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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32740</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32740</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Educaci&#x00F3;n para el arraigo: identidad, entorno y sostenibilidad ante la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a vaciada&#x201D;</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Education for Rootedness: Identity, Environment and Sustainability in the Face of &#x201C;Emptied Spain&#x201D;</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0925-5731</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez</surname>
<given-names>Luis Manuel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ES"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9355-3899</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Oronoz</surname>
<given-names>Soraya</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-ES"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Rey Juan Carlos</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-ES"><email>luismanuel.martinez@urjc.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-ES"><email>soraya.oronoz@urjc.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>23</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026382</issue-id>
<fpage>61</fpage>
    <lpage>78</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>15</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>03</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La despoblaci&#x00F3;n de amplias zonas rurales en Espa&#x00F1;a plantea desaf&#x00ED;os ecosociales que afectan tanto a la sostenibilidad territorial como a la construcci&#x00F3;n de la identidad rural. Este art&#x00ED;culo examina el potencial de la educaci&#x00F3;n para fortalecer el arraigo y promover modelos de desarrollo sostenible en la denominada &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D;. A partir de una revisi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de literatura interdisciplinar, se analizan enfoques educativos como la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar, las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales, la Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible y la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible a la identidad y al entorno. El estudio identifica patrones y tensiones en las pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas actuales, marcadas por un sesgo urbanoc&#x00E9;ntrico que limita la valoraci&#x00F3;n del mundo rural. Asimismo, se destacan propuestas pedag&#x00F3;gicas que integran saberes locales, participaci&#x00F3;n comunitaria y v&#x00ED;nculos significativos con el entorno natural. Se argumenta que una educaci&#x00F3;n contextualizada y sensible al territorio puede contribuir a revitalizar las comunidades rurales, reforzar el sentido de pertenencia y favorecer transiciones hacia futuros sostenibles.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Rural depopulation in Spain poses ecosocial challenges that affect both territorial sustainability and the construction of rural identity. This article examines the potential of education to strengthen rootedness and promote sustainable development in the context of the so-called &#x201C;Empty Spain&#x201D;. Drawing on a critical review of interdisciplinary literature, it analyzes educational approaches such as Place-Based Education, Critical Rural Pedagogies, Education for Sustainable Development, and education sensitive to identity and the environment. The study identifies patterns and tensions in current educational policies and practices, highlighting an urban-centric bias that limits the recognition of rural realities. It also outlines pedagogical proposals that integrate local knowledge, community participation, and meaningful connections with the natural environment. The article argues that contextualized and territory-sensitive education can contribute to revitalizing rural communities, reinforcing the sense of belonging, and supporting transitions toward sustainable futures.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>identidad cultural</kwd>
<kwd>despoblaci&#x00F3;n rural</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</kwd>
<kwd>desarrollo sostenible</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n sensible a la identidad y al entorno</kwd>
<kwd>sentido de pertenencia</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>cultural identity</kwd>
<kwd>rural depopulation</kwd>
<kwd>environmental education</kwd>
<kwd>sustainable development</kwd>
<kwd>education sensitive to identity and environment</kwd>
<kwd>sense of belonging</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32740-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<p>El fen&#x00F3;meno de la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32740-ES">Del Molino, 2016</xref>) describe el abandono y envejecimiento demogr&#x00E1;fico de amplias zonas rurales, con profundas implicaciones socioecon&#x00F3;micas, culturales e identitarias. Esta realidad no solo conlleva la p&#x00E9;rdida de poblaci&#x00F3;n, sino tambi&#x00E9;n la erosi&#x00F3;n de identidades culturales ligadas a paisajes, saberes y formas de vida tradicionales.</p>
<p>En este sentido, la despoblaci&#x00F3;n se considera un problema complejo con creciente inter&#x00E9;s social y medi&#x00E1;tico, evidenciando la importancia de sectores locales fuertes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32740-ES">Calatrava Requena, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32740-ES">D&#x00ED;ez-Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>El mundo rural espa&#x00F1;ol es diverso, requiriendo pol&#x00ED;ticas espec&#x00ED;ficas y alejadas de una visi&#x00F3;n homog&#x00E9;nea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32740-ES">Moyano Estrada, 2020</xref>). En este contexto, la educaci&#x00F3;n enfrenta el desaf&#x00ED;o de formar la identidad humana en j&#x00F3;venes de estos territorios, a menudo estigmatizados o invisibilizados por narrativas urbanas. El problema de la despoblaci&#x00F3;n rural es multifac&#x00E9;tico y afecta a varias regiones de Europa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32740-ES">K&#x00FC;hn, 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>Para evitar la difuminaci&#x00F3;n entre planos descriptivos, educativos e identitarios, se explicita desde el inicio que el objeto central de este art&#x00ED;culo es analizar el papel de la educaci&#x00F3;n en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la identidad rural en contextos de despoblaci&#x00F3;n, especialmente en lo relativo al arraigo y al sentido de pertenencia.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis demogr&#x00E1;fico y territorial se mantiene como marco contextual necesario, pero no constituye el foco principal del estudio. Del mismo modo, aunque se abordan implicaciones para las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas rurales, estas se entienden como derivaciones del an&#x00E1;lisis te&#x00F3;rico y no como el n&#x00FA;cleo del trabajo.</p>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo se alinea con la tem&#x00E1;tica del monogr&#x00E1;fico &#x201C;El entorno natural y la formaci&#x00F3;n de la identidad humana&#x201D;, argumentando que la despoblaci&#x00F3;n rural se vincula intr&#x00ED;nsecamente a la relaci&#x00F3;n de las comunidades con su entorno y a la percepci&#x00F3;n de este como espacio de vida y futuro. Se propone explorar c&#x00F3;mo la educaci&#x00F3;n puede ser un motor para reconstruir y fortalecer una identidad rural positiva, cr&#x00ED;tica y proactiva, que reconozca el valor del entorno natural y promueva el desarrollo sostenible para revitalizar estos territorios. El prop&#x00F3;sito es analizar teor&#x00ED;as y estrategias educativas que fomenten un profundo sentido de arraigo y pertenencia, capacitando a las nuevas generaciones como agentes de cambio.</p>
<p>Para reforzar la dimensi&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica, entendemos el arraigo y el sentido de pertenencia como procesos relacionales complejos. Estos integran dimensiones afectivas, simb&#x00F3;licas y sociales. Su construcci&#x00F3;n se produce mediante la interacci&#x00F3;n continuada con el territorio, la comunidad y las pr&#x00E1;cticas culturales locales. Esta perspectiva permite situar el an&#x00E1;lisis dentro de un campo de investigaci&#x00F3;n consolidado sobre la relaci&#x00F3;n entre identidad y lugar, y dota de mayor densidad conceptual a las categor&#x00ED;as empleadas en el estudio.</p>
<p>La pertinencia de este art&#x00ED;culo reside en su enfoque sobre la interconexi&#x00F3;n entre identidad, entorno natural y respuestas educativas a la crisis socioambiental de la despoblaci&#x00F3;n. Abordar la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D; desde la educaci&#x00F3;n implica repensar la formaci&#x00F3;n de identidad en contextos rurales y c&#x00F3;mo estos pueden ser espacios para la &#x201C;acci&#x00F3;n social y comunitaria para el Desarrollo Sostenible&#x201D;.</p>
<p>Asimismo, el entorno rural ofrece una oportunidad &#x00FA;nica para el aprendizaje contextual e interdisciplinar, promoviendo habilidades de sostenibilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32740-ES">Silva-Hormaz&#x00E1;bal &#x0026; Alsina, 2023</xref>). Adem&#x00E1;s, la educaci&#x00F3;n rural debe reconocer y partir de las pr&#x00E1;cticas y l&#x00F3;gicas propias de las comunidades, entendi&#x00E9;ndose como un espacio de co-aprendizaje y transformaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32740-ES">G&#x00F3;mez Zuluaga, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>La investigaci&#x00F3;n ofrece una perspectiva te&#x00F3;rica sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n en contextos de despoblaci&#x00F3;n, tema de creciente preocupaci&#x00F3;n en Europa. Esto contribuye a la reflexi&#x00F3;n sobre el papel de la escuela rural como agente de desarrollo comunitario y custodio de la identidad local (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32740-ES">Corch&#x00F3;n, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Esta visi&#x00F3;n se refuerza con estudios que la conciben como un espacio vital para la innovaci&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica y la dinamizaci&#x00F3;n comunitaria, con gran potencial socioeducativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32740-ES">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>), y donde la identidad rural y cient&#x00ED;fica pueden reforzarse mutuamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32740-ES">Mu&#x00F1;oz Dom&#x00ED;nguez et al., 2022</xref>). El estudio responde a la necesidad de estrategias educativas que promuevan el arraigo y la participaci&#x00F3;n ciudadana para futuros rurales sostenibles, en l&#x00ED;nea con los objetivos de desarrollo sostenible.</p>
<p>Esto implica pol&#x00ED;ticas integrales de apoyo que fomenten la identidad y visibilidad de las instituciones educativas rurales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32740-ES">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>). Metodolog&#x00ED;as como el design thinking fortalecen la identidad rural y contribuyen a los ODS (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32740-ES">Prada et al., 2024</xref>), mientras que la educaci&#x00F3;n patrimonial y el trabajo con el entorno tambi&#x00E9;n promueven el arraigo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32740-ES">Pedrouzo Fari&#x00F1;a &#x0026; Castro-Fern&#x00E1;ndez, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Con el fin de situar la contribuci&#x00F3;n original de este estudio respecto a revisiones previas sobre escuela rural, despoblaci&#x00F3;n y Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible, este art&#x00ED;culo ofrece una aportaci&#x00F3;n innovadora en dos sentidos principales. En primer lugar, integra de manera articulada los enfoques de identidad, territorio y sostenibilidad desde una perspectiva centrada en el arraigo y el sentido de pertenencia, elementos habitualmente tratados de forma separada en la literatura.</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s de lo descrito, se propone un marco pedag&#x00F3;gico que combina Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible, Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas del Lugar y EDS para explicar c&#x00F3;mo la escuela rural puede funcionar como agente identitario y ecosocial, algo que no ha sido formulado de forma conjunta en revisiones anteriores. Esta integraci&#x00F3;n permite avanzar hacia una lectura educativa de la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D; que supera los diagn&#x00F3;sticos demogr&#x00E1;ficos tradicionales.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32740-ES">
