantitative and qualitative methods (mixed)	Results show that self-assessment strategy allows teachers to obtain information on the effectiveness of their teaching and learning strategies of their students. On the other hand, it was demonstrated that because of the complexity of the concepts included in the course, it was difficult for students to learn on their own.
Bell, R., Portilla, Y. y De la Llana, E.	2019	Quantitative, descriptive study	Based on students’ self-assessment of their learning process and an observation to evidence their performance, it was found that students valued their own needs and potentials very similarly to their behavior and attitudes observed. Also, students were able to apply some strategies to improve their learning.
Boud, D., Lawson, R., & Thompson, D.	2013	Quantitative analysis of data	This study evidenced that the tutor data and the student self-assessments show no significant differences by the second assessment task in a unit of study of a subject. It was also found that this convergence was not evident when students began a new unit of study; their more accurate judgment did not occur on an initial task in a new unit, but until the time when they had the opportunity to practice self-assessment for three semesters. When students are categorized by achievement level, differences are found in students’ ability to develop accurate judgement.
Bourke, R.	2014	Experience. Qualitative analysis	In this study, undergraduate and postgraduate students participated and applied self-assessment in different ways. The results from the first group evidenced that these learners were using the self-assessment tasks not only to ‘know thyself’ but also to understand others and their own learning with regards to the course content. The postgraduate students initially approached self-assessments in much the same way as traditional assessments. Later, when they participated in choosing their own criteria for self-assessment, many of them were able to articulate their comprehension and application of knowledge in new ways, to take them away from activities that encouraged recall and memorization to reconceptualizing major concepts and making them their own.
Bourke, R.	2017	Qualitative analysis of data	Results show that the development of self-assessment tasks needs to be considered in the learning-assessment nexus. While these forms of assessment initially unsettle students, they are designed to enable students to participate with an eye on their learning, not the grade. Developing ontological awareness creates an ongoing commitment to learning within a profession and a deeper understanding of the object of the activity within and across each informal and formal context.
Bourke, R. & Tait, C.	2012	Qualitative study. Grounded theory approach	The data in this study indicate that students used self-assessment as a tool to analyze themselves, to understand others, and to understand their learning. Additionally, results evidenced that students explicitly recognize their own learning from the contents of the course, establishing links between theory and their own lives and using self-assessment process to plan actions in the future with learning strategies. In other words, learning had the potential to bridge the academic, professional, and personal worlds of students.
Bozkurt, F.	2020	Qualitative, phenomenological approach, descriptive study	The findings of this study showed that self and peer assessment are a powerful learning activity and a valuable source of feedback for the professional development of initial teacher candidates. Additionally, both types of assessment allowed them to increase their motivation toward learning and their awareness about goals and expectations.
Cabrales, O.	2010	Qualitative	The documentary analysis of the programs of the subjects studied in this research showed that self-assessment is not contemplated in them. It also showed that it is necessary to carry out a more conscientious follow-up of the programs that teachers pass and their evaluative practices, as well as the need to update them regarding the practices of participatory evaluation.
Calatayud, M.	2007	Qualitative, descriptive	This study presents findings that evidenced the advantages of self-assessment for student learning given that they became aware of their process, were motivated to learn and direct their learning, and deepened their self-knowledge and responsibility.
Calzada Prado, F. J.	2020	Qualitative analysis of data	The grades assigned by students to their own work in the self-assessment process were higher than those given by their peers in the peer assessment and by their teachers in their assessment. 97.4% of the participants estimated that the assessment process carried out in the activity helped them develop their ability to reflect on their work and improve in the future. Conducting self-assessment presents a greater challenge for students than assessing their peers.
Canney, M.	2014	Mixed. Exploratory study	General results of the study show that teachers’ beliefs about the purpose of self-assessment are favorable as a formative practice which contributes to student development. However, teachers’ beliefs are not always reflected in their practice. The belief that students lack capacities to perform the process of self-assessment was not evidenced. Nevertheless, the preponderance of self-assessment as a self-grading was found; students, as well as teachers, are more interested in obtaining a grade rather than reflecting about the process. Some external elements that hinder the implementation of self-assessment were identified (time factor in large groups, self-assessment as an administrative requirement, little importance and lack of interest given to student self-assessment by educational institutions).
