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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32968</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32968</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Repensar lo humano, reconfigurar los v&#x00ED;nculos: horizontes &#x00E9;ticos y epistemol&#x00F3;gicos para la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Rethinking the Human, Reconfiguring Bonds: Ethical and Epistemological Horizons for Environmental Education</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3658-2191</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Bautista-Cerro Ruiz</surname>
<given-names>Mar&#x00ED;a Jos&#x00E9;</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ES"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Nacional de Educaci&#x00F3;n a Distancia (UNED). Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional de Educaci&#x00F3;n a Distancia (UNED)</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-ES"><email>mjbautistac@edu.uned.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>23</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026382</issue-id>
<fpage>21</fpage>
    <lpage>38</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>03</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>22</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La crisis ecol&#x00F3;gica y civilizatoria actual exige revisar los fundamentos &#x00E9;ticos y epistemol&#x00F3;gicos desde los que la humanidad se ha relacionado hist&#x00F3;ricamente con el medio. Este art&#x00ED;culo propone un recorrido te&#x00F3;rico-cr&#x00ED;tico por los principales marcos conceptuales que han configurado la visi&#x00F3;n moderna de los seres humanos y su relaci&#x00F3;n con la naturaleza: desde el antropocentrismo cl&#x00E1;sico, que situ&#x00F3; al ser humano (aunque no todos los seres humanos) como medida y fin de todas las cosas, hasta las corrientes contempor&#x00E1;neas que buscan modular o reconfigurar esa relaci&#x00F3;n, como el biocentrismo, el ecocentrismo, el ecofeminismo, el pensamiento decolonial y los enfoques posthumanistas.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis que se presenta reconoce convergencias en torno a una comprensi&#x00F3;n relacional y compleja de la vida, pero tambi&#x00E9;n tensiones cr&#x00ED;ticas, como el riesgo de que el descentramiento posthumanista diluya la responsabilidad moral y pol&#x00ED;tica, o de que los discursos globales de sostenibilidad mantengan sesgos antropoc&#x00E9;ntricos y tecnocr&#x00E1;ticos. Desde esa mirada, se sostiene que la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental debe integrar las dimensiones &#x00E9;tica, pol&#x00ED;tica y epist&#x00E9;mica del cambio civilizatorio. Se argumenta la necesidad de una educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental capaz de cuestionar las narrativas de dominio, separaci&#x00F3;n y excepcionalidad de lo humano, que han sido la base del pensamiento occidental, e impulsar una comprensi&#x00F3;n relacional, interdependiente y ecosocial de la existencia.</p>
<p>En un contexto de colapso ecosocial y emergencia clim&#x00E1;tica, se propone repolitizar la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental como espacio de di&#x00E1;logo &#x00E9;tico, de justicia ecosocial y de aprendizaje colectivo, orientado a la reconstrucci&#x00F3;n del v&#x00ED;nculo entre humanidad y naturaleza. En definitiva, se aboga por una nueva pedagog&#x00ED;a ecosocial que reconozca nuestra ecodependencia y asuma la responsabilidad compartida de garantizar la sostenibilidad de la vida en el planeta.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The current ecological and civilizational crisis calls for a profound revision of the ethical and epistemological foundations through which humanity has historically related to the environment. This article offers a theoretical and critical exploration of the main conceptual frameworks that have shaped the modern understanding of human beings and their relationship with nature: from classical anthropocentrism, which positioned the human (though not all humans) as the measure and end of all things, to contemporary approaches that seek to modulate or reconfigure that relationship, such as biocentrism, ecocentrism, ecofeminism, decolonial thought, and posthumanist perspectives.</p>
<p>The analysis identifies convergences around a relational and complex understanding of life, but also critical tensions, such as the risk that posthumanist decentering may dilute moral and political responsibility, or that global sustainability discourses may perpetuate anthropocentric and technocratic biases. From this standpoint, the paper argues that environmental education must integrate the ethical, political, and epistemic dimensions of civilizational transformation. It highlights the need for an environmental education capable of challenging the narratives of domination, separation, and human exceptionalism that have underpinned Western thought, while fostering a relational, interdependent, and ecosocial understanding of existence.</p>
<p>In the context of ecosocial collapse and climate emergency, the article advocates for repoliticizing environmental education as a space for ethical dialogue, ecosocial justice, and collective learning oriented toward rebuilding the bond between humanity and nature. Ultimately, it calls for a new ecosocial pedagogy that recognizes our ecodependence and assumes the shared responsibility of ensuring the sustainability of life on Earth.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</kwd>
<kwd>antropocentrismo</kwd>
<kwd>ecofeminismo</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanismo</kwd>
<kwd>justicia social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>environmental education</kwd>
<kwd>anthropocentrism</kwd>
<kwd>ecofeminism</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanism</kwd>
<kwd>social justice</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32968-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<p>El Planeta Tierra se encuentra en un momento de gran emergencia. El Instituto de Resiliencia de Estocolmo defini&#x00F3;, en 2009, nueve procesos b&#x00E1;sicos que mantienen la vida en nuestro planeta, estableciendo l&#x00ED;mites que no deber&#x00ED;an sobrepasarse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32968-ES">Rockstr&#x00F6;m et al., 2009</xref>). En aquel momento ya se hab&#x00ED;an traspasado tres de esos l&#x00ED;mites; en 2025 la cifra asciende a siete (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32968-ES">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, 2025</xref>). El &#x00FA;ltimo en incorporarse a esta lista es la acidificaci&#x00F3;n de los oc&#x00E9;anos, con graves consecuencias no solo en el medio marino, sino, como ocurre en el resto de los procesos estudiados, para el equilibrio global de la Tierra.</p>
<p>Desde hace a&#x00F1;os, ya sabemos que los problemas que sufre el planeta tienen origen antropog&#x00E9;nico, y, sin duda tienen que ver con la manera en la que el ser humano ha ido configurando su manera de estar y de ser en el planeta: la manera en la que lo habita y lo hace habitable o, por el contrario, inhabitable.</p>
<p>En este contexto de creciente deterioro ambiental, la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental apareci&#x00F3; como respuesta a los graves impactos que las actividades humanas estaban provocando. Ya en el Congreso de Estocolmo de 1972 se planteaba la necesidad de definir los derechos y deberes del hombre en relaci&#x00F3;n con el medio ambiente. Entre sus aportaciones, se puso de relieve la relaci&#x00F3;n entre el sistema econ&#x00F3;mico y el deterioro ambiental. La educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental aspir&#x00F3;, desde sus or&#x00ED;genes, a actuar en todas las esferas de la vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32968-ES">Naciones Unidas, 1972</xref>). Sin embargo, la aplicaci&#x00F3;n pr&#x00E1;ctica se acercar&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s a una visi&#x00F3;n naturalista y conservacionista, con un sello antropoc&#x00E9;ntrico del que, a&#x00FA;n hoy, parece dif&#x00ED;cil desprenderse. Las evidencias de las crisis ambientales cada vez m&#x00E1;s acuciantes no consiguen que el foco se sit&#x00FA;e en las relaciones inter e intra espec&#x00ED;ficas y en muchos casos sea tecno optimismo el que se imponga como respuesta ante el pesimismo cient&#x00ED;fico o ecol&#x00F3;gico.</p>
<p>En la actualidad, el desaf&#x00ED;o educativo se vuelve a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s complejo. La comunidad internacional coincide en que la educaci&#x00F3;n constituye un &#x00E1;mbito estrat&#x00E9;gico para afrontar la crisis planetaria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32968-ES">Nusche et al., 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-32968-ES">UNESCO, 2021</xref>). En este art&#x00ED;culo proponemos un di&#x00E1;logo esperanzador en el que podamos explorar c&#x00F3;mo la Educaci&#x00F3;n Ambiental puede ofrecer nuevas claves te&#x00F3;ricas y pedag&#x00F3;gicas para redimensionar el papel del ser humano en un entorno cada vez m&#x00E1;s complejo bajo la alarma ambiental.</p>
<p>Esta aportaci&#x00F3;n se concibe como un ensayo te&#x00F3;rico-cr&#x00ED;tico que explora los fundamentos epistemol&#x00F3;gicos, &#x00E9;ticos y pedag&#x00F3;gicos de la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental en el contexto de la crisis ecosocial contempor&#x00E1;nea. Proponemos un ejercicio de reflexi&#x00F3;n integradora sustentado en an&#x00E1;lisis de distintas corrientes de pensamiento desde el pensamiento moderno y su herencia antropoc&#x00E9;ntrica hasta el posthumanismo pasando por los enfoques bioc&#x00E9;ntricos, ecoc&#x00E9;ntricos y ecofeministas. Exploraremos como los distintos enfoques plantean propuestas necesarias en el abordaje de la crisis ambiental y como los enfoques posthumanistas pueden aportar visiones de inter&#x00E9;s a una nueva compresi&#x00F3;n del rol humano.</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s que ofrecer respuestas cerradas, buscamos abrir un espacio de di&#x00E1;logo te&#x00F3;rico y pedag&#x00F3;gico, capaz de inspirar nuevas pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas orientadas al cuidado y la justicia ecosocial.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32968-ES">
<label>2.</label>
<title>E<sc>l sesgo antropoc&#x00E9;ntrico en la percepci&#x00F3;n de la crisis ecosocial</sc></title>
<p>En t&#x00E9;rminos ambientales, un <italic>punto de inflexi&#x00F3;n</italic> (tipping point) se&#x00F1;ala el momento en el que un sistema alcanza un umbral a partir del cual los cambios se vuelven irreversibles. Es el punto en el que una tendencia aparentemente gradual o paulatina se acelera y transforma de manera abrupta la din&#x00E1;mica de un sistema. Podemos imaginar, por ejemplo, una masa de hielo que poco a poco se va derritiendo bajo el calor del sol. Durante un tiempo, el cambio apenas se aprecia, sin embargo, si las condiciones no cambian, se puede alcanzar un punto en el que el deshielo se acelere de forma imparable y ya no pueda revertirse, aunque la temperatura baje paulatina o abruptamente.</p>
<p>Buena parte de los ecosistemas maduros han necesitado siglos para crearse y consolidar su existencia, as&#x00ED; como para hacer afianzar su participaci&#x00F3;n en algunas funciones ecol&#x00F3;gicas esenciales para el mantenimiento de la vida, como la polinizaci&#x00F3;n o la formaci&#x00F3;n de suelo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32968-ES">Escudero, 2025</xref>). Sin embargo, estos ecosistemas y sus interconexiones pueden llegar a un punto cr&#x00ED;tico, perdiendo su capacidad de autorregulaci&#x00F3;n y, en caso extremo, colapsando. Tambi&#x00E9;n las sociedades pueden llegar al colapso si se dan unas determinadas circunstancias (degradaci&#x00F3;n ambiental, las desigualdades econ&#x00F3;micas o la p&#x00E9;rdida de cohesi&#x00F3;n social) que desestabilizan las estructuras fundamentales. Tal como advierte <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32968-ES">Diamond (2005)</xref>, las sociedades colapsan no solo por causas ambientales, sino tambi&#x00E9;n por la incapacidad de sus &#x00E9;lites para reconocer los signos del deterioro y tomar decisiones a tiempo.</p>
<p>En estos momentos, nos encontramos en un escenario en el que los l&#x00ED;deres mundiales, el empresariado y la ciudadan&#x00ED;a parecen ignorar sistem&#x00E1;ticamente los informes y recomendaciones cient&#x00ED;ficas, entre ellas las del IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) o del IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services), por citar solo dos aportaciones cient&#x00ED;ficas de alto nivel. Esta ceguera no es reciente, en 1972 el Club de Roma advert&#x00ED;a en su informe <italic>Los l&#x00ED;mites del crecimiento</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32968-ES">Meadows et al., 1972</xref>) de la vinculaci&#x00F3;n entre las actividades humanas y los da&#x00F1;os ambientales y la necesidad de sustituir las l&#x00F3;gicas del crecimiento ilimitado por modelos cercanos al desarrollo sostenible.</p>
<p>Desde una perspectiva geopol&#x00ED;tica, la crisis ambiental no se ignora por desconocimiento sino porque afrontarla altera profundamente los equilibrios de poder, los intereses econ&#x00F3;micos y las estrategias territoriales de las grandes potencias. En una escala individual, para Hamilton, citado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32968-ES">Latour (2012)</xref>, todos somos negadores del cambio clim&#x00E1;tico en tanto que no somos capaces de conciliar la escala humana con la magnitud de la cat&#x00E1;strofe. &#x201C;es la indiferencia que hemos incorporado lo que nos lleva a negar el saber de nuestra ciencia&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32968-ES">Latour, 2012</xref>, p. 69).</p>