<label>2.</label>
<title>O<sc>bjetivos</sc></title>
<p>Este estudio propone contribuir al debate acad&#x00E9;mico sobre c&#x00F3;mo la &#x201C;Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; puede responder a los desaf&#x00ED;os de la crisis ecosocial y demogr&#x00E1;fica actual, espec&#x00ED;ficamente en contextos rurales. Se analiza el potencial de la educaci&#x00F3;n para la resignificaci&#x00F3;n y el fortalecimiento de la identidad rural en la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D;, vincul&#x00E1;ndola con una relaci&#x00F3;n transformadora con el entorno natural y la promoci&#x00F3;n del desarrollo sostenible.</p>
<p>El foco principal del estudio es comprender la contribuci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n a la identidad rural en territorios despoblados, especialmente en t&#x00E9;rminos de arraigo y pertenencia. Asimismo, se analiza c&#x00F3;mo esta dimensi&#x00F3;n identitaria puede orientar pr&#x00E1;cticas y pol&#x00ED;ticas coherentes con la sostenibilidad territorial.</p>
<p>Desde la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible, se busca aportar un marco conceptual que integre identidad rural, educaci&#x00F3;n, entorno natural y desarrollo sostenible. El objetivo es identificar principios pedag&#x00F3;gicos clave. Estos deben promover el arraigo, la resiliencia comunitaria y la sostenibilidad en los territorios afectados por la despoblaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Para reforzar la dimensi&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica de los conceptos vinculados con el arraigo y el sentido de pertenencia, se entienden aqu&#x00ED; como procesos relacionales que articulan v&#x00ED;nculos afectivos, simb&#x00F3;licos y sociales con el territorio, y que pueden ser fortalecidos mediante pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas contextualizadas. Dentro de este marco, se plantean recomendaciones para la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa y la pr&#x00E1;ctica docente, buscando transformar la escuela rural en un motor de desarrollo local y (re)construcci&#x00F3;n identitaria.</p>
<p>Para ello, se concretan los siguientes objetivos espec&#x00ED;ficos:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Examinar cr&#x00ED;ticamente c&#x00F3;mo los enfoques educativos actuales abordan (o desatienden) la identidad rural y el fen&#x00F3;meno de la despoblaci&#x00F3;n en Europa.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Identificar y discutir estrategias pedag&#x00F3;gicas (Aprendizaje Basado en el Lugar, Aprendizaje-Servicio, Recuperaci&#x00F3;n de Saberes Locales, Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible, etc.) que fomenten una identidad rural positiva, el arraigo y la conexi&#x00F3;n con el entorno natural.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Proponer principios te&#x00F3;ricos para una educaci&#x00F3;n que contribuya a la revitalizaci&#x00F3;n sostenible de las &#x00E1;reas rurales, en di&#x00E1;logo con la crisis ecosocial y las particularidades de la &#x201C;Europa Vaciada&#x201D;.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Reflexionar sobre las implicaciones para la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa y la formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32740-ES" sec-type="methods">
<label>3.</label>
<title>M<sc>&#x00E9;todo</sc></title>
<p>Se propone un estudio te&#x00F3;rico basado en una revisi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de la literatura cient&#x00ED;fica. Para ello, se analizan investigaciones acad&#x00E9;micas, informes de organismos internacionales (UE, UNESCO, OCDE), documentos de pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas y experiencias pedag&#x00F3;gicas relevantes en la educaci&#x00F3;n rural, ambiental y el desarrollo comunitario en contextos de despoblaci&#x00F3;n. Aunque se emplean procedimientos sistem&#x00E1;ticos de b&#x00FA;squeda y selecci&#x00F3;n de fuentes, el estudio no se concibe como una revisi&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica en sentido estricto. En consecuencia, no se incluyen tablas de cribado, recuentos cuantitativos ni diagramas de flujo tipo PRISMA, dado que el objetivo del trabajo es interpretativo y argumentativo, propio de una revisi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis busca identificar patrones, tensiones y propuestas innovadoras que puedan nutrir un marco te&#x00F3;rico-pr&#x00E1;ctico para la educaci&#x00F3;n en la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D;.</p>
<p>Para el rastreo de ejemplos de experiencias pedag&#x00F3;gicas innovadoras en comunidades rurales, documentos de pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas e informes de organismos internacionales, se utiliz&#x00F3; la Inteligencia Artificial (Gemini 1.5 Pro, mayo 2025), con su aplicaci&#x00F3;n mediada por seres humanos. La integraci&#x00F3;n de la Inteligencia Artificial en la educaci&#x00F3;n y la investigaci&#x00F3;n es una tendencia creciente que puede transformar los procesos de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje, ofreciendo oportunidades para la personalizaci&#x00F3;n y la eficiencia en la gesti&#x00F3;n del conocimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32740-ES">Flores-Vivar &#x0026; Garc&#x00ED;a-Pe&#x00F1;alvo, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32740-ES">Maldonado et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32740-ES">Yag&#x00FC;e-Pasam&#x00F3;n, 2023</xref>). Esto tambi&#x00E9;n se aplica a la organizaci&#x00F3;n y an&#x00E1;lisis de la literatura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32740-ES">Carbajal-Degante et al., 2023</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-4-32740-ES">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title>Proceso de b&#x00FA;squeda y selecci&#x00F3;n de fuentes</title>
<p>Se emple&#x00F3; una estrategia de b&#x00FA;squeda a trav&#x00E9;s de las bases de datos acad&#x00E9;micas Dialnet (con filtro en Psicolog&#x00ED;a y Educaci&#x00F3;n) y ERIC (base de datos exclusiva de Educaci&#x00F3;n). Los t&#x00E9;rminos de b&#x00FA;squeda con los que se obtuvieron resultados fueron: &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D;, despoblaci&#x00F3;n, Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales/Critical Rural Pedagogies, Aprendizaje-Servicio Rural/Rural Service-Learning, Recuperaci&#x00F3;n Saberes Locales/Recovery of Local Knowledge, &#x201C;Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible&#x201D; AND &#x201C;Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez&#x201D;, &#x201C;Place-Based Education&#x201D;/&#x201C;Educaci&#x00F3;n basada en el lugar&#x201D;, &#x201C;Critical Pedagogy of Place&#x201D;, &#x201C;Education for Sustainable Development&#x201D; AND &#x201C;rural&#x201D;/&#x201C;Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible&#x201D; AND &#x201C;rural&#x201D; y &#x201C;endogenous development territorial capital&#x201D;. Para la recopilaci&#x00F3;n de informes de organismos internacionales, se realizaron b&#x00FA;squedas espec&#x00ED;ficas y gen&#x00E9;ricas con t&#x00E9;rminos como &#x201C;desarrollo comunitario zonas rurales despobladas&#x201D;.</p>
<p>La fase inicial de cribado implic&#x00F3; la revisi&#x00F3;n de t&#x00ED;tulos y res&#x00FA;menes para evaluar la relevancia preliminar. Posteriormente, se realiz&#x00F3; una revisi&#x00F3;n de texto completo de los art&#x00ED;culos seleccionados para confirmar su relevancia directa, calidad metodol&#x00F3;gica y contribuci&#x00F3;n a los objetivos del estudio. La t&#x00E9;cnica de &#x201C;bola de nieve&#x201D; (examinar las listas de referencias de art&#x00ED;culos e informes altamente relevantes) se utiliz&#x00F3; para identificar fuentes adicionales pertinentes.</p>
<p>Aunque el proceso de b&#x00FA;squeda fue riguroso y sistem&#x00E1;tico, no se presentan tablas de selecci&#x00F3;n ni recuentos de estudios incluidos o excluidos, ya que el prop&#x00F3;sito del trabajo no es cuantificar la literatura sino construir un an&#x00E1;lisis cr&#x00ED;tico y conceptual.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32740-ES">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title>Criterios de inclusi&#x00F3;n y exclusi&#x00F3;n de la literatura cient&#x00ED;fica consultada</title>
<p>Para garantizar la pertinencia y el rigor del an&#x00E1;lisis, se establecieron los siguientes criterios de inclusi&#x00F3;n y exclusi&#x00F3;n de las fuentes consultadas.</p>
<sec id="sec-6-32740-ES">
<label>3.2.1.</label>
<title>Criterios de inclusi&#x00F3;n</title>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Investigaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica: se incluyeron art&#x00ED;culos revisados por pares, libros acad&#x00E9;micos, tesis doctorales y actas de congresos de prestigio que abordaran la educaci&#x00F3;n rural, la identidad rural y la despoblaci&#x00F3;n. Se prioriz&#x00F3; el enfoque geogr&#x00E1;fico en Espa&#x00F1;a, aunque se consideraron estudios de otras regiones que ofrecieran conocimientos transferibles.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Informes de organismos internacionales: se incorporaron informes oficiales, documentos de pol&#x00ED;ticas y estrategias de organizaciones internacionales como la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea (UE), la UNESCO y la Organizaci&#x00F3;n para la Cooperaci&#x00F3;n y el Desarrollo Econ&#x00F3;micos (OCDE), que trataran el desarrollo rural, las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas y los desaf&#x00ED;os demogr&#x00E1;ficos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Documentos de pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas: se incluyeron documentos de pol&#x00ED;tica nacional y regional de Espa&#x00F1;a (leyes, decretos, estrategias) espec&#x00ED;ficamente relacionados con la educaci&#x00F3;n rural, la despoblaci&#x00F3;n y las iniciativas de Desarrollo Sostenible.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Experiencias pedag&#x00F3;gicas relevantes: se consideraron estudios emp&#x00ED;ricos, casos de estudio y pr&#x00E1;cticas pedag&#x00F3;gicas innovadoras documentadas (como la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar, el Aprendizaje-Servicio y la Recuperaci&#x00F3;n de Saberes Locales) implementadas en entornos educativos rurales.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Idioma: las publicaciones se seleccionaron principalmente en espa&#x00F1;ol e ingl&#x00E9;s, dada la prevalencia de literatura acad&#x00E9;mica en estas lenguas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Fecha de publicaci&#x00F3;n: si bien se incluyeron textos fundamentales y cl&#x00E1;sicos, por ejemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32740-ES">Freire (1970)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32740-ES">Sobel (2004)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-ES">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero (2007)</xref>, se dio preferencia a las publicaciones de los &#x00FA;ltimos 5 a&#x00F1;os para capturar los desaf&#x00ED;os contempor&#x00E1;neos, los desarrollos de pol&#x00ED;ticas y las pr&#x00E1;cticas innovadoras.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32740-ES">
<label>3.2.2.</label>
<title>Criterios de exclusi&#x00F3;n</title>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Publicaciones no acad&#x00E9;micas: se excluyeron art&#x00ED;culos de prensa, art&#x00ED;culos de opini&#x00F3;n o publicaciones de blog sin un respaldo acad&#x00E9;mico claro o rigor metodol&#x00F3;gico, a menos que fueran citados directamente como documentos de pol&#x00ED;tica o ejemplos de discurso p&#x00FA;blico relevante.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Estudios irrelevantes: se descartaron investigaciones no directamente relacionadas con la educaci&#x00F3;n, los contextos rurales, la despoblaci&#x00F3;n o los marcos te&#x00F3;ricos especificados en la consulta.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Literatura gris no documentada: informes o documentos que carec&#x00ED;an de autor&#x00ED;a clara, respaldo institucional o metodolog&#x00ED;a transparente.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Desajuste geogr&#x00E1;fico: estudios de contextos geogr&#x00E1;ficos muy diferentes a Europa sin una justificaci&#x00F3;n clara de la transferibilidad de sus modelos pedag&#x00F3;gicos o conocimientos te&#x00F3;ricos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Falta de accesibilidad: en la medida en que no se tuvo acceso al documento por los recursos disponibles en la universidad, se descart&#x00F3; la informaci&#x00F3;n.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-32740-ES">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title>Enfoque del an&#x00E1;lisis cr&#x00ED;tico</title>