Capellato, P., Vasconcelos, L. V. B., Ranieri, M. G. & Sachs, D.	2020	Qualitative, case study	Findings show that students, based on the contents taught, were able to put into practice and evaluate the work of their peers. In addition, most of them could perform self-assessment in accordance with the general evaluation of the group. The critical vision presented by the students is fundamental for the development of active methodological practices.
Cruz, S. y Da Silva, A.	2020	Qualitative, descriptive study	Students valued their learning with high grades because they perceived that were involved actively with the topics developed by their teachers, and, therefore, with the knowledge acquired. Their positive attitudes resulted in the optimization of their learning. It should be considered that some of them start working from the beginning, for others take longer to realize the need to study seriously.
Cubero, J., Rodríguez, G., y Quesada, V.	2013	Non-experimental methodology. Descriptive study	Results evidenced that students learn a lot from their participation in assessment through strategies such as self-assessment and peer assessment, e.g., to develop critical capacity, to learn to be objective, and to value one's own work. However, limitations and difficulties in their applications were also demonstrated, such as distrust in the reliability of the assessment carried out and the extra time involved in performing self and peer assessment. It is necessary to prepare students to be evaluators so that use of both types of assessment can have a positive impact on them.
Dopico, E.	2010	Participatory action research. Quantitative data analysis	The results of this research showed that self and peer assessment provide relevant information for the teaching process. High levels of congruence were evidenced in the self-perception of their own academic performance, visible in the number of coincidences in the grades that students and groups give to themselves and those determined by teachers. Likewise, it was evidenced that students with a lower grade than the one assigned by their teachers tend to increase their final grade, while those to whom teachers assign a high grade tend to reduce it. It was also found that women show greater responsibility, involvement, and honesty when judging their learning productions than men, either individually, in a specific group, or as part of mixed groups.
Duers, L.	2017	Qualitative	The study found that participants desired a new performance feedback form, and they helped to create it. In this form, the evaluator (they themselves or another person) judge human qualities, such as ‘compassion’ and ‘kindness’, in addition to the skills and knowledge criteria. In other words, self-assessment includes various dimensions of the human being.
Dungan, A. & Gronich, L.	2006	Qualitative and quantitative (mixed) analysis of data.	In this study, self-assessment was applied as a pedagogical tool to improve the participation of students in their learning, especially self-direction and self-management behaviors. Through its use, students develop the skills necessary to become lifelong learners projecting goals, establishing criteria for successful outcomes, and reflecting on their learning and further learning needs.
El-Koumy, A.	2010	Experimental design, Pre-test – post-test	The results of the study revealed no significant differences between the self-assessment group and the no-assessment control group in knowledge achievement or academic thinking skills. Like any other skill, students needed to practice self-assessment under the teacher's supervision to become skillful and comfortable enough to incorporate it into their own learning.
Fernández, A. y Vanga, M.	2015	Descriptive, explanatory. Qualitative and quantitative data (mixed)	The study noted the functional nature of the process of self-assessment, co-assessment, and hetero-assessment, which was designed to characterize student behavior and improve student performance.
Ferrándiz-Vindel, I.	2011	Case study	It was found that the attitude towards work and professional management are valued by students as influential skills when preparing as professionals. The self-assessment of attitudinal content makes it easier for each person to find their own hierarchy of values as an essential part of their individual identity.
Fraile, A. & Moreira, H.	2013	Descriptive. Quantitative analysis of data	The main results obtained showed that students value the preparation of reports and the use of the field diary to assess learning, as well as to acquire knowledge about the content of the discipline. Students also valued participation in the continuous and formative assessment process since this facilitates the teaching and learning activities during the training process.
Gabarda Méndez, V. y Colomo Magaña, E.	2019	Quantitative, descriptive	Results show that students have a higher perception of their performance than university tutors, but not than their tutors in the educational center where they carry out their internships. On the other hand, there are no significant differences in the perception of students based on gender, but there are in other variables such as the internship period taken or the ownership of the centers.
González de Sande, J. & Godino-Llorente, J.	2014	Quasi-experimental	This study found a higher correlation between the grades of the peer-rated activities and teachers’ grades than the correlation between the grades of the self-assessment activities and teachers’ grades. Additionally, results showed that self and peer assessment were more effective than teacher formative assessment, and that the first two are highly reliable.