<p>En esa ciencia que Latour afirma que ignoramos, est&#x00E1;n los estudios que demuestran cuales son las causas f&#x00ED;sicas de la crisis ambiental y apuntan a las soluciones: principalmente frenar la quema de combustibles f&#x00F3;siles. La cuesti&#x00F3;n es que esa energ&#x00ED;a es el motor de nuestras sociedades y parece dif&#x00ED;cil encontrar v&#x00ED;as alternativas, narrativas del cambio y el impulso para que este se produzca en t&#x00E9;rminos de justicia social. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32968-ES">Jameson (2003)</xref> ya nos advert&#x00ED;a de que es m&#x00E1;s f&#x00E1;cil imaginar el fin del mundo que el fin del capitalismo.</p>
<p>Sin duda esto tiene que ver con la manera en la que el ser humano se ve a s&#x00ED; mismo y al medio en el que est&#x00E1; inserto. El medio natural constituye para la humanidad una fuente de recursos de la que extrae materia prima para alimentar sus necesidades y deseos, pero del que hist&#x00F3;ricamente no se ha sentido parte, al menos en Occidente. Las relaciones de dependencia que sostienen la vida se han mantenido, en gran medida, invisibilizadas, mientras se alimentaba una idea de dominio y control. Sin embargo, toda forma de vida, entre ella la vida humana, depende de los servicios que proveen los ecosistemas a trav&#x00E9;s de procesos y ciclos complejos. El ciclo del agua probablemente es el m&#x00E1;s conocido, pero tambi&#x00E9;n el ciclo del carbono, del fosforo o del hidr&#x00F3;geno que permiten suelos equilibrados y f&#x00E9;rtiles, o procesos como la fotos&#x00ED;ntesis que permite la obtenci&#x00F3;n de ox&#x00ED;geno, la polinizaci&#x00F3;n, entre otros. No despreciemos que la mirada mantiene un sesgo en el que prima la perspectiva humana cuando hablamos de &#x201C;recursos&#x201D; naturales o de servicios ecosist&#x00E9;micos.</p>
<p>Existen distintas formas de ver, explicar y cuestionar el papel central que el ser humano se ha adjudicado en el planeta. Cada vez somos m&#x00E1;s conscientes de la magnitud de los problemas que hemos creado y de c&#x00F3;mo, la perspectiva en la que nos situamos es relevante a la hora de interpretar e intentar abarcar.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32968-ES">
<label>3.</label>
<title>R<sc>a&#x00ED;ces hist&#x00F3;ricas y culturales del antropocentrismo occidental</sc></title>
<p>El ser humano ha ido estableciendo unas relaciones con su entorno basadas en las realidades materiales y en las creencias que iba construyendo. M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de certezas cuya existencia es dif&#x00ED;cil de sostener, el ser humano ha creado un universo en el que pod&#x00ED;a sentirse c&#x00F3;modo, asumiendo que conoc&#x00ED;a, comprend&#x00ED;a y controlaba su medio.</p>
<p>A lo largo de la historia han prevalecido las narrativas que establec&#x00ED;an una jerarqu&#x00ED;a interespec&#x00ED;fica y tambi&#x00E9;n intraespec&#x00ED;fica, en las que el ser humano, y m&#x00E1;s concretamente el hombre, se situaba en la cumbre de una simb&#x00F3;lica pir&#x00E1;mide que llevaba aparejados derechos, as&#x00ED; como los privilegios. Por debajo quedaban el resto de los seres vivos, mujeres incluidas que no eran vistas como iguales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-32968-ES">Shiva, 1988</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-32968-ES">2024</xref>). Adem&#x00E1;s, las din&#x00E1;micas patriarcales, coloniales y el capitalismo han privilegiado hist&#x00F3;ricamente las distinciones entre seres humanos en virtud de factores culturales, econ&#x00F3;micos, geogr&#x00E1;ficos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32968-ES">Escobar, 2015</xref>), en los que el g&#x00E9;nero ha sido transversal.</p>
<p>En Occidente, desde la Antig&#x00FC;edad, diversos &#x00E1;mbitos del saber han consolidado la idea de superioridad del ser humano sobre la naturaleza. En la teolog&#x00ED;a judeocristiana, la exhortaci&#x00F3;n b&#x00ED;blica a &#x201C;dominar la Tierra&#x201D; en el libro b&#x00ED;blico del G&#x00E9;nesis legitim&#x00F3; una visi&#x00F3;n instrumental de la naturaleza al servicio del hombre, perspectiva que fue aprovechada por la cultura occidental. Arist&#x00F3;teles afirmaba en su Pol&#x00ED;tica que la naturaleza no hace nada en vano y que los animales y las plantas existen en funci&#x00F3;n del hombre. Estableci&#x00F3; una Escala Natural (<italic>Scala Naturae</italic>) en la que orden&#x00F3; a todos los seres vivos, situando en la cumbre al hombre.</p>
<sec id="sec-4-32968-ES">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title>Modernidad, racionalismo y la separaci&#x00F3;n ontol&#x00F3;gica entre humanidad y naturaleza</title>
    <p>El hito que supuso la revoluci&#x00F3;n cient&#x00ED;fica de los siglos XVI y XVII marc&#x00F3; una transformaci&#x00F3;n intelectual profunda en Occidente, impulsada por figuras como Cop&#x00E9;rnico, Bacon, Galileo, Descartes o Newton. Sus planteamientos reconfiguraron las relaciones entre el ser humano, el conocimiento, el poder y la naturaleza. Se impuso la fe en la raz&#x00F3;n y el planteamiento de la naturaleza como un sistema ordenado que funcionaba seg&#x00FA;n leyes universales que el ser humano pod&#x00ED;a descubrir. La transformaci&#x00F3;n radical de la manera de entender el mundo consolid&#x00F3; un sustrato de pensamiento que, sin cuestionar el lugar central del hombre en su medio, separaba sujeto y objeto estableciendo un marco en el que la naturaleza se constitu&#x00ED;a como algo ajeno al ser humano. Este dualismo, tal y como observa <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32968-ES">Bookchin (2022)</xref>, sustituy&#x00F3; la conexi&#x00F3;n hel&#x00E9;nica entre mente y naturaleza por una distancia infranqueable entre ambos planos, manteniendo al individuo en una posici&#x00F3;n de superioridad frente al resto de seres vivos.</p>
<p>El modelo newtoniano contribuy&#x00F3; a consolidar la idea de dominio del ser humano sobre la naturaleza y la consideraci&#x00F3;n de los bienes naturales como recursos disponibles para su explotaci&#x00F3;n El ser humano en ese momento era el hombre blanco, europeo, propietario, no la humanidad en su conjunto, el resto de la humanidad (incluidas las mujeres) y la naturaleza era territorio explotable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32968-ES">Rist, 2002</xref>).</p>
<p>El pensamiento cartesiano y el empirismo consolidaron el modelo antropoc&#x00E9;ntrico que justific&#x00F3; la alteraci&#x00F3;n y el dominio del entorno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32968-ES">Novo, 2006</xref>). De este modo, el racionalismo y el empirismo en Occidente profundizaron una visi&#x00F3;n antropoc&#x00E9;ntrica de la realidad, caracterizada por el tratamiento de la naturaleza como fuente de beneficios para los seres humanos, y aunque se planteaba como un derecho, m&#x00E1;s bien constitu&#x00ED;a un privilegio ya que su uso y disfrute no se contemplaba de manera equitativa para todos los individuos y comunidades. El antropocentrismo, de car&#x00E1;cter etnoc&#x00E9;ntrico y androc&#x00E9;ntrico, sustent&#x00F3; un relato hegem&#x00F3;nico en el que el hombre blanco occidental se erig&#x00ED;a como referente universal de progreso, relegando las cosmovisiones y culturas no occidentales a un lugar de inferioridad. Bajo esta l&#x00F3;gica, la naturaleza solo adquir&#x00ED;a valor cuando se transformaba en recurso, un bosque como madera, un suelo como cultivo. Este mismo razonamiento se extend&#x00ED;a a las tareas de cuidados y reproducci&#x00F3;n de la vida, tradicionalmente desempe&#x00F1;adas por las mujeres, consideradas poco productivas y carentes de relevancia econ&#x00F3;mica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32968-ES">Bautista-Cerro Ruiz y D&#x00ED;az Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>Estas creencias son producto de la historia, pero son tambi&#x00E9;n instancias que producen historia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32968-ES">Rist, 2002</xref>). Esta tradicional separaci&#x00F3;n entre lo humano y no humano ha calado en todas las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento: el derecho y la pol&#x00ED;tica reservaron la titularidad de derechos a las personas, excluyendo a los animales y ecosistemas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-32968-ES">Stone, 2010</xref>), mientras que la econom&#x00ED;a cl&#x00E1;sica y neocl&#x00E1;sica conceptualiz&#x00F3; lo natural como recurso o capital productivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-32968-ES">Smith, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32968-ES">Daly, 1996</xref>). Sin embargo, no es com&#x00FA;n a todas las culturas. Existen ejemplos repartidos por todos los continentes de maneras distintas de relacionarse con el medio natural.</p>
<p>Entre las culturas ind&#x00ED;genas de Am&#x00E9;rica encontramos los pueblos Quechua y Aymara, que consideran a la Pachamama (Madre Tierra) como un ser vivo que debe ser respetado y cuidado. La cosmovisi&#x00F3;n del pueblo Maya, por su parte, planteaba que los seres humanos eran parte de un equilibrio con la naturaleza. En Asia, el budismo tibetano promueve la no violencia hacia todos los seres vivos (<italic>Ahimsa</italic>), lo que se traduce en pr&#x00E1;cticas que minimizan el impacto y el da&#x00F1;o. En Ocean&#x00ED;a, los maor&#x00ED;es de Nueva Zelanda mantienen la idea de <italic>kaitiakitanga</italic> que implica la custodia de la naturaleza como un deber sagrado, basado en la interconexi&#x00F3;n entre humanos y el medio natural. En todas ellas podemos encontrar que lo relevante es que la posici&#x00F3;n del ser humano era la de un elemento m&#x00E1;s en lucha por los recursos.</p>
<p>Como un <italic>Matrix</italic> imperceptible, el antropocentrismo est&#x00E1; en la base de la concepci&#x00F3;n occidental del mundo y del funcionamiento de nuestros sistemas. Como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32968-ES">Boff (2012</xref>, p. 100), &#x201C;la mayor&#x00ED;a de nosotros nunca se ha planteado seriamente esta manera de entender las cosas. Parece natural ver a la humanidad como algo que est&#x00E1; por encima o aparte del resto de la comunidad terrestre&#x201D;. Esta posici&#x00F3;n de superioridad nos facilita una ceguera ante la utilizaci&#x00F3;n indiscriminada y el da&#x00F1;o ambiental, da&#x00F1;o al que nosotros mismos no somos inmunes.</p>
<p>Los avances de la revoluci&#x00F3;n cient&#x00ED;fica introdujeron una visi&#x00F3;n racional basada en la observaci&#x00F3;n, la experimentaci&#x00F3;n, la causalidad y condujo a la comprensi&#x00F3;n lineal y fragmentada de los fen&#x00F3;menos y de la realidad. Durante siglos, permiti&#x00F3; avances cient&#x00ED;ficos y tecnol&#x00F3;gicos, pero result&#x00F3; ineficiente para abordar los fen&#x00F3;menos complejos, precisamente los que predominan en los ecosistemas y sistemas sociales.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32968-ES">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title>Alternativas epistemol&#x00F3;gicas al paradigma antropoc&#x00E9;ntrico</title>
<p>En el siglo XX aparecen nuevas perspectivas que proponen centrar la mirada en las relaciones, la circularidad, la retroalimentaci&#x00F3;n y las interdependencias. Ludwig von Bertalanffy propuso la <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a General de Sistemas</italic> como una alternativa al reduccionismo dominante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32968-ES">Bertalanffy, 1973</xref>). Seg&#x00FA;n esta teor&#x00ED;a los sistemas deben entenderse como totalidades organizadas cuyos elementos est&#x00E1;n interrelacionados de manera constante y no pueden analizarse de forma separada. As&#x00ED;, el mundo debe comprenderse como el fruto de un conjunto de relaciones din&#x00E1;micas e interdependientes.</p>
<p>El pensamiento sist&#x00E9;mico rompe con la separaci&#x00F3;n entre sujeto y objeto, naturaleza y sociedad, proponiendo una visi&#x00F3;n interrelacional. Permite comprender el planeta como un sistema en el que los distintos elementos (componentes bi&#x00F3;ticos, abi&#x00F3;ticos, flujos de informaci&#x00F3;n, materia, energ&#x00ED;a) se relacionan e interact&#x00FA;an de manera constante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32968-ES">Meadows, 2022</xref>). As&#x00ED; el medio natural no puede entenderse si no se contempla en relaci&#x00F3;n con las conexiones que establecen sus elementos, entre ellos el ser humano, no solo como animal, si no de todas sus elaboraciones f&#x00ED;sicas y culturales.</p>
<p>No obstante, aunque la teor&#x00ED;a de sistemas supera el dualismo cartesiano, en muchos contextos su aplicaci&#x00F3;n se mantuvo subordinada a una l&#x00F3;gica instrumental, lo que perpetu&#x00F3; distintas formas, aunque m&#x00E1;s sutiles, de antropocentrismo. De esta manera, independientemente de que las relaciones se estructuraran de manera m&#x00E1;s relacional y menos jer&#x00E1;rquica, la idea de superioridad segu&#x00ED;a estando presente. A pesar de verificar la existencia de lazos de dependencia, las decisiones pod&#x00ED;an seguir priorizando aspectos como el crecimiento a corto plazo y la rentabilidad econ&#x00F3;mica por encima de la preservaci&#x00F3;n del medio, el cuidado del entorno e incluso las futuras generaciones.</p>
<p>En la segunda mitad del siglo XX, el pensamiento complejo ampl&#x00ED;a y profundiza el enfoque sist&#x00E9;mico al integrar dimensiones biol&#x00F3;gicas, sociales y culturales, e incorporar la incertidumbre y el azar. El pensamiento complejo surge desde las aportaciones del fil&#x00F3;sofo y soci&#x00F3;logo franc&#x00E9;s Edgar Morin, aunque tambi&#x00E9;n se nutre de las ideas de Prigogine, Maturana, Valera y Bateson. En su esencia busca integrar saberes diversos y reconocer la incertidumbre, la contradicci&#x00F3;n y la interdependencia como rasgos constitutivos de los sistemas vivos y sociales.</p>