<p>Cada fuente seleccionada fue evaluada cr&#x00ED;ticamente en cuanto a su rigor metodol&#x00F3;gico, fundamentaci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica y solidez de su evidencia emp&#x00ED;rica. El an&#x00E1;lisis busc&#x00F3; identificar temas convergentes, perspectivas divergentes y tensiones dentro de la literatura en relaci&#x00F3;n con los desaf&#x00ED;os y oportunidades de la educaci&#x00F3;n rural. Se prest&#x00F3; especial atenci&#x00F3;n a las suposiciones subyacentes, los posibles sesgos y las implicaciones pol&#x00ED;ticas expl&#x00ED;citas o impl&#x00ED;citas de cada fuente. Los hallazgos se sintetizaron para construir una narrativa coherente que abordara directamente los objetivos espec&#x00ED;ficos del estudio, destacando propuestas innovadoras e identificando lagunas en la investigaci&#x00F3;n o las pol&#x00ED;ticas actuales.</p>
<p>Este enfoque confirma el car&#x00E1;cter cr&#x00ED;tico-ensay&#x00ED;stico del estudio, que combina revisi&#x00F3;n documental y reflexi&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica, y no pretende ajustarse a los est&#x00E1;ndares formales de una revisi&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32740-ES">
<label>4.</label>
<title>M<sc>arco te&#x00F3;rico</sc></title>
<p>Este trabajo se fundamenta en un conjunto de enfoques que permiten comprender la relaci&#x00F3;n entre identidad, territorio y educaci&#x00F3;n en contextos rurales afectados por la despoblaci&#x00F3;n. Entre ellos destacan la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible, la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar, las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales, la Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible y los planteamientos del capital territorial y el desarrollo end&#x00F3;geno. Aunque estos marcos dialogan entre s&#x00ED;, es necesario precisar su funci&#x00F3;n dentro del an&#x00E1;lisis para evitar solapamientos conceptuales y garantizar una integraci&#x00F3;n coherente.</p>
<p>En primer lugar, resulta imprescindible acotar el sentido en que se emplea el concepto de Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible, dado que en la literatura puede aparecer asociado a m&#x00FA;ltiples dimensiones.</p>
<p>Siguiendo a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32740-ES">Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez (2022)</xref>, la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible se entiende aqu&#x00ED; como un enfoque centrado en el reconocimiento de la identidad personal como &#x201C;originalidad absoluta&#x201D;, que se expresa en formas de &#x201C;originalidad relativa&#x201D; en los distintos &#x00E1;mbitos de la vida. Esta perspectiva pone el acento en la singularidad de cada sujeto y en la necesidad de respetar su identidad integral. Por tanto, no se utiliza como un t&#x00E9;rmino general para la sensibilidad al contexto o la sostenibilidad. Estas dimensiones ya se abordan desde marcos espec&#x00ED;ficos, como la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar o la Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible. As&#x00ED;, evitamos convertir el t&#x00E9;rmino en un metaconcepto difuso.</p>
<p>Desde esta base, la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible se articula con enfoques que ponen el &#x00E9;nfasis en la relaci&#x00F3;n entre identidad, territorio y experiencia educativa. La Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar (PBE) destaca el papel del entorno como agente formativo y como espacio donde se construyen significados e identidades. Este enfoque reconoce el &#x201C;lugar&#x201D; como un elemento activo en la construcci&#x00F3;n del yo y en la comprensi&#x00F3;n del mundo, en l&#x00ED;nea con la geograf&#x00ED;a humanista. Esta corriente subraya c&#x00F3;mo los individuos invisten los espacios de significado y emoci&#x00F3;n, transform&#x00E1;ndolos en verdaderos &#x201C;lugares&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32740-ES">Tuan, 1977</xref>). Estos significados compartidos contribuyen a una identidad colectiva arraigada en narrativas y pr&#x00E1;cticas situadas en un contexto espacial espec&#x00ED;fico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32740-ES">Casey, 1996</xref>).</p>
<p>Entendemos el arraigo no solo como una emoci&#x00F3;n, sino siguiendo a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32740-ES">Scannell y Gifford (2010)</xref>, como un v&#x00ED;nculo tripartito (persona, proceso, lugar) que en contextos rurales adquiere una dimensi&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica de resistencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32740-ES">Lewicka, 2011</xref>). No es mera nostalgia, sino una pr&#x00E1;ctica de habitar.</p>
<p>En educaci&#x00F3;n, la PBE promueve un aprendizaje contextualizado y relevante, que vincula el curr&#x00ED;culo con la realidad del entorno f&#x00ED;sico y social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32740-ES">Smith &#x0026; Sobel, 2010</xref>). El estudio de la ecolog&#x00ED;a local, la historia comunitaria o la geograf&#x00ED;a del territorio no solo transmite conocimientos, sino que fortalece el sentido de pertenencia y la identidad c&#x00ED;vica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-ES">Gruenewald, 2003</xref>).</p>
    <p>Las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales constituyen otro marco fundamental para comprender la relaci&#x00F3;n entre educaci&#x00F3;n, identidad y territorio. Inspiradas en la pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32740-ES">Freire (1970)</xref>, estas pedagog&#x00ED;as cuestionan las narrativas hegem&#x00F3;nicas sobre la ruralidad y reivindican el valor del conocimiento local como fuente leg&#x00ED;tima de aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32740-ES">Hooks, 1994</xref>). Hist&#x00F3;ricamente, las &#x00E1;reas rurales han sido representadas desde una perspectiva urbana que puede conducir a la marginalizaci&#x00F3;n e imposici&#x00F3;n de modelos externos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32740-ES">Miano et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales buscan empoderar a las comunidades para analizar su situaci&#x00F3;n, identificar desaf&#x00ED;os y dise&#x00F1;ar soluciones contextualizadas y sostenibles. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-ES">Gruenewald (2003)</xref> ampl&#x00ED;a esta perspectiva hacia el &#x00E1;mbito del lugar. Argumenta que una pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica permite a las comunidades &#x201C;reocupar&#x201D; su territorio f&#x00ED;sica y culturalmente. De este modo, reivindican su agencia y su capacidad de transformaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>La Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible (EDS) aporta al marco te&#x00F3;rico la dimensi&#x00F3;n ecosocial, integrando las dimensiones ambientales, sociales, econ&#x00F3;micas y culturales de la sostenibilidad. La EDS busca desarrollar competencias para comprender problemas complejos como el cambio clim&#x00E1;tico, la desigualdad social o el consumo insostenible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32740-ES">Sterling, 2001</xref>). La <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32740-ES">UNESCO (2017)</xref> sit&#x00FA;a la EDS como fundamental para alcanzar los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. Su meta es capacitar a los ciudadanos como agentes de cambio, promoviendo sociedades m&#x00E1;s justas y ambientalmente conscientes. Este enfoque promueve un aprendizaje transformador que desaf&#x00ED;a modelos de pensamiento convencionales y fomenta nuevas formas de vivir y relacionarse con el entorno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32740-ES">Vare &#x0026; Scott, 2007</xref>).</p>
<p>Por su parte, el concepto de capital territorial y desarrollo end&#x00F3;geno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-ES">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero, 2007</xref>) permite comprender el potencial de los recursos locales &#x2014;naturales, culturales y sociales&#x2014; como base para un desarrollo sostenible y arraigado. Este enfoque subraya que el progreso de un territorio se nutre de sus riquezas intr&#x00ED;nsecas: paisajes, biodiversidad, patrimonio cultural, redes sociales y conocimientos acumulados en la comunidad. Un desarrollo end&#x00F3;geno exitoso se caracteriza por ser un proceso ascendente, impulsado por actores locales, quienes est&#x00E1;n mejor situados para identificar necesidades y construir soluciones adaptadas a su contexto. Este enfoque integra la planificaci&#x00F3;n econ&#x00F3;mica con la conservaci&#x00F3;n ambiental, la revitalizaci&#x00F3;n cultural y el fortalecimiento del tejido social.</p>
<p>Aunque este trabajo dialoga con todas estas tradiciones, el eje vertebrador del marco te&#x00F3;rico es la relaci&#x00F3;n entre identidad rural y entorno, articulada principalmente a trav&#x00E9;s de la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar y las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas del Lugar.</p>
<p>Los anteriores enfoques permiten comprender c&#x00F3;mo el territorio participa en la construcci&#x00F3;n de la identidad y c&#x00F3;mo la educaci&#x00F3;n puede fortalecer el arraigo y la agencia comunitaria. Los dem&#x00E1;s marcos se integran como perspectivas complementarias: la Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible aporta la dimensi&#x00F3;n ecosocial; el capital territorial ofrece una lectura estructural del potencial del territorio; y la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible profundiza en la dimensi&#x00F3;n identitaria y personal del arraigo. Esta jerarquizaci&#x00F3;n clarifica la funci&#x00F3;n de cada enfoque y evita la impresi&#x00F3;n de una mera suma de marcos te&#x00F3;ricos, favoreciendo una integraci&#x00F3;n coherente y orientada al an&#x00E1;lisis del fen&#x00F3;meno educativo en la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-32740-ES" sec-type="results">
<label>5.</label>
<title>R<sc>esultados</sc>: <sc>patrones</sc>, <sc>tensiones y propuestas innovadoras</sc></title>
<sec id="sec-11-32740-ES">
<label>5.1.</label>
<title>Hallazgos descriptivos de la literatura revisada</title>
<p>La revisi&#x00F3;n de la documentaci&#x00F3;n evidencia un marcado sesgo urbanoc&#x00E9;ntrico en los curr&#x00ED;culos educativos. Diversos informes se&#x00F1;alan que los materiales oficiales priorizan valores asociados al entorno urbano y al consumo, relegando la realidad rural a un papel marginal. Los libros de texto suelen presentar el mundo rural ligado al pasado, la pobreza o la falta de progreso. En contraste, los entornos urbanos aparecen asociados sistem&#x00E1;ticamente al &#x00E9;xito y la modernidad. Este patr&#x00F3;n se refleja tambi&#x00E9;n en la percepci&#x00F3;n de los actores educativos: un 70,9% del profesorado atribuye la desvalorizaci&#x00F3;n de la vida rural a los materiales curriculares, y un 80,2% del alumnado considera que la escuela otorga mayor importancia al entorno urbano.</p>
<p>En el &#x00E1;mbito de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas, la legislaci&#x00F3;n espa&#x00F1;ola reconoce la especificidad de las escuelas rurales y la necesidad de garantizar la igualdad de oportunidades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32740-ES">Jefatura del Estado, 2020</xref>). Sin embargo, la evoluci&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica de estas pol&#x00ED;ticas muestra tensiones entre los objetivos declarados y su implementaci&#x00F3;n. En los a&#x00F1;os setenta, la creaci&#x00F3;n de los Centros Rurales Agrupados (CRA) prioriz&#x00F3; la eficiencia y el ahorro de costes. Sin embargo, esta medida deriv&#x00F3; en el cierre de escuelas unitarias y aceler&#x00F3; el &#x00E9;xodo rural. Aunque los CRA han mejorado con el tiempo, el criterio de &#x201C;rentabilidad&#x201D; contin&#x00FA;a influyendo en las decisiones sobre el mantenimiento de unidades escolares.</p>