Hale, C.	2015	Qualitative analysis of data	Qualitative findings indicate that students appear to find value in the exercise consistent with the overall aims of a liberal arts education, indicating that it makes them feel trusted by instructors, develops their sense of responsibility, and forces them to look at their writing more objectively.
Harrison, K., O’Hara, J., & McNamara, G.	2015	From the beginning it was action research. Later, it had a phenomenological approach	The results found that, during self and peer assessment, students developed skills as critical and creative thinkers, effective communicators, collaborative team workers, becoming more personally productive and effective. Their self-awareness and self-reflection increased significantly. All these aspects are essential components of self-direction.
Inda, M., Álvarez, S., y Álvarez, R.	2008	Experimental group and control group	The study found that when innovative methodologies are applied and students participate in their process of teaching and assessment, the results obtained are, in general, better and more satisfactory than when a traditional methodology is followed. It was found that there were higher correlations between the assessment carried out by teachers, both at the group and student levels (group / teacher hetero-assessment and student / teacher hetero-assessment) and between the peer assessment and the self-assessment. Regarding gender, the only determining factor in student performance was the methodology used and not gender.
Jackson, D.	2014	Quantitative analysis of data	This study found significant differences between teachers’ and students’ assessments of performance in employability skills, that is, there is overrating among students from first through to final-year students. Correlation coefficients, however, indicate there is a degree of alignment between academic and student assessments in the second and third-year samples, and for the overall sample of students. Students judged by academics as more academically competent were able to self-assess more accurately than their less competent peers — those achieving fails and passes. High-achieving students tended to underestimate their performance, while low achievers overestimated and to a greater extent than those underestimating. The influence of gender on self-assessment accuracy is not detected in this study.
Kajander-Unkuri, S., Leino-Kilpi, H., Katajisto, J., Meretoja R., Räisänen A., Saarikoski, M., Salminen, L., & Suhonen, R.	2016	Design of comparative surveys	Comparisons between the assessments showed that students assessed their nurse competence as higher than their mentors. Nursing students should practice self-assessment during their nurse education.
Kambourova, M.	2008	Qualitative. Hermeneutical approach	Findings of this research showed that application of self-assessment strategy with its steps —awareness, theoretical approach, reflection, comparison, and projection of autonomy— provided necessary conditions for students to learn to self-assess systematically, acquiring their autonomy. Also, some competencies were developed in students and a process of generating a culture of self-assessment began.
Kelaher-Young, A. & Carver, C.	2013	Qualitative	As this study revealed, deliberate self-assessment helped participants articulate and interrogate their notions about learning strategies, interpret concepts like critical thinking, and self-regulated learning through the lens of their own processes and experiences as learners. Additionally, it allowed them to understand their assumptions and beliefs about the profession and themselves.
Kevereski, L.	2017	Statistical analysis of data	This research has shown that students’ exam grades were almost the same as those assigned by their teachers. Female respondents have more objective grades about their knowledge and expectation than male respondents. Findings of this study should be considered with caution given the relatively small simple size.
Kossack, S., Sandiford, J., & López, R	2006	Quasi-experimental, pretest – post test	Students’ scores before and after self-assessments clearly indicated significant growth in critical course knowledge; on average, this growth doubled, according to students. Also, evidence was found that students assumed responsibility for their own learning as well as the intention to continue learning information that their end-of-course assessments indicated they still needed. On the other hand, self-assessments allow teachers to adjust course/instruction based on student-perceived needs.
Leach, L.	2012	Statistical analysis of data	The statistical analysis comparing student and teacher grades showed that they were very similar. However, a closer analysis of data provided an insight into underrating and overrating. Students with high grades were more likely to underrate than overrate. The results presented above also show that when self-assessment was optional, most students did not self-assess.
Logan, B.	2015	Qualitative	This study found that by applying self-assessment (in the form of an essay) students understood the practice of self-discovery and the importance of deliberately making them responsible for their own learning.
Logan, E.	2009	Action research	The findings indicate that, although time consuming in the initial stages, the intervention resulted in students becoming more reflective and self-critical leading to improved academic performance. Regular sharing and discussion of their work led to increased confidence in their perception of themselves as learners.