<p>Desde el pensamiento complejo &#x201C;El ser humano no puede comprenderse aisladamente; s&#x00F3;lo puede entenderse en su relaci&#x00F3;n con el mundo, con los otros y consigo mismo, como un ser biol&#x00F3;gico, ps&#x00ED;quico, social y cultural, inseparablemente&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32968-ES">Morin, 1986</xref>, p. 56). La humanidad, por tanto, no se sit&#x00FA;a en el centro del mundo ni se separa de la naturaleza, sino que forma parte de un entramado de sistemas donde todo est&#x00E1; interconectado.</p>
<p>El pensamiento complejo reconoce la especificidad humana desde la consciencia y la reflexividad, pero busca superar el antropocentrismo mediante una perspectiva que integra la responsabilidad &#x00E9;tica del ser humano hacia la totalidad de la vida y el planeta. En la visi&#x00F3;n de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32968-ES">Morin (2001</xref>, p. 63), comprender la complejidad implica asumir que el ser humano es a la vez &#x201C;plenamente biol&#x00F3;gico y plenamente cultural, que lleva en s&#x00ED; esta unidualidad originaria&#x201D;. Es, por tanto, individuo, sociedad y especie, lo que exige repensar la relaci&#x00F3;n entre humanidad y biosfera desde la interdependencia y la consideraci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>El enfoque sist&#x00E9;mico y el pensamiento complejo permiten abrir la puerta a conceptos clave ya mencionados como el azar y la incertidumbre, las interdependencias y las interconexiones, pero tambi&#x00E9;n a la irreversibilidad de los fen&#x00F3;menos, de gran relevancia para entender el rol y la responsabilidad de la humanidad en la crisis ambiental.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32968-ES">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title>Desplazamientos &#x00E9;ticos: del antropocentrismo al biocentrismo y ecocentrismo</title>
<p>Frente al antropocentrismo y a la idea de que solo el ser humano es objeto de consideraci&#x00F3;n moral, el biocentrismo aparece como corriente &#x00E9;tico-filos&#x00F3;fica que plantea el valor intr&#x00ED;nseco de los seres vivos. M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de la consideraci&#x00F3;n utilitarista de la naturaleza y los seres que en ella habitan, el biocentrismo pone en el mismo plano &#x00E9;tico a todos los seres vivos, afirmando que la noci&#x00F3;n de superioridad del ser humano es una construcci&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica y no un hecho biol&#x00F3;gico.</p>
<p>Desde las propuestas bioc&#x00E9;ntricas se cuestiona la supremac&#x00ED;a de los humanos sobre el resto de los seres y se fomenta una actitud de respeto y corresponsabilidad hacia el conjunto de los sistemas que hacen posible la existencia. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32968-ES">Schumacher (1978)</xref> enlazando con los enfoques bioc&#x00E9;ntricos, y plantea la necesidad de distinguir entre fines y medios, advirtiendo del riesgo de reducir la Tierra a un simple instrumento de producci&#x00F3;n. Su reflexi&#x00F3;n apunta a la disyuntiva entre concebir el planeta como recurso al servicio humano o como un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32968-ES">Jonas (1979)</xref> se pregunta si debemos escuchar la llamada al respeto de su dignidad que nos hace la vida, a lo que termina afirmando que la humanidad tiene una obligaci&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica con la preservaci&#x00F3;n de la vida en la Tierra y con las generaciones futuras.</p>
<p>El biocentrismo es la base &#x00E9;tica de la ecolog&#x00ED;a profunda, impulsada por autores como Arne Naess. Este movimiento filos&#x00F3;fico adopta una visi&#x00F3;n hol&#x00ED;stica que reconoce el valor intr&#x00ED;nseco de todos los seres vivos e inertes del planeta. Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32968-ES">Naess (1973)</xref>, el ser humano forma parte inseparable del medio que habita y su existencia depende de una red de interrelaciones de los sistemas naturales. Este autor realiz&#x00F3; una distinci&#x00F3;n entre ecolog&#x00ED;a superficial y ecolog&#x00ED;a profunda. La primera centrada en abordar problemas ambientales desde la perspectiva del bienestar humano, recurre principalmente a soluciones t&#x00E9;cnicas, por lo que se encuentra anclada en posturas utilitaristas y antropoc&#x00E9;ntricas. En cambio, la ecolog&#x00ED;a profunda reconoce la igualdad ontol&#x00F3;gica de todos los seres vivos.</p>
<p>El ecocentrismo ampl&#x00ED;a el enfoque al sostener que el valor reside en la integridad de los ecosistemas y en la red de interdependencias que los sostienen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32968-ES">Leopold, 1949</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32968-ES">Callicott, 1989</xref>). La propuesta de Aldo Leopold de entender la Tierra como una &#x201C;comunidad bi&#x00F3;tica&#x201D; de la que los humanos formamos parte constituye un giro radical frente a la visi&#x00F3;n dominadora de la naturaleza.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, la reflexi&#x00F3;n que de manera individual y como especie necesaria para reconocerse como miembros de una comunidad de vida, en el mismo plano ontol&#x00F3;gico que todos los seres vivos no se ha producido. En este sentido, la visi&#x00F3;n dominante puede considerarse un ejemplo de antropocentrismo d&#x00E9;bil.</p>
<p>El antropocentrismo d&#x00E9;bil constituye el sustrato &#x00E9;tico sobre el que se apoya la denominada ecolog&#x00ED;a superficial, donde el ser humano sigue siendo el centro de la preocupaci&#x00F3;n. Desde esta perspectiva, se plantea la necesidad de proteger la naturaleza por su valor instrumental para el ser humano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32968-ES">Norton, 1991</xref>) manteniendo la centralidad ontol&#x00F3;gica y moral del ser humano en la jerarqu&#x00ED;a de los valores. Al igual que la ecolog&#x00ED;a superficial, promueve la conservaci&#x00F3;n ambiental sin cuestionar las estructuras econ&#x00F3;micas y culturales que sustentan la dominaci&#x00F3;n sobre la naturaleza. En este sentido, puede afirmarse que el antropocentrismo d&#x00E9;bil fundamenta filos&#x00F3;ficamente la ecolog&#x00ED;a superficial, del mismo modo que el biocentrismo lo hace con la ecolog&#x00ED;a profunda, ofreciendo una &#x00E9;tica ambiental limitada a la autoconservaci&#x00F3;n humana, m&#x00E1;s que a la transformaci&#x00F3;n de la relaci&#x00F3;n entre humanidad y biosfera.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32968-ES">
<label>3.4.</label>
<title>Ecofeminismo, decolonialidad y el replanteamiento del ideal de humanidad</title>
<p>En este marco de reflexi&#x00F3;n sobre las distintas corrientes que permiten dibujar el papel del ser humano con/en el entorno, los ecofeminismos aportan una perspectiva que integra la cr&#x00ED;tica ecol&#x00F3;gica y social. Desde esta visi&#x00F3;n, las relaciones de dominaci&#x00F3;n sobre la naturaleza se entienden inseparables de las estructuras patriarcales que hist&#x00F3;ricamente han situado a las mujeres en un plano diferenciado de importancia, decisi&#x00F3;n y acci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32968-ES">Herrero, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32968-ES">Puleo, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s que una convergencia entre ecologismo y feminismo se trata de un conjunto de propuestas te&#x00F3;ricas y pr&#x00E1;cticas que cuestionan simult&#x00E1;neamente el antropocentrismo y el androcentrismo que sostienen al modelo civilizatorio dominante. Su prop&#x00F3;sito no es &#x00FA;nicamente combinar feminismo y ecologismo sino reformular el propio ideal de la humanidad proponiendo una &#x00E9;tica del cuidado y de la interdependencia como base para reconstruir la identidad humana en armon&#x00ED;a con el conjunto de la vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32968-ES">Bautista-Cerro Ruiz, 2021</xref>). Frente a la imagen del ser humano como sujeto aut&#x00F3;nomo, y dominador de la naturaleza, el ecofeminismo propone una concepci&#x00F3;n relacional del individuo como parte de la trama de vida, ecodependiente e interdependiente, no solo de otros seres vivos sino de los ciclos naturales que sustentan la existencia.</p>
<p>Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32968-ES">Puleo (2014)</xref>, la riqueza del ecofeminismo radica en la pluralidad de contextos vitales y fuentes de inspiraci&#x00F3;n feminista que lo nutren y que conforman distintas corrientes que, con matices propios, comparten un horizonte cr&#x00ED;tico com&#x00FA;n: denuncia la devastaci&#x00F3;n de la tierra a manos de un sistema productivista y proponen alternativas. Desde esta perspectiva, el ecofeminismo se opone a la l&#x00F3;gica productivista y de crecimiento ilimitado que ha distorsionado las relaciones entre humanidad y medio ambiente. Tal y como advierten <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32968-ES">Mellor (1997)</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32968-ES">Herrero et al. (2019)</xref>, esta l&#x00F3;gica no solo ignora la dependencia humana de los sistemas naturales, sino tambi&#x00E9;n el papel de los trabajos de cuidado, hist&#x00F3;ricamente asignados a las mujeres y situados fuera de la econom&#x00ED;a convencional.</p>
<p>De ah&#x00ED; que los ecofeminismos se presenten como una cr&#x00ED;tica a la racionalidad patriarcal, al evidenciar que tanto la explotaci&#x00F3;n de la naturaleza como la subordinaci&#x00F3;n de las mujeres comparten un origen hist&#x00F3;rico de invisibilizaci&#x00F3;n y desvalorizaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32968-ES">Merchant, 1980</xref>). En este sentido, el ecofeminismo combate tanto el antropocentrismo, al subrayar la necesidad de reconocer la interdependencia ecol&#x00F3;gica, como el androcentrismo, al reivindicar la legitimidad de los saberes y pr&#x00E1;cticas feminizadas en la gesti&#x00F3;n de la vida.</p>
<p>Junto a las cr&#x00ED;ticas provenientes del ecofeminismo, que se&#x00F1;alan la relaci&#x00F3;n entre la dominaci&#x00F3;n de la naturaleza y la opresi&#x00F3;n de las mujeres, es necesario considerar los enfoques decoloniales y del <italic>Buen Vivir</italic>, que cuestionan el ideal de humanidad propio de la modernidad occidental reivindican cosmovisiones centradas en la reciprocidad, la interdependencia y el respeto a la Madre Tierra (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32968-ES">Gudynas, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32968-ES">Escobar, 2015</xref>). Desde la perspectiva decolonial, se cuestionan los fundamentos euroc&#x00E9;ntricos del pensamiento moderno que han legitimado jerarqu&#x00ED;as de poder, saber y ser, situando a la naturaleza y a los pueblos del Sur Global en posiciones de subordinaci&#x00F3;n. Estos enfoques proponen un giro epistemol&#x00F3;gico que reconoce la pluralidad de conocimientos y ontolog&#x00ED;as, recuperando las formas de vida y relaci&#x00F3;n con la naturaleza propias de los pueblos originarios, de los que ya hemos hablado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32968-ES">Quijano, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32968-ES">Mignolo, 2011</xref>). Estos enfoques defienden la idea de que las sociedades no occidentales no son atrasadas ni se encuentran en transici&#x00F3;n, sino que tienen sus propios ritmos, valores y racionalidades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32968-ES">Chakrabarty, 2008</xref>). Aun as&#x00ED;, si bien los pa&#x00ED;ses pueden haberse descolonizado pol&#x00ED;ticamente, los paradigmas occidentales han moldeado e influido en los sistemas educativos a trav&#x00E9;s del proceso de globalizaci&#x00F3;n y se manifiesta en la presi&#x00F3;n percibida por modernizar y reformar la educaci&#x00F3;n para alcanzar altos est&#x00E1;ndares internacionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-32968-ES">Wals et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>El paradigma del <italic>Buen Vivir</italic> (<italic>Sumak Kawsay, Suma Qama&#x00F1;a</italic>) plantea una &#x00E9;tica relacional basada en la cooperaci&#x00F3;n y el respeto a los ciclos naturales, y en la que los derechos de la naturaleza ocupan un lugar central. En tanto que propuesta pol&#x00ED;tica y filos&#x00F3;fica, el Buen Vivir redefine la idea misma de desarrollo y de humanidad, desplazando la noci&#x00F3;n de progreso individual por la de armon&#x00ED;a colectiva con el entorno.</p>
<p>Tanto los ecofeminismos como los enfoques decoloniales revisan cr&#x00ED;ticamente los planteamientos occidentales sobre las relaciones entre los seres humanos y el medio ambiente y plantean un nuevo ideal de humanidad, concebida no como dominadora del mundo natural, sino como parte consciente de una red de interdependencias vitales.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-32968-ES">
<label>3.5.</label>
<title>Posthumanismo y reconfiguraci&#x00F3;n de la agencia en la era tecnocapitalista</title>