<p>La literatura tambi&#x00E9;n identifica carencias estructurales persistentes en los centros rurales: falta de instalaciones b&#x00E1;sicas (bibliotecas, laboratorios, espacios deportivos), deficiencias en servicios esenciales y dificultades derivadas de la climatolog&#x00ED;a y el transporte. Estas limitaciones afectan tanto a la calidad educativa como a la equidad territorial.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-32740-ES">
<label>5.2.</label>
<title>An&#x00E1;lisis e interpretaci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica</title>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis revela que la despoblaci&#x00F3;n trasciende lo demogr&#x00E1;fico; es tambi&#x00E9;n resultado de una narrativa educativa que, al reproducir visiones urbanoc&#x00E9;ntricas, genera una desafecci&#x00F3;n identitaria en los j&#x00F3;venes.</p>
<p>Representar el mundo rural como espacio deficitario genera una &#x201C;profec&#x00ED;a autocumplida&#x201D;. Si la escuela transmite que el &#x00E9;xito est&#x00E1; fuera del territorio, los j&#x00F3;venes interiorizan la necesidad de marcharse. Esto refuerza inevitablemente el ciclo de despoblaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>La tensi&#x00F3;n entre las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas y su aplicaci&#x00F3;n pr&#x00E1;ctica muestra que la igualdad de oportunidades en zonas rurales sigue siendo un objetivo m&#x00E1;s program&#x00E1;tico que real. La persistencia del criterio de rentabilidad en la toma de decisiones educativas contradice la consideraci&#x00F3;n de la escuela rural como elemento vertebrador del territorio y como agente de cohesi&#x00F3;n comunitaria.</p>
<p>Asimismo, las carencias estructurales identificadas no solo limitan el acceso a recursos educativos, sino que tambi&#x00E9;n afectan a la construcci&#x00F3;n de identidad y al sentido de pertenencia. La falta de infraestructuras adecuadas y de un curr&#x00ED;culo contextualizado debilita la capacidad de la escuela para actuar como motor de arraigo y desarrollo sostenible.</p>
<p>En conjunto, los resultados exigen una transformaci&#x00F3;n profunda del enfoque educativo. Es necesario superar el urbanocentrismo curricular y fortalecer los saberes locales. Solo as&#x00ED; se reconocer&#x00E1; el papel estrat&#x00E9;gico de la escuela rural en la sostenibilidad territorial.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-13-32740-ES">
<label>5.3.</label>
<title>Implicaciones educativas y orientaciones derivadas del an&#x00E1;lisis</title>
<p>A partir de la revisi&#x00F3;n y del an&#x00E1;lisis cr&#x00ED;tico realizado, se identifican varias implicaciones para la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa en contextos rurales. En primer lugar, se destaca la importancia de integrar de manera expl&#x00ED;cita la dimensi&#x00F3;n identitaria en el curr&#x00ED;culo, reconociendo el arraigo y el sentido de pertenencia como componentes formativos relevantes para la sostenibilidad territorial.</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, se subraya la necesidad de fortalecer pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas que apoyen a la escuela rural como agente de desarrollo comunitario, evitando que su papel quede limitado a iniciativas puntuales.</p>
<p>Finalmente, se plantea que la educaci&#x00F3;n rural requiere marcos pedag&#x00F3;gicos que articulen la relaci&#x00F3;n entre identidad, territorio y sostenibilidad, permitiendo que el alumnado desarrolle competencias para comprender, valorar y transformar su entorno. Estas orientaciones no se presentan como resultados emp&#x00ED;ricos de la revisi&#x00F3;n, sino como propuestas te&#x00F3;ricas derivadas de la interpretaci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica del corpus analizado.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-14-32740-ES" sec-type="discussion">
<label>6.</label>
<title>D<sc>iscusi&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<p>Para contrarrestar los desaf&#x00ED;os y aprovechar las oportunidades en el medio rural, emergen como fundamentales estrategias pedag&#x00F3;gicas innovadoras: la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar (PBE), el Aprendizaje-Servicio (ApS) y la Recuperaci&#x00F3;n de Saberes Locales.</p>
<p>La PBE utiliza la comunidad local y su entorno natural como punto de partida para el aprendizaje curricular. Su objetivo es fortalecer lazos comunitarios, profundizar el aprecio por la naturaleza y fomentar el compromiso c&#x00ED;vico activo. La PBE es intr&#x00ED;nsecamente multidisciplinar e interdisciplinar, enfatizando el aprendizaje experiencial. Promueve acciones participativas, incorporando elementos de aprendizaje-servicio y aprendizaje situado, al sumergir a los estudiantes en las realidades sociales y ambientales de su comunidad. Las escuelas rurales, por su conexi&#x00F3;n intr&#x00ED;nseca con su entorno inmediato, poseen un &#x201C;gran potencial para la innovaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; al integrar el medio natural como herramienta educativa din&#x00E1;mica.</p>
<p>El ApS es un enfoque pedag&#x00F3;gico que combina intencionadamente el aprendizaje con un servicio significativo a la comunidad. En este modelo, los participantes aprenden abordando necesidades reales de su entorno local, con el objetivo expl&#x00ED;cito de mejorarlo. Sus beneficios son multifac&#x00E9;ticos, incluyendo el fomento del voluntariado, la capacitaci&#x00F3;n estudiantil para el servicio comunitario, la promoci&#x00F3;n de valores, el aumento de visibilidad social, el fortalecimiento de la capacidad organizativa y la promoci&#x00F3;n de la inclusi&#x00F3;n social. En &#x00FA;ltima instancia, el ApS permite a los estudiantes aplicar conocimientos acad&#x00E9;micos en contextos reales, desarrollar habilidades esenciales y contribuir eficazmente a la resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas comunitarios. Esta estrategia implica investigar y consultar activamente a los mayores de la comunidad (abuelos, padres, l&#x00ED;deres) para recopilar conocimientos tradicionales (juegos, artesan&#x00ED;as, m&#x00FA;sica, pr&#x00E1;cticas ancestrales).</p>
<p>Los conocimientos locales indicados se integran sistem&#x00E1;ticamente en el curr&#x00ED;culo formal, articulados en &#x00E1;reas como matem&#x00E1;ticas, lengua, artes visuales y educaci&#x00F3;n f&#x00ED;sica. El aprendizaje se refuerza con actividades pr&#x00E1;cticas y demostraciones, permitiendo a los estudiantes experimentar estas tradiciones. Esta revalorizaci&#x00F3;n de las ra&#x00ED;ces ancestrales, la cultura local y las lenguas ind&#x00ED;genas contribuye a fomentar un fuerte sentido de identidad y pertenencia.</p>
<p>En el &#x00E1;mbito pr&#x00E1;ctico, destacan iniciativas de ApS vinculadas a la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n, como el proyecto del CRA Lozoyuela o &#x201C;Conecta Joven&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32740-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2010</xref>), que combaten la brecha digital intergeneracional. En la dimensi&#x00F3;n ambiental, experiencias como la construcci&#x00F3;n de nidos en Valencia o las &#x201C;bombas de semillas&#x201D; en Murcia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32740-ES">Entreculturas, 2024</xref>) demuestran c&#x00F3;mo la gesti&#x00F3;n ecosist&#x00E9;mica refuerza el v&#x00ED;nculo territorial. Asimismo, proyectos internacionales como &#x201C;La escuela adopta un monumento&#x201D; en Italia o el dise&#x00F1;o de turbinas e&#x00F3;licas en Argentina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32740-ES">Comisi&#x00F3;n Europea, 2021</xref>) evidencian la capacidad del alumnado para aportar soluciones t&#x00E9;cnicas y patrimoniales a sus comunidades.</p>
<p>Seguidamente se presentan principios te&#x00F3;ricos para la revitalizaci&#x00F3;n sostenible de las &#x00E1;reas rurales, basados en la informaci&#x00F3;n extra&#x00ED;da del apartado de resultados y las fuentes bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas.</p>
<p>La revitalizaci&#x00F3;n sostenible de las &#x00E1;reas rurales en di&#x00E1;logo con la crisis ecosocial y las particularidades de la &#x201C;Europa Vaciada&#x201D;, requiere la articulaci&#x00F3;n de principios pedag&#x00F3;gicos derivados de la integraci&#x00F3;n de los marcos te&#x00F3;ricos previamente discutidos.</p>
<p>Estos principios buscan transformar la educaci&#x00F3;n en un motor de cambio, fomentando el arraigo, la resiliencia comunitaria y la sostenibilidad.</p>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n deber&#x00ED;a centrarse en el desarrollo de la &#x201C;originalidad irrepetible&#x201D; de cada persona. Esto implica cultivar una sensibilidad profunda hacia el propio ser y hacia el &#x201C;nosotros-maduro&#x201D;. Extrapolando este principio, una educaci&#x00F3;n sensible en contextos rurales fomentar&#x00ED;a una conexi&#x00F3;n intr&#x00ED;nseca y respetuosa con el entorno natural y la comunidad. Si la sensibilidad interna se cultiva, se espera que se traduzca en una mayor mayordom&#x00ED;a ambiental y responsabilidad comunitaria. Esto significa que la educaci&#x00F3;n debe ayudar a los individuos a reconocer su valor &#x00FA;nico en el contexto rural y a desarrollar un &#x201C;amor maduro&#x201D; que se extienda a su entorno f&#x00ED;sico y social, promoviendo una relaci&#x00F3;n de cuidado y aprecio por el lugar que habitan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32740-ES">Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>La integraci&#x00F3;n de la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible con las teor&#x00ED;as del lugar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32740-ES">Sobel, 2004</xref>), las pedagog&#x00ED;as cr&#x00ED;ticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32740-ES">Freire, 1970</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-ES">Gruenewald, 2003</xref>), la EDS (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32740-ES">UNESCO, 2017</xref>) y el capital territorial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-ES">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero, 2007</xref>) fundamenta nuestra propuesta. Sostenemos que una educaci&#x00F3;n transformadora en la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D; debe estar profundamente arraigada en el lugar y ser cr&#x00ED;ticamente consciente de las injusticias. Asimismo, debe ser sensible a la identidad personal y colectiva, orient&#x00E1;ndose activamente hacia la sostenibilidad y el desarrollo end&#x00F3;geno. Esto implica un cambio fundamental de paradigma: pasar de un modelo que desatiende lo rural a uno que lo valora, lo empodera y lo convierte en un laboratorio de futuro.</p>
<p>La aplicaci&#x00F3;n operativa de estos principios exige articular las pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas con los marcos te&#x00F3;ricos que sustentan la revitalizaci&#x00F3;n rural. En primer lugar, la revisi&#x00F3;n curricular no debe ser un mero ajuste de contenidos, sino una pr&#x00E1;ctica de &#x201C;reinhabitaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-ES">Gruenewald, 2003</xref>). Esto implica dise&#x00F1;ar curr&#x00ED;culos situados que legitimen los saberes locales y el entorno natural como objetos de conocimiento valiosos, contrarrestando la narrativa del d&#x00E9;ficit y permitiendo al alumnado reconstruir una identidad rural positiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32740-ES">Navarro &#x0026; Romero, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>En el plano estructural, las medidas de financiaci&#x00F3;n y dotaci&#x00F3;n de recursos deben interpretarse desde la l&#x00F3;gica del capital territorial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-ES">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero, 2007</xref>). Invertir en la escuela rural &#x2014;incluyendo la mejora de infraestructuras, transporte y conectividad digital&#x2014; no es un gasto a fondo perdido, sino una estrategia de desarrollo end&#x00F3;geno que activa el potencial latente del territorio. Garantizar servicios equitativos y centros conectados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32740-ES">Mart&#x00ED;nez G&#x00F3;mez, 2024</xref>) es condici&#x00F3;n sine qua non para fijar poblaci&#x00F3;n y atraer talento, superando la visi&#x00F3;n mercantilista de la rentabilidad escolar a corto plazo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32740-ES">Corch&#x00F3;n, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Finalmente, la formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado debe trascender la capacitaci&#x00F3;n t&#x00E9;cnica para abrazar los principios de la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32740-ES">Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez, 2022</xref>). Se requiere un docente capaz de reconocer la "originalidad absoluta" de cada estudiante rural, evitando proyecciones estigmatizantes. Los programas formativos deben incluir competencias espec&#x00ED;ficas en pedagog&#x00ED;a rural y did&#x00E1;ctica multigrado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32740-ES">Mu&#x00F1;oz Dom&#x00ED;nguez et al., 2022</xref>), as&#x00ED; como herramientas para fomentar ese "amor maduro" por el entorno que propone la EDS, consolidando comunidades de pr&#x00E1;ctica que rompan el aislamiento profesional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32740-ES">D&#x00ED;ez-Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2025</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-15-32740-ES" sec-type="conclusions">