Lopes, I.	2018	Phenomenological approach, with descriptive, explanatory technique	The results showed that teachers (as participants) have a positive and affirmative view of the efficiency and effectiveness of self-assessment. When used, it allows the distribution of responsibilities among actors, especially teachers and students as learners, since that is a consequence of this fact and vice versa. Furthermore, it was revealed that teachers perceive the practice of self-assessment as an experience of self-knowledge.
Machera, R.	2017	«A survey research design»	The main findings of this study reflected the benefits of appropriate and well-coordinated self-assessment and peer assessment, such as self-directing, learning by doing, and preparing students' employability skills, as this involves collaboration and self-judgment.
Máté, D. & Darabos, E.	2017	Statistical data analysis	This study found that higher-achieving students seemed to predict and evaluate their examination results more accurately and tended to overestimate them less than their lower-achieving peers. It was also shown that higher-achieving students seem to predict and evaluate their examination results more accurately than their lower-achieving fellows on the Moodle tests than on traditional tests. On the other hand, the results did not provide clear evidence that disparities exist in self-assessment depending on gender: women were less likely to overestimate their results.
McDonald, B.	2012	Control group and experimental group	This research demonstrated that students in the experimental group (taught with a student-centered approach with an emphasis on self-assessment) outperformed students in the control group (taught in a traditional way) at all levels of achievement (superior, middle, and lower). Students in the experimental group were able to pinpoint their specific areas for improvement, while those in the control group were not interested in determining ways to improve.
Miller, B.	2012	Literature review	The study concludes with the discovery of a teaching theory for nursing students that adopts formative assessment as an important teaching method which allows the development of students’ ability to self-regulate and participate in their learning. Self-assessment is one aspect of formative assessment.
Mok, M., Lung, C., Cheng, D., Cheung, R., & Ng, M.	2006	Multiple case study	This study describes the use of a metacognitive approach called the Know-Want-Learn method for the self-assessment of teacher training students. The results show that students considered that the metacognitive approach supported their learning and self-assessment, allowing them to be more aware of their learning and thinking processes at the end of the study. In addition, the teachers who participated in the project found the method to be demanding, but it generated useful feedback which improved their teaching.
Ndoye, A.	2017	Qualitative, exploratory study	Results of this study indicate that feedback, collaboration, and a supportive learning environment are mechanisms through which peer and self-assessment contribute to student learning. The findings also showed that students perceive that activities of peer and self-assessment promote their sense of responsibility towards their own learning through increased awareness of course requirements and expectations, as well as the development of their skills and assessment strategies to fill identified learning gaps.
Nulty, D.	2011	Literature review	This study mentions the benefits of self and peer assessment: identification of criteria to judge certain work and make judgments using these criteria, so that these two types of assessment not only empower students in their learning, but in their professional practice and continuous learning after graduation. Greater use of self and peer assessment is recommended with students in the first year of higher education.
Panadero, E.	2011		Only the theorical part of the thesis, which contains literature review, was used. Therefore, the results of the studies carried out in the experimental part are not included here.
Pawluk, S., Zolezzi, M., & Rainkie, D.	2018	Quantitative data analysis	In this study, pharmacy students’ communication with a standardized patient was assessed by themselves, by a member of the faculty, and by the patient, in each of the four stations that the students passed. The results showed that, at all stations, students’ self-assessment scored higher than the corresponding teacher and standardized patient assessments. Concordance between the teaching staff, the standardized patient, and the self-assessment was moderate to mild for all comparisons, but only significant between the teaching staff and the self-assessment.
Rodríguez, G., Ibarra, M., y Gómez, M.	2011	Empirical-analytical and interpretive approaches. Qualitative case study	This study proved that students are actively involved in the e-self-assessment process, carrying out a critical analysis of their training needs, their potentialities, and their weaknesses. The e-self-assessment favors the active participation of students and involves an exercise in self-regulation and self-reflection on their degree of knowledge and development of skills.