<p>Las teor&#x00ED;as posthumanistas plantean una ruptura m&#x00E1;s radical con los presupuestos antropoc&#x00E9;ntricos al disolver las diferencias entre el ser humano y la naturaleza, incluso las fronteras entre lo vivo e inerme desaparecen por completo. Cualquier dicotom&#x00ED;a, sea del tipo que sea queda excluida de la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la realidad, proponiendo una ontolog&#x00ED;a radicalmente horizontal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32968-ES">Braidotti, 2025</xref>). Se interpreta que el pensamiento, la creatividad y la acci&#x00F3;n no son monopolios humanos, sino procesos compartidos con entes t&#x00E9;cnicos, tecnol&#x00F3;gicos y materiales. De esta manera, la <italic>agencia</italic> entendida como la capacidad de afectar y ser afectado dentro de una red de relaciones, se presenta distribuida y carente de intencionalidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32968-ES">Morton, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32968-ES">Chavarr&#x00ED;a Alfaro (2015)</xref>, la aparici&#x00F3;n de la cibern&#x00E9;tica a mediados del siglo XX introdujo la idea de humanos como procesadores de informaci&#x00F3;n, equiparando al ser humano con m&#x00E1;quinas inteligentes. Este giro supuso una &#x201C;descorporeizaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; de la raz&#x00F3;n, desplazando la idea de que el razonamiento era un atributo exclusivamente humano. Con la aparici&#x00F3;n de computadoras cada vez m&#x00E1;s sofisticadas, el razonamiento comenz&#x00F3; a atribuirse tambi&#x00E9;n a entidades artificiales. As&#x00ED;, con el desarrollo de las inteligencias artificiales y las redes digitales, la noci&#x00F3;n de humanidad pierde su supuesta esencia fija y se vuelve fluida e h&#x00ED;brida.</p>
<p>Desde la perspectiva posthumanistas el mundo que habitamos est&#x00E1; constituido por una densa red de mediaciones materiales y simb&#x00F3;licas que participan activamente en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la realidad, que modelan tanto nuestra percepci&#x00F3;n del entorno como nuestras formas de actuar sobre &#x00E9;l (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32968-ES">Morton, 2012</xref>). De esta manera sat&#x00E9;lites, algoritmos de predicci&#x00F3;n clim&#x00E1;tica, plataformas digitales y redes de datos no son meras herramientas neutrales, sino que participan activamente en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la realidad ecosocial.</p>
<p>Los enfoques post-humanistas sit&#x00FA;an los objetos en una realidad horizontal con los seres humanos, despojando a estos de cualquier idea de centralidad o de superioridad. De esta manera en la teor&#x00ED;a de <italic>actor red</italic>, de Latour, lo existente son redes heterog&#x00E9;neas en las que humanos, no humanos, tecnolog&#x00ED;as, pol&#x00ED;ticas, microorganismos y rocas son todos <italic>actantes</italic> que interact&#x00FA;an en el mismo plano generando una distribuci&#x00F3;n de la agencia.</p>
<p>Aunque el posthumanismo puede parecer incompatible con la cr&#x00ED;tica al tecnocapitalismo, puede contenerla y potenciarla siempre y cuando no quede en una ontolog&#x00ED;a de redes en las que no se reconozca intencionalidad. Esta corriente debe huir de la ret&#x00F3;rica que naturaliza la presencia creciente de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a en todas las experiencias vitales y oculta responsabilidades e intencionalidades pol&#x00ED;ticas y econ&#x00F3;micas. El descentramiento del sujeto humano, si se asume de manera absoluta, corre el riesgo de diluir la responsabilidad &#x00E9;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica que los seres humanos tienen frente a la crisis ecosocial. Tal como advierte <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32968-ES">Braidotti (2019)</xref>, la descentraci&#x00F3;n no debe confundirse con neutralidad: incluso en un marco de agencia distribuida, los seres humanos mantienen una capacidad diferencial de acci&#x00F3;n y decisi&#x00F3;n que no puede ser obviada. Al centrarse en debates ontol&#x00F3;gicos sobre lo humano y lo no humano, se corre el riesgo de invisibilizar los efectos materiales de los procesos que han configurado y siguen afectando los problemas ecol&#x00F3;gicos y las desigualdades planetarias.</p>
<p>Este movimiento invita a repensar la propia condici&#x00F3;n humana, desplaz&#x00E1;ndola de una posici&#x00F3;n de dominio a una de coexistencia y coevoluci&#x00F3;n con otras formas de vida y de inteligencia. Este descentramiento del sujeto resulta interesante para desactivar las l&#x00F3;gicas de dominaci&#x00F3;n que han sostenido el proyecto moderno, y debe acompa&#x00F1;arse de una cr&#x00ED;tica pol&#x00ED;tica y ecol&#x00F3;gica, evitando derivar en una forma de neutralidad ante las din&#x00E1;micas del tecnocapitalismo contempor&#x00E1;neo.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32968-ES">
<label>4.</label>
<title>E<sc>ducaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</sc>: <sc>hacia una pedagog&#x00ED;a ecosocial y transformadora</sc></title>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n puede constituirse en un espacio para el reconocimiento de la pluralidad de perspectivas &#x00E9;ticas y la generaci&#x00F3;n de di&#x00E1;logos que permitan comprender los conflictos ambientales en toda su complejidad. Ello implica cuestionar las estructuras que facilitan transmitir de manera acr&#x00ED;tica una visi&#x00F3;n jer&#x00E1;rquica del ser humano frente a la naturaleza y entre los propios grupos humanos, papel que debe liderar la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental. Pero su configuraci&#x00F3;n no est&#x00E1; exenta de controversias al beber de la tradici&#x00F3;n cient&#x00ED;fica, social y espiritual de Occidente, con las tensiones que ello conlleva.</p>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental surgi&#x00F3; como una respuesta esperanzada ante la degradaci&#x00F3;n ecol&#x00F3;gica y las crisis derivadas del modelo de desarrollo dominante, en la segunda mitad del siglo XX. Sin embargo, en su voluntad de abordar las relaciones humanidad-medio ambiente ha mantenido, en ocasiones, una mirada instrumental y tecnocr&#x00E1;tica con tintes antropoc&#x00E9;ntricos. La definici&#x00F3;n de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-32968-ES">Stapp (1969)</xref> constituye un punto de partida fundamental: la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental forma a una ciudadan&#x00ED;a conocedora del medio, consciente de c&#x00F3;mo contribuir a resolver los problemas ambientales y motivada para hacerlo. Esta formulaci&#x00F3;n uni&#x00F3; conocimiento, conciencia y acci&#x00F3;n, pero tambi&#x00E9;n evidenci&#x00F3; una tensi&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica: la dificultad de traducir el conocimiento en cambios que transciendan lo individual y afecten a lo individual, lo pol&#x00ED;tico y lo relacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32968-ES">Guti&#x00E9;rrez Bastida, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental, no obstante, ha experimentado una notable evoluci&#x00F3;n. En la d&#x00E9;cada de los 70, primaba una narrativa naturalista al tiempo que prevalec&#x00ED;a una visi&#x00F3;n dominante y tecno optimista en la que la ciencia y la tecnolog&#x00ED;a eran las herramientas para resolver la crisis ambiental (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32968-ES">Macintyre et al., 2024</xref>. En efecto, la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental se centr&#x00F3;, en muchas ocasiones, en c&#x00F3;mo los problemas ambientales afectaban al ser humano y en c&#x00F3;mo las personas pod&#x00ED;an gestionar o conservar el medio ambiente con su propio bienestar como referencia de logro. El medio se presentaba como un requisito del desarrollo y, por tanto, objeto de una tensi&#x00F3;n entre lo econ&#x00F3;mico y lo &#x00E9;tico que no pasa desapercibida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32968-ES">Daly, 1996</xref>).</p>
<p>De acuerdo con esta perspectiva se buscaba fomentar comportamientos responsables con la preservaci&#x00F3;n de los recursos naturales y garantizar la continuidad del bienestar y el crecimiento, manteniendo as&#x00ED; la base antropoc&#x00E9;ntrica que no se hab&#x00ED;a superado. Este enfoque se acompa&#x00F1;&#x00F3; de un predominio de la perspectiva cient&#x00ED;fico-t&#x00E9;cnica con un fuerte &#x00E9;nfasis en la transmisi&#x00F3;n de informaci&#x00F3;n, con escasa atenci&#x00F3;n a las dimensiones &#x00E9;ticas o culturales, que posteriormente ser&#x00E1;n fundamentales para el desarrollo de enfoques cr&#x00ED;ticos y transformadores.</p>
<p>Como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32968-ES">Morin (2001</xref>, p. 29) &#x201C;Nuestros sistemas de ideas (teor&#x00ED;as, doctrinas, ideolog&#x00ED;as) no s&#x00F3;lo est&#x00E1;n sujetos al error, sino que tambi&#x00E9;n protegen los errores e ilusiones que est&#x00E1;n inscritos en ellos&#x201D;. La educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental, como vemos, no est&#x00E1; exenta de estos errores, aunque con el paso del tiempo ha participado de un enriquecimiento te&#x00F3;rico y pr&#x00E1;ctico que busca superar el substrato antropocentrico del que parti&#x00F3; en su nacimiento.</p>
<p>La incorporaci&#x00F3;n de principios bioc&#x00E9;ntricos reconfigur&#x00F3; el marco conceptual, trasladando el foco desde el inter&#x00E9;s humano hacia el reconocimiento del valor intr&#x00ED;nseco de ecosistemas y seres vivos. El ecocentrismo ampli&#x00F3; esta mirada hacia una comprensi&#x00F3;n sist&#x00E9;mica, resaltando interdependencias. Estas perspectivas permitieron avanzar a una educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental orientada a la transformaci&#x00F3;n de las relaciones entre humanidad y naturaleza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32968-ES">Novo, 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>A partir de los a&#x00F1;os 90, el di&#x00E1;logo con el ecofeminismo aport&#x00F3; una cr&#x00ED;tica profunda a las relaciones de dominaci&#x00F3;n sobre la naturaleza y las mujeres, y los enfoques decoloniales y del <italic>Buen Vivir</italic> aportaron visiones comunitarias del v&#x00ED;nculo humano-entorno. La educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental se reorient&#x00F3; hacia una &#x00E9;tica del cuidado, la justicia ecol&#x00F3;gica, y el reconocimiento de la diversidad de perspectivas culturales sobre la relaci&#x00F3;n humano-naturaleza, profundizando su dimensi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica y transformadora.</p>
<p>En la actualidad, estas tensiones se ven reconfiguradas en un contexto tecnocient&#x00ED;fico complejo. En la actualidad, la tecnolog&#x00ED;a se ha convertido en un agente activo en la conformaci&#x00F3;n de la realidad, influye en la creaci&#x00F3;n de pensamiento, relatos y relaciones. La inteligencia artificial y las redes digitales median en nuestras interacciones con el entorno e influyen en c&#x00F3;mo lo comprendemos. Lejos de ser neutral act&#x00FA;a como estructura de poder que determina que es relevante, leg&#x00ED;timo o visible, transforma los modos de producir conocimiento y reconfigura los procesos de decisi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32968-ES">Mittelstadt et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32968-ES">Floridi, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32968-ES">Crawford, 2021</xref>). Reconocer la agencia distribuida, mencionada anteriormente, no debe conducir a la neutralidad frente al sistema tecnocapitalista, sino a una conciencia cr&#x00ED;tica sobre c&#x00F3;mo moldea lo que se considera pertinente, sustancial y v&#x00E1;lido.</p>
<p>En este contexto la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental se enfrenta a nuevos desaf&#x00ED;os epistemol&#x00F3;gicos y &#x00E9;ticos. Ello implica reconocer que toda relaci&#x00F3;n con el entorno, tambi&#x00E9;n la mediada por tecnolog&#x00ED;as, est&#x00E1; atravesada por relaciones de poder, intereses econ&#x00F3;micos y disputas de sentido, m&#x00E1;s a&#x00FA;n cuando no resultan evidentes. En este punto que la evoluci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental no puede comprenderse &#x00FA;nicamente como un cambio metodol&#x00F3;gico o conceptual. Cambiar el enfoque desde el cual se concibe la relaci&#x00F3;n entre humanidad, naturaleza y entre los propios grupos humanos no implica ampliar los temas de la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental, sino transformar el marco desde el que se entiende la relaci&#x00F3;n entre la Vida, la comunidad y la educaci&#x00F3;n. Este giro permite adoptar perspectivas que no se limitan a perfeccionar el marco tecnocr&#x00E1;tico, sino que buscan superarlo. De ah&#x00ED; que la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental dialogue con corrientes que cuestionan la centralidad humana, interrogan los supuestos civilizatorios y propongan una lectura m&#x00E1;s amplia de la vida y de la interdependencia.</p>
<p>Hablar de una educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental transformadora implica reconocer que las interrelaciones entre el medio natural y las sociedades humanas, as&#x00ED; como las relaciones entre sociedades y grupos humanos, no son neutras, sino que est&#x00E1;n atravesadas por relaciones hist&#x00F3;ricas, culturales, econ&#x00F3;micas y de poder. Sit&#x00FA;a el foco en los marcos estructurales que generan y sostienen los problemas ambientales, abandonando enfoques que los reducen a comportamientos inadecuados o mal informados. Esta posici&#x00F3;n enfrenta soluciones pautadas y &#x00FA;nicas como los eco h&#x00E1;bitos (apagar las luces, reciclar, etc.) que no cuestionan las causas sist&#x00E9;micas y estructurales de los problemas ambientales.</p>