<label>7.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></title>
<p>El presente estudio revela que la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D; no es un problema meramente demogr&#x00E1;fico, sino la manifestaci&#x00F3;n de una crisis ecosocial y territorial interconectada. En ella, la desinversi&#x00F3;n econ&#x00F3;mica y social, sumada a la vulnerabilidad ambiental, impulsa el declive poblacional.</p>
<p>En este contexto, la educaci&#x00F3;n emerge como un elemento crucial, no solo como un servicio b&#x00E1;sico, sino como un &#x201C;elemento vertebrador&#x201D; y un motor potencial para la (re)construcci&#x00F3;n identitaria y el desarrollo sostenible.</p>
<p>Un hallazgo central es la tensi&#x00F3;n entre las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas y los curr&#x00ED;culos actuales, que a menudo presentan un sesgo urbano-c&#x00E9;ntrico, desvalorizando la vida rural y fomentando la migraci&#x00F3;n de los j&#x00F3;venes. Esta narrativa curricular, percibida por docentes y estudiantes, contribuye a una &#x201C;resignaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; en las expectativas de futuro en el medio rural.</p>
<p>A pesar de las intenciones legislativas de garantizar la igualdad de oportunidades, pol&#x00ED;ticas como la creaci&#x00F3;n de los Centros Rurales Agrupados (CRA) han tenido efectos mixtos. El criterio de 'rentabilidad' sigue amenazando la existencia de escuelas rurales, lo que contradice su valor social.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, la investigaci&#x00F3;n tambi&#x00E9;n ha puesto de manifiesto una paradoja: muchas de las caracter&#x00ED;sticas percibidas como desaf&#x00ED;os en la educaci&#x00F3;n rural (bajas ratios, aulas multigrado, proximidad a la naturaleza, cohesi&#x00F3;n comunitaria) son, en realidad, oportunidades pedag&#x00F3;gicas &#x00FA;nicas. Estrategias como la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar (PBE), el Aprendizaje-Servicio (ApS) y la Recuperaci&#x00F3;n de Saberes Locales demuestran un enorme potencial para fomentar el arraigo, la identidad rural positiva y una conexi&#x00F3;n transformadora con el entorno natural. Estas pedagog&#x00ED;as, al integrar el aprendizaje con la realidad local y la acci&#x00F3;n comunitaria, permiten a los estudiantes aplicar sus conocimientos en contextos reales y revalorizar su patrimonio cultural.</p>
<p>La integraci&#x00F3;n de la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible, las Teor&#x00ED;as de la Identidad y el Lugar, las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales, la Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible y el Capital Territorial y Desarrollo End&#x00F3;geno, ha permitido proponer principios te&#x00F3;ricos para una educaci&#x00F3;n transformadora. Estos principios abogan por una educaci&#x00F3;n que cultive la originalidad personal y la coexistencia con el entorno, contextualice el curr&#x00ED;culo en el lugar, fomente la concientizaci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica y la &#x201C;reinhabitaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D;, desarrolle competencias para la sostenibilidad y potencie el capital territorial y la agencia local.</p>
<p>Las futuras l&#x00ED;neas de investigaci&#x00F3;n en pedagog&#x00ED;a rural podr&#x00ED;an centrarse en evaluar el impacto a largo plazo de metodolog&#x00ED;as como el Aprendizaje-Servicio (ApS) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32740-ES">Novales Ordax et al., 2023</xref>), la Pedagog&#x00ED;a Basada en el Lugar (PBE) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32740-ES">Garc&#x00ED;a, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32740-ES">Higgins, 2021</xref>) y la Recuperaci&#x00F3;n de Saberes Locales en el arraigo juvenil y el desarrollo sostenible. El uso de pr&#x00E1;cticas tradicionales y el an&#x00E1;lisis del patrimonio local en el aula, con el apoyo de las TIC, se ha mostrado efectivo para fomentar el conocimiento del entorno y la identidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32740-ES">Hern&#x00E1;ndez-S&#x00E1;nchez, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32740-ES">Pedrouzo Fari&#x00F1;a &#x0026; Castro-Fern&#x00E1;ndez, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Asimismo, es clave dise&#x00F1;ar curr&#x00ED;culos contextualizados que integren pedagog&#x00ED;as cr&#x00ED;ticas y sensibles al entorno rural, as&#x00ED; como analizar las necesidades formativas del profesorado para fortalecer su resiliencia y permanencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32740-ES">Mu&#x00F1;oz Gaviria, 2020</xref>). La formaci&#x00F3;n universitaria actual se percibe como escasa y deficiente en este &#x00E1;mbito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32740-ES">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>), lo que destaca la urgencia de desarrollar programas de capacitaci&#x00F3;n que aborden las particularidades de la docencia rural y las competencias digitales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32740-ES">Hern&#x00E1;ndez V&#x00E1;squez, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Tambi&#x00E9;n se requiere estudiar pol&#x00ED;ticas p&#x00FA;blicas intersectoriales que articulen educaci&#x00F3;n, sanidad y desarrollo econ&#x00F3;mico para combatir la despoblaci&#x00F3;n. La implementaci&#x00F3;n de medidas y criterios espec&#x00ED;ficos para peque&#x00F1;os municipios y zonas rurales, como el Mecanismo Rural de Garant&#x00ED;a, busca evaluar los efectos territoriales de las pol&#x00ED;ticas p&#x00FA;blicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32740-ES">Ministerio de Hacienda y Funci&#x00F3;n P&#x00FA;blica, 2023</xref>). Adem&#x00E1;s, la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n del sector agrario y el fomento de la innovaci&#x00F3;n son pilares para la sostenibilidad econ&#x00F3;mica en el medio rural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32740-ES">Ministerio de Agricultura, Pesca y Alimentaci&#x00F3;n, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Y, por &#x00FA;ltimo, explorar el potencial de la inteligencia artificial y tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes como herramientas inclusivas y adaptadas a las particularidades del medio rural. Aunque persiste una brecha digital significativa, especialmente en municipios m&#x00E1;s peque&#x00F1;os (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32740-ES">Hern&#x00E1;ndez-S&#x00E1;nchez, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32740-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Gonz&#x00E1;lez &#x0026; Fern&#x00E1;ndez-&#x00C1;lvarez, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>La transformaci&#x00F3;n digital y la educaci&#x00F3;n abierta son vistas como claves para potenciar los logros educativos y atraer poblaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32740-ES">Carrete-Mar&#x00ED;n &#x0026; Domingo-Pe&#x00F1;afiel, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32740-ES">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de su utilidad instrumental, el uso de la IA en la investigaci&#x00F3;n rural exige una vigilancia epistemol&#x00F3;gica cr&#x00ED;tica. Existe el riesgo de una &#x201C;ceguera algor&#x00ED;tmica&#x201D; donde las realidades rurales, hist&#x00F3;ricamente menos digitalizadas, queden invisibilizadas o sesgadas por modelos de lenguaje entrenados predominantemente con corpus urbanoc&#x00E9;ntricos.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32740</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32740</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Education for Rootedness: Identity, Environment and Sustainability in the Face of &#x201C;Emptied Spain&#x201D;</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es">Educaci&#x00F3;n para el arraigo: identidad, entorno y sostenibilidad ante la &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a vaciada&#x201D;</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0925-5731</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez</surname>
<given-names>Luis Manuel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-EN"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9355-3899</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Oronoz</surname>
<given-names>Soraya</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-EN"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Rey Juan Carlos. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Rey Juan Carlos</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-EN"><email>luismanuel.martinez@urjc.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-EN"><email>soraya.oronoz@urjc.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>23</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026382</issue-id>
    <fpage>61</fpage>
    <lpage>78</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>15</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>03</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2026</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>Rural depopulation in Spain poses ecosocial challenges that affect both territorial sustainability and the construction of rural identity. This article examines the potential of education to strengthen rootedness and promote sustainable development in the context of the so-called &#x201C;Empty Spain&#x201D;. Drawing on a critical review of interdisciplinary literature, it analyzes educational approaches such as Place-Based Education, Critical Rural Pedagogies, Education for Sustainable Development, and education sensitive to identity and the environment. The study identifies patterns and tensions in current educational policies and practices, highlighting an urban-centric bias that limits the recognition of rural realities. It also outlines pedagogical proposals that integrate local knowledge, community participation, and meaningful connections with the natural environment. The article argues that contextualized and territory-sensitive education can contribute to revitalizing rural communities, reinforcing the sense of belonging, and supporting transitions toward sustainable futures.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La despoblaci&#x00F3;n de amplias zonas rurales en Espa&#x00F1;a plantea desaf&#x00ED;os ecosociales que afectan tanto a la sostenibilidad territorial como a la construcci&#x00F3;n de la identidad rural. Este art&#x00ED;culo examina el potencial de la educaci&#x00F3;n para fortalecer el arraigo y promover modelos de desarrollo sostenible en la denominada &#x201C;Espa&#x00F1;a Vaciada&#x201D;. A partir de una revisi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de literatura interdisciplinar, se analizan enfoques educativos como la Educaci&#x00F3;n Basada en el Lugar, las Pedagog&#x00ED;as Cr&#x00ED;ticas Rurales, la Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible y la Educaci&#x00F3;n Sensible a la identidad y al entorno. El estudio identifica patrones y tensiones en las pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas actuales, marcadas por un sesgo urbanoc&#x00E9;ntrico que limita la valoraci&#x00F3;n del mundo rural. Asimismo, se destacan propuestas pedag&#x00F3;gicas que integran saberes locales, participaci&#x00F3;n comunitaria y v&#x00ED;nculos significativos con el entorno natural. Se argumenta que una educaci&#x00F3;n contextualizada y sensible al territorio puede contribuir a revitalizar las comunidades rurales, reforzar el sentido de pertenencia y favorecer transiciones hacia futuros sostenibles.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>cultural identity</kwd>