Rodríguez-Gómez, G., Ibarra-Saiz, M., Gallego-Noche, B., Gómez-Ruiz, M., y Quesada-Serra, V.	2012	Multiple case study. Descriptive/evaluative	In this study, based on the analysis of the subject programs, it was found that there is little evidence that university teachers consider it important to take into account the participation of students in the assessment process. On the other hand, teachers and students agree that active participation of students in the assessment process brings them many benefits, for example, the development of critical capacity, active involvement in the learning process, the improvement of knowledge on specific subjects, or improving attitudes and learning outcomes or products. However, this recognition faces the little use of participatory strategies in assessment, specifically self-assessment. Regarding assessment criteria, an important part of the surveyed teaching staff affirms that they carry out activities to explain and discuss these criteria with their students, but most of the students perceive that the explanation and discussion of the criteria or the participation in determining them is not a generalized reality.
Rúa, J., Arcila, M., Giraldo, M., y Hoyos, A.	2007	Quantitative and qualitative approach (mixed)	This study offers different results on the assessment of learning. Some of the most important are those that found that assessment is not concerned with the formative process, but with the verification of results. It was also shown that although teachers favor some moments for self-assessment, they do not do so for feedback purposes.
Salvadores-Merino, C.	2019	Exploratory, correlational study	The study found significant correlations with high coefficients between the scores obtained in the self-assessment and those obtained through the external assessment (both in overall results and by specific linguistic ability). Regarding the premise —the greater the student’s mastery and experience, the greater the accuracy in self-assessment— contradictory results were found since students have more learning experience in reading comprehension but have the lowest correlation coefficients for this ability.
San Martín, S., Jiménez, N., y Sánchez-Beato, E.	2016	Empirical study	This study analyzed the assessment systems of university students based on officially published teaching guides. It was found that few guides relate assessment to the acquisition of competences, that the final exam continues to be crucial, to the point that the continuous assessment system is not frequently applied, and that self-assessment and co-assessment constitute a minority in assessment systems. Furthermore, the study showed that new technologies are little used in the assessment process and the mere attendance to class represents an assessment system recorded in the guides. Finally, the authors point out that although the analysis presented does not necessarily reflect what happens in the classroom, it is an important point to reflect on this reality.
Siles-González, J. & Solano-Ruiz, C.	2016	«Cross-sectional descriptive study»	The results of this study showed that self-assessment constitutes a new concept for students and forces them to reinterpret their role. It was also found that the participation of students in the process of evaluating their own learning and, in particular, their achievements and results, contributes to the full development of reflection on learning and facilitates the development of critical thinking. However, self-assessment is a long and complex process, so it is advisable to move slowly in an organized way (providing the necessary means and structures) before implementing it, since the traditional assessment that reinforces student passivity persists.
Silva, R. da	2007	Qualitative. Discourse analysis	Students show a significant desire to improve their learning when they feel encouraged to reveal their perceptions about their performance and that of the group, in a kind of co-responsibility in the assessment process, grasping very close concepts of their real performance. To make this possible, it is necessary to have the guidance of the self-assessment process with well-defined and clear stages.
Siow, L.	2015	Statistical data analysis	The results show that participants perceived that both self and peer assessments allowed them to be more critical, to work in a more structured way, and to think more deeply. Time consumption is the primary concern of students, but this has not discouraged their need for self or peer assessment.
Sitzmann, T., Ely, K., Brown, K., & Bauer, K.	2010	Meta-analysis	The results of this work showed stronger correlations of self-assessment with motivation and satisfaction, but the relationship between self-assessment and cognitive learning was moderate. Even under conditions that optimized the self-assessment-cognitive learning relationship (for example, when students practiced self-assessment and received feedback on their self-assessments), the relationship was still weaker than the self-assessment-motivation relationship. It was also found that in a third of the studies analyzed, the researchers interpreted the self-assessed knowledge data as evidence of cognitive learning. Therefore, the authors recommend assigning a more limited role for self-assessment within the evaluative practice.
Sosibo, Z.	2019	Action research	The results showed that by applying self-assessment of their learning, students developed a few skills to become self-directed learners: this was evidenced by the low correlations that continued in the second of two comparative assessment activities, although the differences in means improved. However, students reported having feelings of autonomy regarding their learning as a result of the opportunity to value their own work.
Souto, R., Jiménez, F. y Navarro, V.	2020	Mixed, case study	This study shows that when students participate in assessment through self and peer assessments, they develop competencies for their learning. It was also evidenced that students’ reluctance to apply these types of assessment has to do with the grades, not with assessment itself. It was also found that prior specific preparation is necessary for teachers to guarantee the development of self and peer assessments.