<p>En esta orientaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental, las competencias en sostenibilidad no remiten a un listado de habilidades individuales, sino a la acci&#x00F3;n colectiva para la acci&#x00F3;n ecosocial. Competencias como el pensamiento sist&#x00E9;mico, la comprensi&#x00F3;n de la complejidad, la proyecci&#x00F3;n de futuros y la acci&#x00F3;n colectiva, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32968-ES">Bianchi et al., 2022</xref>) configuran una base para que las personas comprendan y afronten los desaf&#x00ED;os de manera conjunta y reflexiva, en lugar de depender &#x00FA;nicamente de decisiones individuales basadas en informaci&#x00F3;n t&#x00E9;cnica. Unas competencias que, inevitablemente, no solo son requisito para la acci&#x00F3;n, sino una preparaci&#x00F3;n consciente de la misma.</p>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental transformadora lejos de plantearse como un complemento formativo, reclama su centralidad como espacio estrat&#x00E9;gico desde el que disputar los sentidos del desarrollo y la vida en com&#x00FA;n y educar en la acci&#x00F3;n colectiva.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-32968-ES" sec-type="conclusions">
<label>5.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></title>
<p>Repensar lo humano y reconfigurar los v&#x00ED;nculos no es un ejercicio &#x00FA;nicamente conceptual si no una exigencia &#x00E9;tica y epistemol&#x00F3;gica urgente en el contexto de la crisis socioambiental actual. Implica, en primer lugar, reconocer el car&#x00E1;cter situado, relacional, interdependiente y ecodependiente de la existencia humana. En las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas, las corrientes bioc&#x00E9;ntricas, ecoc&#x00E9;ntricas, ecofeministas, decoloniales y posthumanistas, con sus diferencias y tensiones internas, convergen en la necesidad de desplazar los presupuestos de superioridad humana y de asumir una responsabilidad &#x00E9;tica respecto a los impactos que las formas occidentales de organizaci&#x00F3;n social, econ&#x00F3;mica, cultural y tecnol&#x00F3;gica generan sobre los sistemas vivos.</p>
<p>Por su parte, reconfigurar los v&#x00ED;nculos supone revisar las formas en que nos relacionamos con el medio natural, con otros seres humanos, integrando las mediaciones tecnol&#x00F3;gicas que atraviesan nuestra experiencia en y del mundo. Desde esta perspectiva, la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental es un espacio imprescindible para reconstruir narrativas, pr&#x00E1;cticas y proyecciones que superen el reduccionismo tecnocr&#x00E1;tico y el individualismo moral. Una educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental transformadora no se limita a promover comportamientos &#x201C;responsables&#x201D;, sino que contribuye a desvelar las estructuras de poder, las desigualdades y las l&#x00F3;gicas productivistas que sostienen la insostenibilidad.</p>
<p>En este marco, los horizontes &#x00E9;ticos y epistemol&#x00F3;gicos para la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental no se definen por la acumulaci&#x00F3;n de contenidos o competencias aisladas, sino por la capacidad de generar pensamiento complejo, conciencia cr&#x00ED;tica y acci&#x00F3;n colectiva orientada a la justicia ecosocial.</p>
<p>Lejos de clausurar el debate, este ensayo invita a asumir la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental como un espacio de disputa de sentidos, reconociendo que en ella se confrontan distintas narrativas sobre la relaci&#x00F3;n humanidad-medio natural, el desarrollo, la responsabilidad y los futuros posibles. Educar supone, as&#x00ED;, intervenir cr&#x00ED;ticamente en esa disputa en un contexto planetario marcado por l&#x00ED;mites e incertidumbres. Desde esta perspectiva, la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental asume un papel activo en la construcci&#x00F3;n de nuevas narrativas que cuestionen la l&#x00F3;gica del dominio, el crecimiento ilimitado, la neutralidad y el optimismo tecnocr&#x00E1;tico. Se propone como espacio de di&#x00E1;logo &#x00E9;tico, de justicia ecosocial y de aprendizaje colectivo, capaz de articular saberes diversos y promover pr&#x00E1;cticas de cuidado, reciprocidad y corresponsabilidad.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32968</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32968</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Rethinking the Human, Reconfiguring Bonds: Ethical and Epistemological Horizons for Environmental Education</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es">Repensar lo humano, reconfigurar los v&#x00ED;nculos: horizontes &#x00E9;ticos y epistemol&#x00F3;gicos para la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3658-2191</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Bautista-Cerro Ruiz</surname>
<given-names>Mar&#x00ED;a Jos&#x00E9;</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-EN"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Nacional de Educaci&#x00F3;n a Distancia (UNED). Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Nacional de Educaci&#x00F3;n a Distancia (UNED)</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-EN"><email>mjbautistac@edu.uned.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>23</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026382</issue-id>
    <fpage>21</fpage>
    <lpage>38</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>03</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>22</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The current ecological and civilizational crisis calls for a profound revision of the ethical and epistemological foundations through which humanity has historically related to the environment. This article offers a theoretical and critical exploration of the main conceptual frameworks that have shaped the modern understanding of human beings and their relationship with nature: from classical anthropocentrism, which positioned the human (though not all humans) as the measure and end of all things, to contemporary approaches that seek to modulate or reconfigure that relationship, such as biocentrism, ecocentrism, ecofeminism, decolonial thought, and posthumanist perspectives.</p>
<p>The analysis identifies convergences around a relational and complex understanding of life, but also critical tensions, such as the risk that posthumanist decentering may dilute moral and political responsibility, or that global sustainability discourses may perpetuate anthropocentric and technocratic biases. From this standpoint, the paper argues that environmental education must integrate the ethical, political, and epistemic dimensions of civilizational transformation. It highlights the need for an environmental education capable of challenging the narratives of domination, separation, and human exceptionalism that have underpinned Western thought, while fostering a relational, interdependent, and ecosocial understanding of existence.</p>
<p>In the context of ecosocial collapse and climate emergency, the article advocates for repoliticizing environmental education as a space for ethical dialogue, ecosocial justice, and collective learning oriented toward rebuilding the bond between humanity and nature. Ultimately, it calls for a new ecosocial pedagogy that recognizes our ecodependence and assumes the shared responsibility of ensuring the sustainability of life on Earth.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La crisis ecol&#x00F3;gica y civilizatoria actual exige revisar los fundamentos &#x00E9;ticos y epistemol&#x00F3;gicos desde los que la humanidad se ha relacionado hist&#x00F3;ricamente con el medio. Este art&#x00ED;culo propone un recorrido te&#x00F3;rico-cr&#x00ED;tico por los principales marcos conceptuales que han configurado la visi&#x00F3;n moderna de los seres humanos y su relaci&#x00F3;n con la naturaleza: desde el antropocentrismo cl&#x00E1;sico, que situ&#x00F3; al ser humano (aunque no todos los seres humanos) como medida y fin de todas las cosas, hasta las corrientes contempor&#x00E1;neas que buscan modular o reconfigurar esa relaci&#x00F3;n, como el biocentrismo, el ecocentrismo, el ecofeminismo, el pensamiento decolonial y los enfoques posthumanistas.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis que se presenta reconoce convergencias en torno a una comprensi&#x00F3;n relacional y compleja de la vida, pero tambi&#x00E9;n tensiones cr&#x00ED;ticas, como el riesgo de que el descentramiento posthumanista diluya la responsabilidad moral y pol&#x00ED;tica, o de que los discursos globales de sostenibilidad mantengan sesgos antropoc&#x00E9;ntricos y tecnocr&#x00E1;ticos. Desde esa mirada, se sostiene que la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental debe integrar las dimensiones &#x00E9;tica, pol&#x00ED;tica y epist&#x00E9;mica del cambio civilizatorio. Se argumenta la necesidad de una educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental capaz de cuestionar las narrativas de dominio, separaci&#x00F3;n y excepcionalidad de lo humano, que han sido la base del pensamiento occidental, e impulsar una comprensi&#x00F3;n relacional, interdependiente y ecosocial de la existencia.</p>
<p>En un contexto de colapso ecosocial y emergencia clim&#x00E1;tica, se propone repolitizar la educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental como espacio de di&#x00E1;logo &#x00E9;tico, de justicia ecosocial y de aprendizaje colectivo, orientado a la reconstrucci&#x00F3;n del v&#x00ED;nculo entre humanidad y naturaleza. En definitiva, se aboga por una nueva pedagog&#x00ED;a ecosocial que reconozca nuestra ecodependencia y asuma la responsabilidad compartida de garantizar la sostenibilidad de la vida en el planeta.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>environmental education</kwd>
<kwd>anthropocentrism</kwd>
<kwd>ecofeminism</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanism</kwd>
<kwd>social justice</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</kwd>
<kwd>antropocentrismo</kwd>
<kwd>ecofeminismo</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanismo</kwd>
<kwd>justicia social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32968-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></title>
<p>Planet Earth is currently facing a moment of profound emergency. In 2009, the Stockholm Resilience Centre identified nine fundamental Earth-system processes that regulate the stability of life on the planet, establishing planetary boundaries that should not be exceeded (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32968-EN">Rockstr&#x00F6;m et al., 2009</xref>). At that time, three of these boundaries had already been crossed; by 2025, this number has risen to seven (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32968-EN">Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research, 2025</xref>). The most recent boundary added to this list is ocean acidification, with severe consequences not only for marine ecosystems but, as with the other processes, for the overall balance of the Earth system.</p>
<p>It has long been widely acknowledged that the environmental problems confronting the planet are anthropogenic in origin and closely linked to the ways in which human beings have shaped their modes of existence on Earth: how they inhabit it and render it either habitable or, conversely, uninhabitable.</p>
<p>Within this context of accelerating environmental degradation, environmental education emerged as a response to the severe impacts of human activities. As early as the 1972 Stockholm Conference, the need to define human rights and duties in relation to the environment was articulated, drawing attention to the connection between economic systems and environmental deterioration. From its inception, environmental education aspired to intervene across all spheres of life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-32968-EN">United Nations, 1972</xref>). However, its practical implementation often gravitated toward a naturalistic and conservationist orientation marked by an anthropocentric bias that remains difficult to overcome today (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32968-EN">Macintyre et al., 2024</xref>). Despite growing evidence of increasingly acute environmental crises, attention frequently fails to focus on inter- and intra-species relationships, with techno-optimism often prevailing as a response to scientific or ecological pessimism.</p>
<p>Today, the educational challenge has become even more complex. The international community broadly agrees that education constitutes a strategic arena for addressing the planetary crisis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32968-EN">Nusche et al., 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-32968-EN">UNESCO, 2021</xref>). This article proposes a hopeful dialogue aimed at exploring how environmental education can offer new theoretical and pedagogical insights to reframe the role of human beings within an increasingly complex context shaped by environmental alarm.</p>
<p>This contribution is conceived as a theoretical-critical essay that examines the epistemological, ethical, and pedagogical foundations of environmental education within the framework of the contemporary ecosocial crisis. It advances an integrative reflection grounded in the analysis of diverse currents of thought, ranging from modern thought and its anthropocentric legacy to posthumanism, and including biocentric, ecocentric, and ecofeminist approaches. The paper explores how these perspectives provide essential contributions to addressing the environmental crisis and how posthumanist approaches, in particular, can offer valuable insights for rethinking the human role.</p>
<p>Rather than offering definitive answers, this essay seeks to open a space for theoretical and pedagogical dialogue capable of inspiring new educational practices oriented toward care and ecosocial justice.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32968-EN">
<label>2.</label>
    <title>The anthropocentric bias in the perception of the ecosocial crisis </title>