<kwd>rural depopulation</kwd>
<kwd>environmental education</kwd>
<kwd>sustainable development</kwd>
<kwd>education sensitive to identity and environment</kwd>
<kwd>sense of belonging</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>identidad cultural</kwd>
<kwd>despoblaci&#x00F3;n rural</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n ambiental</kwd>
<kwd>desarrollo sostenible</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n sensible a la identidad y al entorno</kwd>
<kwd>sentido de pertenencia</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32740-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></title>
<p>The phenomenon of "Emptied Spain" (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32740-EN">Del Molino, 2016</xref>) describes the abandonment and demographic ageing of large rural areas, with profound socio-economic, cultural and identity implications. This reality not only leads to population loss, but also to the erosion of cultural identities linked to landscapes, knowledge and traditional ways of life.</p>
<p>In this sense, depopulation is considered a complex problem with growing social and media interest, highlighting the importance of strong local sectors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32740-EN">Calatrava Requena, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32740-EN">D&#x00ED;ez-Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>The Spanish rural world is diverse, requiring specific policies that move away from a homogeneous vision (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32740-EN">Moyano Estrada, 2020</xref>). In this context, education faces the challenge of shaping the human identity of young people in these territories, who are often stigmatised or rendered invisible by urban narratives. The problem of rural depopulation is multifaceted and affects several regions in Europe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32740-EN">K&#x00FC;hn, 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>To avoid blurring the lines between descriptive, educational and identity-related aspects, this article makes clear from the outset that its objective is to analyse the role of education in shaping rural identity in contexts of depopulation, with particular attention to roots and a sense of belonging.</p>
<p>Demographic and territorial analysis remains a necessary contextual framework, but it is not the main focus of the study. Similarly, although the implications for rural education policies are addressed, these are understood as derivations of the theoretical analysis and not as the core of the work.</p>
<p>This article is aligned with the theme of the monograph "The natural environment and the formation of human identity", arguing that rural depopulation is intrinsically linked to the relationship of communities with their environment and the perception of this as a space for life and the future. It proposes to explore how education can be a driving force for rebuilding and strengthening a positive, critical and proactive rural identity that recognises the value of the natural environment and promotes sustainable development to revitalise territories. The aim is to analyse educational theories and strategies that foster a deep sense of rootedness and belonging, empowering new generations as agents of change.</p>
<p>To reinforce the theoretical dimension, we understand rootedness and sense of belonging as complex relational processes. These integrate affective, symbolic and social dimensions. They are constructed through continuous interaction with the territory, the community and local cultural practices. This perspective allows the analysis to be situated within a consolidated field of research on the relationship between identity and place and gives greater conceptual density to the categories used in the study.</p>
<p>The relevance of this article lies in its focus on the interconnection between identity, the natural environment and educational responses to the socio-environmental crisis of depopulation. Addressing the "Emptied Spain" from an educational perspective involves rethinking the formation of identity in rural contexts and how these can be spaces for "social and community action for sustainable development".</p>
<p>Likewise, the rural environment offers a unique opportunity for contextual and interdisciplinary learning, promoting sustainability skills (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32740-EN">Silva-Hormaz&#x00E1;bal &#x0026; Alsina, 2023</xref>). Furthermore, rural education must recognise and build on the practices and logic of the communities themselves, understanding itself as a space for co-learning and transformation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32740-EN">G&#x00F3;mez Zuluaga, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>The research offers a theoretical perspective on education in contexts of depopulation, a topic of growing concern in Europe. This contributes to the reflection on the role of rural schools as agents of community development and custodians of local identity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32740-EN">Corch&#x00F3;n, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>This view is reinforced by studies that conceive of schools as a vital space for pedagogical innovation and community revitalisation, with great socio-educational potential (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32740-EN">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>), and where rural and scientific identity can reinforce each other (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32740-EN">Mu&#x00F1;oz Dom&#x00ED;nguez et al., 2022</xref>). The study responds to the need for educational strategies that promote citizen engagement and participation for sustainable rural futures, in line with sustainable development goals.</p>
<p>This implies comprehensive support policies that promote the identity and visibility of rural educational institutions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32740-EN">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>). Methodologies such as design thinking strengthen rural identity and contribute to the SDGs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32740-EN">Prada et al., 2024</xref>), while heritage education and working with the environment also promote rootedness (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32740-EN">Pedrouzo Fari&#x00F1;a &#x0026; Castro-Fern&#x00E1;ndez, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>In order to situate the original contribution of this study with respect to previous reviews on rural schools, depopulation and Education for Sustainable Development, this article offers an innovative contribution in two main ways. First, it articulately integrates the approaches of identity, territory and sustainability from a perspective focused on rootedness and a sense of belonging, elements that are usually treated separately in the literature.</p>
<p>In addition to the above, a pedagogical framework is proposed that combines Sensitive Education, Critical Pedagogies of Place and ESD to explain how rural schools can function as agents of identity and eco-social change, something that has not been formulated jointly in previous reviews. This integration allows us to move towards an educational interpretation of "Empty Spain" that goes beyond traditional demographic diagnoses.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32740-EN">
<label>2.</label>
<title>O<sc>bjectives</sc></title>
<p>This study aims to contribute to the academic debate on how "Education Theory" can respond to the challenges posed by the current eco-social and demographic crisis, particularly in rural contexts. It examines the potential of education to redefine and strengthen rural identity in &#x201C;Empty Spain&#x201D; linking this process to a transformative relationship with the natural environment and the promotion of sustainable development.</p>
<p>The main focus of the study is to understand the contribution of education to rural identity in depopulated areas, especially with regard to roots and a sense of belonging. It also analyses how this identity dimension can inform practices and policies consistent with territorial sustainability.</p>
<p>Sensitive Education is proposed as a conceptual framework that integrates rural identity, education, the natural environment and sustainable development. The aim is to identify key pedagogical principles. These should promote rootedness, community resilience and sustainability in territories affected by depopulation.</p>
<p>To reinforce the theoretical dimension of concepts related to rootedness and sense of belonging, these are understood here as relational processes that articulate emotional, symbolic and social ties with the territory, and which can be strengthened through contextualised educational practices. Within this framework, recommendations are made for educational policy and teaching practice, seeking to transform rural schools into engines of local development and identity (re)construction.</p>
<p>The following specific objectives are set out:</p>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>To critically examine how current educational approaches address (or neglect) rural identity and the phenomenon of depopulation in Europe.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Identify and discuss pedagogical strategies (Place-Based Learning, Service Learning, Recovery of Local Knowledge, Sensitive Education, etc.) that foster a positive rural identity, rootedness and connection with the natural environment.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Propose theoretical principles for education that contributes to the sustainable revitalisation of rural areas, in dialogue with the eco-social crisis and the particularities of "Depopulated Europe".</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Reflect on the implications for education policy and teacher training.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32740-EN" sec-type="methods">
<label>3.</label>
<title>M<sc>ethod</sc></title>
<p>A theoretical study based on review of the scholarship is proposed. Research results and reports from international organisations (EU, UNESCO, OECD), educational policy documents and relevant pedagogical experiences in rural education, environmental education, as well as community development in contexts of depopulation are analysed. Although systematic procedures for searching and selecting sources are used, the study is not conceived as a systematic review in the strict sense. Consequently, screening tables, quantitative counts and PRISMA-type flowcharts are not included, as the aim of the work is interpretative and argumentative.</p>
<p>The analysis seeks to identify patterns, tensions and innovative proposals that can inform a theoretical-practical framework for education in "depopulated Spain".</p>
<p>Artificial Intelligence (Gemini 1.5 Pro, May 2025) was used to search for examples of innovative pedagogical experiences in rural communities, educational policy documents and reports from international organisations, with its application mediated by human beings. The integration of Artificial Intelligence into education and research is a growing trend that can transform teaching-learning processes, offering opportunities for personalisation and efficiency in knowledge management (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32740-EN">Flores-Vivar &#x0026; Garc&#x00ED;a-Pe&#x00F1;alvo, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32740-EN">Maldonado et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32740-EN">Yag&#x00FC;e-Pasam&#x00F3;n, 2023</xref>). This also applies to the organisation and analysis of literature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32740-EN">Carbajal-Degante et al., 2023</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-4-32740-EN">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title>Process of searching for and selecting sources</title>