Stan, C. & Manea, A.	2015	Quantitative data analysis	The research showed that more than half of the participants stated that they used the self-assessment method at all times or most of the time, which is a sign of a high level of attention to their own level of preparation. The main reasons for self-assessment were related to the degree of understanding of the course and the effort to study. Similarly, it was found that almost all students believe that their self-assessment is accurate and when it is not, the tendency is to underestimate.
Tan, K.	2008	Phenomenographic approach	The findings of this study provide information about different qualitative ways that university teachers understand and use power in their student self-assessment practices. Five conceptions were identified: A: involving students in judging their behavior in self-assessment activities; B: involving students in judging their knowledge in self-assessment practices; C: involving students in judging their standards within the program of study; D: involving students in judging their proficiency within the program of study; E: involving students in judging their self-assessment ability beyond the program of study.
Tejeiro, R., Gómez-Vallecillo, J., Romero, A., Pelegrina, M., Wallace, A. & Emberley, E.	2012	Statistical data analysis	In this study, it was found that in both groups (where self-assessment was applied and where it was not) students’ self-assessment grades were higher than those given by their teachers, with significantly higher differences in the students with poorer results and in the group whose self-assessment influenced the final grade. In this group, no relationship was found between teachers’ and students’ assessments. Thus, it was found that when self-assessment does not influence the grade, students self-assess in a very similar way as teachers do, but when self-assessment influences the grade, the discrepancy increases considerably, either over or under-grading.
Thomas, G., Martin, D., & Pleasants, K.	2011	Experience. Three case studies	In this study, the authors share general ideas that emerged from their experience with the application of self and peer assessments: in order to use them, it is necessary to spend enough time to discuss the fundamental reasons for doing so. Such discussions provide excellent opportunities to engage students’ thinking about learning and assessment, but also reveal their concerns and anxieties about self and peer assessments. Resistance can be expected from students, peers, and supervisors when developing and implementing innovative assessment strategies. However, with the right level of support and planning, the advantages of engaging students in self-assessment and peer assessment processes easily outweigh the disadvantages (as the authors observed in their initiatives).
Trevitt, C., Breman, E., & Stocks, C.	2012	Experience. Two case studies	This work focused on the acts of judgment on an activity or product. The authors state that such acts are at the heart of formative and summative assessment, and that assessment is more likely to lead to valued learning if part of the judgment used belongs to students, and not just teachers. The development of students' skills in assessment and especially in self-assessment should be more prominent in the curriculum and learning objectives.
Van Loon, M. & Van de Wiel, M.	2015	Quantitative data analysis	This study examined medical residents’ self-assessment accuracy and its relationship with goal orientation, reflection, and performance. Although the findings confirm the strong relationship between goal orientations and reflection, mastery goal orientation was negatively related to self-assessment accuracy and test performance. Findings indicate that it is important to triangulate data by combining self-report questionnaire data with more fine-grained measures of self-assessment accuracy.
Verano-Tacoronte, D., Bolívar-Cruz, A., & González-Betancor, S.	2015	Quantitative data analysis	This study showed that men have a statistically higher self-assessment than women and that bright students are very good at judging their own performance, while students with fewer abilities are less accurate. It was also evidenced that the rubric (used in the study) enables a high level of accuracy, given that teachers and peers score similarly. Students accurately assessed their peers when they acted as peers, which seems to give more weight to the students' motivation to improve their grade when it comes to self-assessment.
Vieira, L., Lima, M. L.	2019	Mixed	Among the results of this study is that self-assessment is the second most used tool among participating teachers. Likewise, based on the frequency of use of the tools and the teachers’ conceptions about assessment, it is evidenced a procedural and continuous evaluative practice. These conceptions are expressed in the relationship between discourse and evaluative practice; however, this assessment still does not manage to be a mediator.
Walser, T.	2009	Action research	The results indicated that self-assessment exercises allowed students to reflect on the course and their performance, helped them monitor their progress, motivated them to perform well in the course, and provided them with the opportunity to give feedback to their teachers. Moreover, from the teacher's perspective, the exercises provided useful information to improve the course and facilitated interactions and relationships with students.