<p>In environmental terms, a <italic>tipping point</italic> refers to the moment at which a system reaches a threshold beyond which change becomes irreversible. It marks the point at which an apparently gradual or incremental trend accelerates and abruptly alters the system&#x2019;s dynamics. One may imagine, for instance, a mass of ice slowly melting under the sun&#x2019;s heat. For a time, the transformation remains barely perceptible; however, if conditions persist, a threshold may be crossed after which melting accelerates uncontrollably and cannot be reversed, even if temperatures subsequently decline, whether gradually or abruptly.</p>
<p>A substantial proportion of mature ecosystems have required centuries to emerge and consolidate, as well as to establish their role in essential ecological functions that sustain life, such as pollination or soil formation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32968-EN">Escudero, 2025</xref>). Yet these ecosystems and their interconnections may reach critical thresholds at which they lose their capacity for self-regulation and, in extreme cases, collapse. Societies, too, may collapse when certain conditions, such as environmental degradation, economic inequality, or the erosion of social cohesion, undermine their foundational structures. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32968-EN">Diamond (2005)</xref> warns, societal collapse is not driven solely by environmental factors, but also by the failure of elites to recognize warning signs and take timely action.</p>
<p>At present, we find ourselves in a context in which world leaders, business actors, and citizens alike appear to systematically disregard scientific reports and recommendations, including those issued by the IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) and the IPBES (Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services), to name just two authoritative bodies. This form of blindness is not new. As early as 1972, the Club of Rome warned in <italic>The Limits to Growth</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32968-EN">Meadows et al., 1972</xref>) of the link between human activity and environmental degradation, and of the need to replace the logic of unlimited growth with models oriented toward sustainability.</p>
<p>From a geopolitical perspective, the environmental crisis is not ignored due to a lack of knowledge, but because addressing it would profoundly disrupt power balances, economic interests, and territorial strategies among major global actors. At the individual level, Hamilton, cited by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32968-EN">Latour (2012)</xref>, argues that we are all climate change deniers insofar as we are unable to reconcile the human scale with the magnitude of the catastrophe. As Latour observes, it is the indifference we have internalized that leads us to deny the knowledge produced by our own science (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32968-EN">2012</xref>, p. 69).</p>
<p>Yet the very science that Latour maintains we have ignored provides clear evidence of the physical causes of the environmental crisis and points toward its primary solution: curbing the burning of fossil fuels. The challenge lies in the fact that this energy underpins our societies, making it difficult to identify viable alternative pathways, transformative strategies, and the requisite drivers for such change, particularly from the perspective of social justice. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32968-EN">Jameson (2003)</xref> remarked, it is easier to imagine the end of the world than the end of capitalism.</p>
<p>This impasse is closely related to the way human beings perceive themselves and the environment in which they are embedded. The natural environment has historically been understood as a reservoir of resources from which humanity extracts raw materials to satisfy its needs and desires, yet one to which it has not perceived itself as belonging, at least within Western traditions. The relations of dependence that sustain life have largely been rendered invisible, while narratives of domination and control have been reinforced. However, all forms of life, including human life, depend on the services provided by ecosystems through complex processes and cycles. The water cycle is perhaps the most widely recognized, but so too are the carbon, phosphorus, and hydrogen cycles that enable fertile soils, as well as processes such as photosynthesis, which makes oxygen production possible, or pollination, which sustains biodiversity. It is important to acknowledge that our conceptual frameworks remain biased, privileging a human-centred perspective when we speak of &#x201C;natural resources&#x201D; or ecosystem services.</p>
<p>There are multiple ways of seeing, explaining, and questioning the central role that human beings have assigned themselves on the planet. Increasingly, we are becoming aware of the magnitude of the problems we have created and of how the perspective from which we approach them shapes both our interpretations and our attempts to address them.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32968-EN">
<label>3.</label>
<title>Historical and cultural roots of western anthropocentrism</title>
<p>Human beings have progressively constructed relationships with their environment shaped by material conditions and by the belief systems developed over time. Beyond certainties whose foundations are difficult to sustain, humanity has created a worldview in which it could feel secure, assuming that it knew, understood, and controlled its environment.</p>
<p>Throughout history, narratives have prevailed that established both interspecific and intraspecific hierarchies, positioning human beings, and more specifically men, at the apex of a symbolic pyramid endowed with rights and privileges. Below were placed all other living beings, including women, who were not regarded as equals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32968-EN">Shiva, 1988</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-32968-EN">2024</xref>). In parallel, patriarchal, colonial, and capitalist dynamics have historically reinforced distinctions among human beings based on cultural, economic, and geographical factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32968-EN">Escobar, 2015</xref>), with gender operating as a transversal axis across these forms of differentiation.</p>
<p>In Western thought, since Antiquity, multiple domains of knowledge have consolidated the idea of human superiority over nature. Within Judeo-Christian theology, the biblical injunction to &#x201C;dominate the Earth&#x201D; in the Book of Genesis legitimized an instrumental view of nature placed at the service of humankind, a perspective subsequently appropriated and normalized within Western culture. Aristotle, in his <italic>Politics</italic>, argued that nature does nothing in vain and that animals and plants exist for the sake of humans. He articulated the <italic>Scala Naturae</italic>, a natural hierarchy in which all living beings were ordered, with man positioned at the summit.</p>
<sec id="sec-4-32968-EN">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title>Modernity, rationalism, and the ontological separation between humanity and nature</title>
    <p>The scientific revolution of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries marked a profound intellectual transformation in the West, driven by figures such as Copernicus, Bacon, Galileo, Descartes, and Newton. Their ideas reconfigured relationships between human beings, knowledge, power, and nature. Faith in reason was consolidated, along with the conception of nature as an ordered system governed by universal laws that humans could uncover. This radical reconfiguration of worldview produced a substratum of thought that, without questioning the centrality of humankind, separated subject and object, framing nature as something external to human existence. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32968-EN">Bookchin (2022)</xref> observes, this dualism replaced the Hellenic continuity between mind and nature with an insurmountable divide, maintaining the individual in a position of superiority over other living beings.</p>
<p>The Newtonian model further reinforced the notion of human dominion over nature and the treatment of natural goods as resources available for exploitation. Crucially, &#x201C;humanity&#x201D; at this historical moment referred not to humankind as a whole, but to the white, European, property-owning man; the rest of humanity, including women, and nature itself were construed as exploitable territory (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32968-EN">Rist, 2002</xref>).</p>
<p>Cartesian rationalism and empiricism consolidated an anthropocentric model that legitimized the transformation and domination of the environment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32968-EN">Novo, 2006</xref>). In this way, Western rationalism deepened a vision of reality characterized by the treatment of nature as a source of benefits for human beings. Although often framed as a universal right, access to and enjoyment of nature functioned in practice as a privilege, unevenly distributed across individuals and communities. This ethnocentric and androcentric anthropocentrism sustained a hegemonic narrative in which the Western white man was constructed as the universal reference for progress, relegating non-Western cultures and worldviews to a position of inferiority. Within this logic, nature acquired value only when transformed into a resource, a forest as timber, soil as arable land. The same reasoning extended to care work and the reproduction of life, traditionally performed by women and considered unproductive and economically insignificant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32968-EN">Bautista-Cerro Ruiz &#x0026; D&#x00ED;az Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>These beliefs are products of history, yet they also actively produce history (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32968-EN">Rist, 2002</xref>). This enduring separation between the human and the non-human has permeated all areas of knowledge: law and politics reserved the attribution of rights exclusively to persons, excluding animals and ecosystems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-32968-EN">Stone, 2010</xref>), while classical and neoclassical economics conceptualized nature as a resource or as productive capital (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-32968-EN">Smith, 1994</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32968-EN">Daly, 1996</xref>). However, this worldview is not universal. Across all continents, alternative ways of relating to the natural environment have long existed.</p>
<p>Among Indigenous cultures in the Americas, the Quechua and Aymara peoples conceive of Pachamama (Mother Earth) as a living being deserving respect and care. Maya cosmology similarly understood human beings as part of a balance with nature. In Asia, Tibetan Buddhism promotes non-violence toward all living beings (<italic>Ahimsa</italic>), translating into practices aimed at minimizing harm and environmental impact. In Oceania, the M&#x0101;ori of Aotearoa/New Zealand uphold the principle of <italic>kaitiakitanga</italic>, which entails stewardship of nature as a sacred duty rooted in the interconnection between humans and the natural world. Across these perspectives, human beings are understood not as masters of nature, but as one element among others engaged in the shared struggle for survival and resources.</p>
<p>Like an imperceptible <italic>Matrix</italic>, anthropocentrism underlies the Western conception of the world and the functioning of contemporary systems. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32968-EN">Boff (2012)</xref> notes, most of us have never seriously questioned this way of understanding things. It seems natural to see humanity as something above or apart from the rest of the Earth community. This assumed position of superiority facilitates a form of blindness toward indiscriminate exploitation and environmental harm, from which humans themselves are not immune.</p>
<p>The scientific revolution introduced a rational vision grounded in observation, experimentation, and causality, leading to linear and fragmented understandings of reality. For centuries, this framework enabled remarkable scientific and technological advances; yet it proved ill-equipped to address complex phenomena, precisely those that characterize ecological and social systems.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32968-EN">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title>Epistemological alternatives to the anthropocentric paradigm</title>
<p>During the twentieth century, new perspectives emerged that shifted attention toward relationships, circularity, feedback, and interdependence. Ludwig von Bertalanffy proposed General Systems Theory as an alternative to dominant reductionism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32968-EN">Bertalanffy, 1973</xref>). According to this approach, systems must be understood as organized wholes whose elements are constantly interrelated and cannot be analyzed in isolation. The world is thus conceived as the product of dynamic and interdependent relationships.</p>