<p>A search strategy was employed using the academic databases Dialnet (filtered for Psychology and Education) and ERIC (an exclusive database for Education). The search terms that yielded results were: &#x201C;Empty Spain&#x201D; or &#x201C;Depopulated Spain&#x201D;, depopulation, Critical Rural Pedagogies, Rural Service-Learning, Recovery of Local Knowledge, &#x201C;Sensitive Education&#x201D; AND &#x201C;Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez&#x201D;, &#x201C;Place-Based Education&#x201D;/&#x201C;Place- Based Education&#x201D;, &#x201C;Critical Pedagogy of Place&#x201D;, &#x201C;Education for Sustainable Development&#x201D; AND &#x201C;rural&#x201D;/&#x201C;Educaci&#x00F3;n para el Desarrollo Sostenible&#x201D; AND &#x201C;rural&#x201D; and <italic>&#x201C;endogenous development territorial capital</italic>&#x201D;. To compile reports from international organisations, specific and generic searches were carried out using terms such as &#x201C;community development depopulated rural areas&#x201D;.</p>
<p>The initial screening phase involved reviewing titles and abstracts to assess preliminary relevance. Subsequently, a full-text review of the selected articles was conducted to confirm their direct relevance, methodological quality, and contribution to the study objectives. The "snowball" technique (examining the reference lists of highly relevant articles and reports) was used to identify additional relevant sources.</p>
<p>Although the search process was systematic, no selection tables or counts of included or excluded studies are presented, as the purpose of the work is not to quantify the literature but to construct a critical and conceptual analysis.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32740-EN">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title>Inclusion and exclusion criteria for the scientific literature consulted</title>
<p>To ensure the relevance and rigour of the analysis, the following inclusion and exclusion criteria were established for the sources consulted.</p>
<sec id="sec-6-32740-EN">
<label>3.2.1.</label>
<title>Inclusion criteria</title>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Academic research: peer-reviewed articles, academic books, doctoral theses and proceedings from prestigious conferences addressing rural education, rural identity and depopulation were included. Priority was given to a geographical focus on Spain, although studies from other regions offering transferable knowledge were also considered.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Reports from international organisations: official reports, policy documents and strategies from international organisations such as the European Union (EU), UNESCO and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) dealing with rural development, education policies and demographic challenges were included.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Educational policy documents: national and regional policy documents from Spain (laws, decrees, strategies) specifically related to rural education, depopulation and sustainable development initiatives were included.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Relevant pedagogical experiences: empirical studies, case studies and documented innovative pedagogical practices (such as Place-Based Education, Service Learning and the Recovery of Local Knowledge) implemented in rural educational settings were considered.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Language: publications were selected mainly in Spanish and English, given the prevalence of academic literature in these languages.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Publication date: although fundamental and classic texts were included, for example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32740-EN">Freire (1970)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32740-EN">Sobel (2004)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-EN">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero (2007)</xref>, preference was given to publications from the last 5 years in order to capture contemporary challenges, policy developments and innovative practices.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32740-EN">
<label>3.2.2.</label>
<title>Exclusion criteria</title>
<list list-type="bullet">
<list-item><p>Non-academic publications: newspaper articles, opinion pieces, or blog posts without clear academic backing or methodological rigour were excluded, unless they were directly cited as policy documents or examples of relevant public discourse.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Irrelevant studies: research not directly related to education, rural contexts, depopulation or the theoretical frameworks specified in the consultation was discarded.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Undocumented literature: reports or documents that lacked clear authorship, institutional backing or transparent methodology.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Geographical mismatch: studies from geographical contexts very different from Europe without a clear justification for the transferability of their pedagogical models or theoretical knowledge.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Lack of accessibility: information was discarded if the document was not accessible through the resources available at the university.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-32740-EN">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title>Critical analysis approach</title>
<p>Each selected source was evaluated in terms of its methodological rigour, theoretical basis and the strength of its empirical evidence. The analysis sought to identify converging themes, divergent perspectives and tensions within the literature in relation to the challenges and opportunities of rural education. Attention was paid to the underlying assumptions, possible biases, and explicit or implicit policy implications of each source. The findings were synthesised to construct a coherent narrative that directly addressed the specific objectives of the study, highlighting innovative proposals and identifying gaps in current research or policy. This approach confirms the critical-essayistic nature of the study, which combines documentary review and theoretical reflection, and does not seek to conform to the formal standards of a systematic review.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32740-EN">
<label>4.</label>
<title>T<sc>heoretical framework</sc></title>
<p>This work is based on a set of approaches that allow us to understand the relationship between identity, territory and education in rural contexts affected by depopulation. These include Sensitive Education, Place-Based Education, Critical Rural Pedagogies, Education for Sustainable Development, and the approaches of territorial capital and endogenous development. Although these frameworks dialogue with each other, it is necessary to specify their function within the analysis to avoid conceptual overlaps and ensure coherent integration.</p>
<p>Firstly, it is essential to define the meaning of the concept of Sensitive Education, given that in the literature it can be associated with multiple dimensions.</p>
<p>Following <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32740-EN">Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez (2022)</xref>, Sensitive Education is understood here as an approach focused on the recognition of personal identity as "absolute originality", which is expressed in forms of "relative originality" in different areas of life. This perspective emphasises the uniqueness of each individual and the need to respect their integral identity. Therefore, it is not used as a general term for sensitivity to context or sustainability. These dimensions are already addressed in specific frameworks, such as Place-Based Education or Education for Sustainable Development. In this way, we avoid turning the term into a vague meta-concept.</p>
<p>On this basis, Sensitive Education is articulated with approaches that emphasise the relationship between identity, territory and educational experience. Place-Based Education (PBE) highlights the role of the environment as a formative agent and as a space where meanings and identities are constructed. This approach recognises 'place' as an active element in the construction of the self and in the understanding of the world, in line with humanistic geography. This current emphasises how individuals invest spaces with meaning and emotion, transforming them into true 'places' (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32740-EN">Tuan, 1977</xref>). These shared meanings contribute to a collective identity rooted in narratives and practices situated in a specific spatial context (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32740-EN">Casey, 1996</xref>).</p>
<p>We understand rootedness not only as an emotion, but following <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32740-EN">Scannell and Gifford (2010)</xref>, as a tripartite link (person, process, place) that in rural contexts takes on a political dimension of resistance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32740-EN">Lewicka, 2011</xref>). It is not mere nostalgia, but a practice of inhabiting.</p>
<p>In education, PBE promotes contextualised and relevant learning, linking the curriculum to the reality of the physical and social environment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32740-EN">Smith &#x0026; Sobel, 2010</xref>). The study of local ecology, community history or the geography of the territory not only, transmits knowledge, but also strengthens the sense of belonging and civic identity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-EN">Gruenewald, 2003</xref>).</p>
    <p>Critical Rural Pedagogies constitute another fundamental framework for understanding the relationship between education, identity, and territory. Inspired by Freire's critical pedagogy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32740-EN">1970</xref>), these pedagogies question hegemonic narratives about rurality and vindicate the value of local knowledge as a legitimate source of learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32740-EN">Hooks, 1994</xref>). Historically, rural areas have been represented from an urban perspective that can lead to marginalisation and the imposition of external models (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32740-ES">Miano et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Critical Rural Pedagogies seek to empower communities to analyse their situation, identify challenges and design contextualised and sustainable solutions. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-EN">Gruenewald (2003)</xref> extends this perspective to the realm of place. He argues that critical pedagogy allows communities to 'reoccupy' their territory physically and culturally. In this way, they reclaim their agency and capacity for transformation.</p>
<p>Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) adds an eco-social dimension to the theoretical framework, integrating the environmental, social, economic and cultural dimensions of sustainability. ESD seeks to develop skills for understanding complex issues such as climate change, social inequality and unsustainable consumption (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32740-EN">Sterling, 2001</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32740-EN">UNESCO (2017)</xref> considers ESD to be fundamental to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals. Its aim is to empower citizens as agents of change, promoting more just and environmentally conscious societies. This approach promotes transformative learning that challenges conventional models of thinking and encourages new ways of living and relating to the environment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32740-EN">Vare &#x0026; Scott, 2007</xref>).</p>
<p>For its part, the concept of territorial capital and endogenous development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-EN">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero, 2007</xref>) allows us to understand the potential of local resources&#x2014;natural, cultural, and social&#x2014;as the basis for sustainable and rooted development. This approach emphasises that the progress of a territory is nourished by its intrinsic riches: landscapes, biodiversity, cultural heritage, social networks, and knowledge accumulated in the community. Successful endogenous development is characterised by being a bottom-up process, driven by local actors, who are best placed to identify needs and build solutions adapted to their context. This approach integrates economic planning with environmental conservation, cultural revitalisation and the strengthening of the social fabric.</p>