<p>Systems thinking challenges the separation between subject and object, nature and society, proposing instead an interrelational perspective. It allows the planet to be understood as a system in which diverse elements, biotic and abiotic components, flows of information, matter, and energy, interact continuously (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32968-EN">Meadows, 2022</xref>). From this standpoint, the natural environment cannot be understood without considering the connections among its elements, including human beings, not only as biological organisms, but also through their physical and cultural formations.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, although systems theory overcomes Cartesian dualism, its application has often remained subordinated to instrumental logics, thereby reproducing subtle forms of anthropocentrism. Even where relationships were conceptualized as less hierarchical and more relational, assumptions of human superiority frequently persisted. Despite acknowledging interdependencies, decision-making processes continued to prioritize short-term growth and economic profitability over environmental preservation, care for ecosystems, and the well-being of future generations.</p>
<p>In the second half of the twentieth century, complexity thinking further expanded the systems approach by integrating biological, social, and cultural dimensions, as well as uncertainty and contingency. Developed primarily through the work of Edgar Morin and informed by contributions from Prigogine, Maturana, Varela, and Bateson, complexity thinking seeks to integrate diverse forms of knowledge and to recognize uncertainty, contradiction, and interdependence as constitutive features of living and social systems.</p>
<p>From this perspective, the human being cannot be understood in isolation; it can only be understood in relation to the world, to others, and to itself, as a biological, psychological, social, and cultural being, understood as an inseparable whole (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32968-EN">Morin, 1986</xref>). Humanity is therefore not positioned at the centre of the world, nor separated from nature, but embedded within a network of interconnected systems.</p>
<p>Complexity thinking acknowledges human specificity through consciousness and reflexivity yet seeks to transcend anthropocentrism by integrating ethical responsibility toward the totality of life and the planet. For Morin, understanding complexity entails recognizing that human beings are simultaneously fully biological and fully cultural, carrying within themselves this original uniduality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32968-EN">2001</xref>). Humanity is thus at once individual, society, and species, an understanding that calls for rethinking the relationship between humanity and the biosphere in terms of interdependence and mutual responsibility.</p>
<p>Together, systems thinking and complexity theory open conceptual pathways to key notions such as uncertainty, interconnection, interdependence, and irreversibility, concepts that are central to understanding humanity&#x2019;s role and responsibility in the contemporary environmental crisis.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32968-EN">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title>Ethical shifts: from anthropocentrism to biocentrism and ecocentrism</title>
<p>In contrast to anthropocentrism and the assumption that only human beings are worthy of moral consideration, biocentrism emerges as an ethical&#x2013;philosophical current that affirms the intrinsic value of all living beings. Moving beyond utilitarian conceptions of nature and its inhabitants, biocentrism situates all forms of life on an equal ethical plane, asserting that the notion of human superiority is not a biological fact but an ethical construction.</p>
<p>From biocentric perspectives, human supremacy over other beings is fundamentally questioned, and an attitude of respect and shared responsibility toward the systems that make life possible is promoted. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32968-EN">Schumacher (1978)</xref>, in line with biocentric thinking, stressed the need to distinguish between ends and means, warning against the risk of reducing the Earth to a mere instrument of production. His argument points to a core dilemma: whether the planet is to be conceived as a resource at humanity&#x2019;s disposal or as an end in itself. Similarly, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32968-EN">Jonas (1979)</xref> asks whether we should heed the call to respect the dignity of life itself, ultimately concluding that humanity bears an ethical obligation to preserve life on Earth and to safeguard future generations.</p>
<p>Biocentrism provides the ethical foundation of deep ecology, a philosophical movement advanced by thinkers such as Arne Naess. This perspective adopts a holistic vision that recognizes the intrinsic value of all living and non-living entities on the planet. For <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32968-EN">Naess (1973)</xref>, human beings are an inseparable part of the environment they inhabit, and their existence depends on a dense web of interrelations within natural systems. Naess famously distinguished between shallow ecology and deep ecology. The former addresses environmental problems primarily from the standpoint of human well-being and relies largely on technical solutions, remaining anchored in utilitarian and anthropocentric assumptions. Deep ecology, by contrast, affirms the ontological equality of all living beings.</p>
<p>Ecocentrism further broadens this approach by asserting that value resides in the integrity of ecosystems and in the networks of interdependence that sustain them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32968-EN">Leopold, 1949</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32968-EN">Callicott, 1989</xref>). Aldo Leopold&#x2019;s proposal to conceive the Earth as a &#x201C;biotic community&#x201D; of which humans are members represents a decisive shift away from dominative conceptions of nature.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, the ethical reflection required, both individually and collectively, to recognize ourselves as members of a community of life situated on the same ontological plane as other living beings has not yet been fully realized. In this sense, the dominant worldview may be characterized as a form of weak anthropocentrism.</p>
<p>Weak anthropocentrism constitutes the ethical substratum upon which so-called shallow ecology is grounded, with human beings remaining at the centre of moral concern. From this standpoint, nature is protected primarily for its instrumental value to humans (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32968-EN">Norton, 1991</xref>), while the ontological and moral centrality of humanity within the hierarchy of values remains intact. Like shallow ecology, it promotes environmental conservation without questioning the economic and cultural structures that underpin the domination of nature. Thus, weak anthropocentrism may be said to provide the philosophical grounding for shallow ecology, just as biocentrism underpins deep ecology, offering an environmental ethic oriented toward human self-preservation rather than toward transforming the relationship between humanity and the biosphere.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32968-EN">
<label>3.4.</label>
<title>Ecofeminism, decoloniality, and the reconfiguration of the ideal of humanity</title>
<p>Within this broader reflection on the currents that shape understandings of the human role within and alongside the environment, ecofeminism contributes a perspective that integrates ecological and social critique. From this viewpoint, relations of domination over nature are inseparable from patriarchal structures that have historically positioned women within differentiated spheres of importance, decision-making, and action (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32968-EN">Herrero, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32968-EN">Puleo, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Rather than representing a simple convergence of environmentalism and feminism, ecofeminism encompasses a set of theoretical and practical approaches that simultaneously challenge the anthropocentrism and androcentrism sustaining the dominant civilizational model. Its aim is not merely to combine feminist and ecological concerns, but to reformulate the very ideal of humanity by proposing an ethics of care and interdependence as the foundation for reconstructing human identity in harmony with the web of life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32968-EN">Bautista-Cerro Ruiz, 2021</xref>). In contrast to the image of the human being as an autonomous subject and dominator of nature, ecofeminism advances a relational conception of the individual as ecodependent and interdependent, not only on other living beings, but also on the natural cycles that sustain existence.</p>
<p>As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32968-EN">Puleo (2014)</xref> argues, the richness of ecofeminism lies in the plurality of lived contexts and feminist traditions that nourish it, giving rise to diverse strands which, despite their specific nuances, share a common critical horizon: the denunciation of the devastation of the Earth wrought by a productivist system and the articulation of alternative ways of organizing life. From this perspective, ecofeminism directly challenges the logic of productivism and unlimited growth that has distorted relations between humanity and the environment. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32968-EN">Mellor (1997)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32968-EN">Herrero et al. (2019)</xref> emphasize, this logic not only ignores human dependence on natural systems, but also obscures the central role of care work, historically assigned to women and excluded from conventional economic frameworks.</p>
<p>Ecofeminism thus emerges as a critique of patriarchal rationality, revealing that both the exploitation of nature and the subordination of women share a historical origin rooted in processes of invisibilization and devaluation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32968-EN">Merchant, 1980</xref>). In this sense, ecofeminism confronts anthropocentrism by underscoring ecological interdependence, while simultaneously challenging androcentrism by reclaiming the legitimacy of feminized knowledge and practices in the governance of life.</p>
<p>Alongside ecofeminist critiques, it is essential to consider decolonial approaches and the <italic>Buen Vivir</italic> paradigm (from the Andean concepts of <italic>sumak kawsay</italic> and <italic>suma qama&#x00F1;a</italic>), which challenge the Western modern ideal of humanity and advocate worldviews centered on reciprocity, interdependence, and respect for Mother Earth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32968-EN">Gudynas, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32968-EN">Escobar, 2015</xref>). From a decolonial perspective, the Eurocentric foundations of modern thought are questioned for legitimizing hierarchies of power, knowledge, and being that have relegated nature and the peoples of the Global South to subordinate positions. These approaches propose an epistemological shift that recognizes the plurality of knowledges and ontologies, recovering ways of life and human&#x2013;nature relations rooted in Indigenous traditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32968-EN">Quijano, 2000</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32968-EN">Mignolo, 2011</xref>). They emphasize that non-Western societies are neither backward nor transitional, but possess their own rhythms, values, and rationalities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32968-EN">Chakrabarty, 2008</xref>). Nonetheless, despite political decolonization, Western paradigms continue to shape educational systems through globalization, manifesting in pressures to modernize and reform education in accordance with international standards (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-32968-EN">Wals et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>The <italic>Buen Vivir</italic> paradigm articulates a relational ethic grounded in cooperation and respect for natural cycles, placing the rights of nature at its core. As both a political and philosophical proposal, <italic>Buen Vivir</italic> redefines development and humanity itself, displacing notions of individual progress in favor of collective harmony with the environment.</p>
<p>Together, ecofeminist and decolonial approaches critically revise Western conceptions of human&#x2013;environment relations and advance a renewed ideal of humanity, one conceived not as the dominator of the natural world, but as a conscious participant within a network of vital interdependencies.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-32968-EN">
<label>3.5.</label>
<title>Posthumanism and the reconfiguration of agency in the technocapitalist era</title>
<p>Posthumanist theories propose a more radical rupture with anthropocentric assumptions by dissolving distinctions between humans and nature, to the extent that even the boundary between the living and the inert is rendered unstable. From this perspective, all forms of dichotomy are excluded from the interpretation of reality, giving rise to a radically horizontal ontology (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32968-EN">Braidotti, 2025</xref>). Thought, creativity, and action are no longer understood as exclusively human capacities, but as processes distributed across technical, technological, and material entities. <italic>Agency</italic>, conceived as the capacity to affect and be affected within a network of relations, is thus understood as distributed and and devoid of intentionality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32968-EN">Morton, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32968-EN">Chavarr&#x00ED;a Alfaro (2015)</xref>, the emergence of cybernetics in the mid-twentieth century introduced the notion of humans as information processors, equating human beings with intelligent machines. This shift entailed a progressive &#x201C;disembodiment&#x201D; of reason, displacing the idea that rationality was an exclusively human attribute. With the advent of increasingly sophisticated computing systems, reasoning began to be attributed to artificial entities as well. Consequently, with the development of artificial intelligence and digital networks, the notion of humanity loses its presumed fixed essence and becomes fluid and hybrid.</p>
<p>From posthumanist perspectives, the world we inhabit is constituted by dense networks of material and symbolic mediations that actively participate in shaping reality, influencing both our perception of the environment and our modes of action within it (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32968-EN">Morton, 2012</xref>). Satellites, climate prediction algorithms, digital platforms, and data infrastructures are thus not neutral tools, but active agents in the configuration of ecosocial reality.</p>
<p>Posthumanist approaches situate objects on a horizontal plane alongside human beings, stripping the latter of claims to centrality or superiority. In Latour&#x2019;s actor-network theory, for instance, reality is composed of heterogeneous networks in which humans, non-humans, technologies, policies, microorganisms, and even geological entities function as actants interacting on the same plane, producing distributed agency.</p>
<p>While posthumanism may appear incompatible with critiques of technocapitalism, it can incorporate and even reinforce them, provided it does not remain confined to an ontology of networks that obscures intentionality. Posthumanist thought must avoid rhetorical frameworks that naturalize the expanding presence of technology across all spheres of life while concealing political and economic responsibilities. The decentering of the human subject, if embraced uncritically, risks diluting the ethical and political responsibility that humans bear in the face of the ecosocial crisis. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32968-EN">Braidotti (2019)</xref> cautions, decentring should not be conflated with neutrality, even within frameworks of distributed agency, humans retain a differential capacity for action and decision-making that cannot be ignored. Excessive focus on ontological debates may obscure the material effects of the processes that have shaped, and continue to shape, ecological degradation and planetary inequalities.</p>
<p>Posthumanism thus invites a rethinking of the human condition, shifting it from a position of domination toward one of coexistence and co-evolution with other forms of life and intelligence. This decentring holds significant potential for dismantling the logics of domination underpinning the modern project, yet it must be accompanied by sustained political and ecological critique in order to avoid lapsing into neutrality vis-&#x00E0;-vis contemporary technocapitalist dynamics.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32968-EN">
<label>4.</label>
    <title>Environmental education: toward an ecosocial and transformative pedagogy </title>
<p>Education can function as a space for recognizing the plurality of ethical perspectives and for fostering dialogues that enable environmental conflicts to be understood in their full complexity. This requires questioning the structures that facilitate the uncritical transmission of hierarchical views positioning humans above nature and reproducing inequalities among human groups themselves, a task that environmental education is uniquely positioned to lead. Yet its configuration is not without controversy, as it draws upon Western scientific, social, and spiritual traditions, together with the tensions these entail.</p>
<p>Environmental education emerged as a hopeful response to ecological degradation and to the crises associated with the dominant development model in the second half of the twentieth century. However, in its efforts to address human-environment relations, it has at times reproduced instrumental and technocratic perspectives marked by anthropocentric assumptions. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-32968-EN">Stapp&#x2019;s (1969)</xref> definition remains a foundational reference point: environmental education seeks to cultivate a citizenry that is knowledgeable about the environment, aware of how to contribute to solving environmental problems, and motivated to act accordingly. While this formulation successfully linked knowledge, awareness, and action, it also exposed a persistent tension, the difficulty of translating knowledge into changes that extend beyond the individual and resonate at political and relational levels (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32968-EN">Guti&#x00E9;rrez Bastida, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Over time, environmental education has undergone significant evolution. During the 1970s, a naturalistic narrative prevailed alongside a techno-optimistic outlook in which science and technology were seen as the primary means of resolving environmental problems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32968-EN">Macintyre et al., 2024</xref>). Environmental education frequently focused on how environmental degradation affected human well-being and on how individuals could manage or conserve the environment, with human welfare serving as the implicit benchmark of success. The environment was thus framed as a prerequisite for development, giving rise to an unresolved tension between economic imperatives and ethical considerations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32968-EN">Daly, 1996</xref>).</p>
<p>Within this framework, the goal was to promote responsible behaviours aimed at preserving natural resources and sustaining welfare and growth, thereby maintaining an anthropocentric foundation that remained largely unquestioned. This orientation was reinforced by the dominance of a scientific&#x2013;technical perspective, with strong emphasis on information transmission and limited engagement with ethical and cultural dimensions, that would later prove essential for the emergence of critical and transformative approaches.</p>
<p>As Morin reminds us, our systems of ideas (theories, doctrines, ideologies) are not only subject to error; they also protect the errors and illusions inscribed within them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32968-EN">2001</xref>). Environmental education has not been immune to such limitations, yet over time it has benefited from theoretical and practical enrichment aimed at overcoming the anthropocentric substratum from which it originally emerged.</p>
<p>The incorporation of biocentric principles reoriented the conceptual framework, shifting attention from human-centred interests toward recognition of the intrinsic value of ecosystems and living beings. Ecocentrism further expanded this perspective by emphasizing systemic interdependencies. Together, these approaches enabled progress toward an environmental education oriented to transforming the relationship between humanity and nature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32968-EN">Novo, 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>From the 1990s onward, dialogue with ecofeminism introduced a profound critique of relations of domination over both nature and women, while decolonial approaches and the <italic>Buen Vivir</italic> paradigm contributed communitarian understandings of the human&#x2013;environment relationship. Environmental education thus increasingly embraced an ethics of care, ecological justice, and cultural plurality, deepening its critical and transformative potential.</p>
<p>Today, these debates unfold within an increasingly complex technoscientific context. Technology has become an active agent in shaping reality, influencing thought, narratives, and social relations. Artificial intelligence and digital networks mediate our interactions with the environment and shape how it is understood. Far from being neutral, these technologies operate as power structures that determine what is considered relevant, legitimate, or visible; they reshape modes of knowledge production and reconfigure decision-making processes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32968-EN">Mittelstadt et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32968-EN">Floridi, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32968-EN">Crawford, 2021</xref>). Recognizing distributed agency should not result in neutrality toward technocapitalism, but rather in heightened critical awareness of how it defines what counts as valid and meaningful.</p>
<p>In this context, environmental education faces renewed epistemological and ethical challenges. It must acknowledge that all relationships with the environment, including those mediated by technology, are traversed by power relations, economic interests, and struggles over meaning, often in subtle or opaque ways. Consequently, the evolution of environmental education cannot be reduced to methodological or conceptual adjustments. Reframing the standpoint from which relationships between humanity, nature, and human groups are understood entails transforming the broader framework through which life, community, and education are conceptualized. This shift opens space for perspectives that do not merely refine technocratic approaches but seek to transcend them by questioning human centrality and civilizational assumptions, and by articulating broader understandings of life and interdependence.</p>
<p>To speak of transformative environmental education is to recognize that the relationships between natural environments and human societies, and among human groups themselves, are never neutral, but are shaped by historical, cultural, economic, and power dynamics. This perspective foregrounds the structural conditions that generate and sustain environmental problems, moving beyond approaches that reduce them to inadequate or poorly informed individual behaviours. It challenges standardized solutions such as &#x201C;eco-habits&#x201D; (turning off lights, recycling, and the like) that fail to address the systemic and structural roots of environmental degradation.</p>
<p>Within this orientation, sustainability competencies are not conceived as a checklist of individual skills, but as capacities for collective ecosocial action. Competencies such as systems thinking, complexity awareness, futures thinking, and collective action (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32968-EN">Bianchi et al., 2022</xref>) provide the foundation for addressing challenges collaboratively and reflexively, rather than relying solely on individualized decisions grounded in technical information. These competencies are not merely prerequisites for action but constitute a conscious preparation for transformative engagement.</p>
<p>Transformative environmental education, far from being a supplementary component of curricula, claims centrality as a strategic space from which to contest dominant meanings of development and shared life, and to foster collective action.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-32968-EN" sec-type="conclusions">
<label>5.</label>
<title>Conclusions</title>
<p>Rethinking the human and reconfiguring relational bonds is not merely a conceptual exercise, but an urgent ethical and epistemological imperative in the context of the current socio-environmental crisis. It requires, first and foremost, recognizing the situated, relational, interdependent, and ecodependent character of human existence. Over recent decades, biocentric, ecocentric, ecofeminist, decolonial, and posthumanist currents, despite their differences and internal tensions, have converged around the need to displace assumptions of human superiority and to assume ethical responsibility for the impacts that Western modes of social, economic, cultural, and technological organization exert on living systems.</p>
<p>Reconfiguring bonds also entails revisiting how we relate to the natural environment and to one another, while integrating the technological mediations that permeate our experience of the world. From this perspective, environmental education emerges as an indispensable space for reconstructing narratives, practices, and imaginaries capable of moving beyond technocratic reductionism and moral individualism. Transformative environmental education does not merely promote &#x201C;responsible&#x201D; behaviours; it actively reveals the power structures, inequalities, and productivist logics that underpin unsustainability.</p>
<p>Within this framework, the ethical and epistemological horizons of environmental education are not defined by the accumulation of isolated content or competencies, but by the capacity to cultivate complex thinking, critical consciousness, and collective action oriented toward ecosocial justice.</p>
<p>Rather than closing the debate, this essay invites environmental education to be understood as a space of contestation over meaning, where competing narratives concerning human&#x2013;environment relations, development, responsibility, and possible futures are confronted. Educating thus entails critically intervening in this contestation within a planetary context marked by limits and uncertainty. From this standpoint, environmental education assumes an active role in constructing new narratives that challenge logics of domination, unlimited growth, neutrality, and techno-optimism. It is proposed as a space for ethical dialogue, ecosocial justice, and collective learning, capable of articulating diverse knowledges and fostering practices of care, reciprocity, and shared responsibility.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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