<p>Although this work draws on all these traditions, the backbone of the theoretical framework is the relationship between rural identity and the environment, articulated mainly through Place-Based Education and Critical Place-Based Pedagogies.</p>
<p>The above approaches help us understand how the territory participates in the construction of identity and how education can strengthen community roots and agency. The other frameworks are integrated as complementary perspectives: Education for Sustainable Development contributes the eco-social dimension; territorial capital offers a structural reading of the territory's potential; and Sensitive Education delves into the identity and personal dimension of roots. This hierarchy clarifies the function of each approach and avoids the impression of a mere sum of theoretical frameworks, favouring a coherent integration oriented towards the analysis of the educational phenomenon in "Empty Spain".</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-32740-EN" sec-type="results">
<label>5.</label>
<title>R<sc>esults</sc>: <sc>patterns</sc>, <sc>tensions and innovative proposals</sc></title>
<sec id="sec-11-32740-EN">
<label>5.1.</label>
<title>Descriptive findings from the reviewed literature</title>
<p>The review reveals a marked urban-centric bias in educational curricula. Various reports indicate that official materials prioritise values associated with the urban environment and consumption, relegating rural reality to a marginal role. Textbooks tend to present the rural world as linked to the past, poverty or lack of progress. In contrast, urban environments are systematically associated with success and modernity. This pattern is also reflected in the perception of educational actors: 70.9% of teachers attribute the devaluation of rural life and the to curricular materials, and 80.2% of students consider that schools give greater importance to the urban environment.</p>
<p>In the field of education policy, Spanish legislation recognises the specific nature of rural schools and the need to guarantee equal opportunities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32740-EN">Office of the Head of State, 2020</xref>). However, the historical evolution of these policies shows tensions between the stated objectives and their implementation. In the 1970s, the creation of Rural Grouped Centres (CRA) prioritised efficiency and cost savings. However, this measure led to the closure of single-classroom schools and accelerated rural exodus. Although CRAs have improved over time, the criterion of 'profitability' continues to influence decisions on the maintenance of school units.</p>
<p>The scholarship also identifies persistent structural deficiencies in rural schools: lack of basic facilities (libraries, laboratories, sports facilities, deficiencies in essential services, and difficulties arising from climate and transport). These limitations affect both educational quality and territorial equity.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-32740-EN">
<label>5.2.</label>
<title>Analysis and critical interpretation</title>
<p>The analysis reveals that depopulation transcends demographics; it is also the result of an educational narrative that, by reproducing urban-centric views, generates a disaffection with identity among young people.</p>
<p>Portraying the rural world as a deficient space generates a "self-fulfilling prophecy". If schools convey the message that success lies outside the territory, young people internalise the need to leave. This inevitably reinforces the cycle of depopulation.</p>
<p>The tension between educational policies and their practical application shows that equal opportunities in rural areas remain more of a programmatic than a real objective. The persistence of profitability criteria in educational decision-making contradicts the consideration of rural schools as a backbone of the territory and an agent of community cohesion.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the structural deficiencies identified not only limit access to educational resources but also affect the construction of identity and sense of belonging. The lack of adequate infrastructure and a contextualised curriculum weaken the school's ability to act as a driving force for community roots and sustainable development.</p>
<p>Overall, the results call for a profound transformation of the educational approach. It is necessary to overcome urban-centric curricula and strengthen local knowledge. Only then will the strategic role of rural schools in territorial sustainability be recognised.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-13-32740-EN">
<label>5.3.</label>
<title>Educational implications and guidelines derived from the analysis</title>
<p>Based on the review and critical analysis carried out, several implications for educational theory and practice in rural contexts have been identified. Firstly, the importance of explicitly integrating the identity dimension into the curriculum is highlighted, recognising roots and a sense of belonging as relevant formative components for territorial sustainability.</p>
<p>Secondly, the need to strengthen educational policies that support rural schools as agents of community development is emphasised, ensuring that their role is not limited to specific initiatives.</p>
<p>Finally, it is argued that rural education requires pedagogical frameworks that articulate the relationship between identity, territory and sustainability, enabling students to develop skills to understand, value and transform their environment. These guidelines are not presented as empirical results of the review, but as theoretical proposals derived from the critical interpretation of the analysed corpus.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-14-32740-EN" sec-type="discussion">
<label>6.</label>
<title>D<sc>iscussion</sc></title>
<p>To counteract the challenges and take advantage of the opportunities in rural areas, innovative pedagogical strategies are emerging as fundamental: Place-Based Education (PBE), Service Learning (ApS) and the Recovery of Local Knowledge.</p>
<p>PBE uses the local community and its natural environment as a starting point for curricular learning. Its aim is to strengthen community ties, deepen appreciation for nature, and foster active civic engagement. PBE is inherently multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary, emphasising experiential learning. It promotes participatory actions, incorporating elements of service learning and situated learning, by immersing students in the social and environmental realities of their community. Rural schools, due to their intrinsic connection to their immediate environment, have "great potential for innovation" by integrating the natural environment as a dynamic educational tool.</p>
<p>ApS is a pedagogical approach that intentionally combines learning with meaningful community service. In this model, participants learn by addressing real needs in their local environment, with the explicit goal of improving it. Its benefits are multifaceted, including encouraging volunteerism, training students for community service, promoting values, increasing social visibility, strengthening organisational capacity, and promoting social inclusion. Ultimately, ApS enables students to apply academic knowledge in real- world contexts, develop essential skills, and contribute effectively to solving community problems. This strategy involves actively researching and consulting with community elders (grandparents, parents, leaders) to gather traditional knowledge (games, crafts, music, ancestral practices).</p>
<p>The local knowledge identified is systematically integrated into the formal curriculum, articulated in areas such as mathematics, language, visual arts, and physical education. Learning is reinforced with practical activities and demonstrations, allowing students to experience these traditions. This revaluation of ancestral roots, local culture, and indigenous languages contributes to fostering a strong sense of identity and belonging.</p>
<p>In practical terms, ApS initiatives linked to digitalisation stand out, such as the CRA Lozoyuela project or "Conecta Joven" (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32740-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2010</xref>), which combat the intergenerational digital divide. In the environmental dimension, experiences such as nest building in Valencia or "seed bombs" in Murcia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32740-EN">Entreculturas, 2024</xref>) demonstrate how ecosystem management strengthens territorial ties. Likewise, international projects such as &#x201C;The school adopts a monument&#x201D; in Italy or the design of wind turbines in Argentina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32740-EN">European Commission, 2021</xref>) demonstrate the ability of students to provide technical and heritage solutions to their communities.</p>
<p>The sustainable revitalisation of rural areas in dialogue with the eco-social crisis and the particularities of "Depopulated Europe" requires the articulation of pedagogical principles derived from the integration of the theoretical frameworks discussed above.</p>
<p>These principles seek to transform education into an engine of change, fostering rootedness, community resilience and sustainability.</p>
<p>Education should focus on developing each person's "unique originality". This involves cultivating a deep sensitivity towards one's own being and towards the "mature us" Extrapolating this principle, sensitive education in rural contexts would foster an intrinsic and respectful connection with the natural environment and the community. If internal sensitivity is cultivated, it is expected to translate into greater environmental stewardship and community responsibility. This means that education should help individuals recognise their unique value in the rural context and develop a "mature love" that extends to their physical and social environment, promoting a relationship of care and appreciation for the place they inhabit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32740-EN">Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>The integration of Sensitive Education with theories of place (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32740-EN">Sobel, 2004</xref>), critical pedagogies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32740-EN">Freire, 1970</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-EN">Gruenewald, 2003</xref>), ESD (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32740-EN">UNESCO, 2017</xref>) and territorial capital (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-EN">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero, 2007</xref>) underpins our proposal. We maintain that transformative education in "Empty Spain" must be deeply rooted in place and critically aware of injustices. It must also be sensitive to personal and collective identity, actively oriented towards sustainability and endogenous development. This implies a fundamental paradigm shift: moving from a model that neglects rural areas to one that values them, empowers them and turns them into a laboratory for the future.</p>
<p>The operational application of these principles requires articulating educational policies and practices with the theoretical frameworks that underpin rural revitalisation. First, curriculum review should not be a mere adjustment of content, but a practice of "reinhabitation" (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32740-EN">Gruenewald, 2003</xref>). This involves designing situated curricula that legitimise local knowledge and the natural environment as valuable objects of knowledge, counteracting the deficit narrative and allowing students to reconstruct a positive rural identity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32740-EN">Navarro &#x0026; Romero, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>At the structural level, funding and resource allocation measures must be interpreted from the logic of territorial capital (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32740-EN">V&#x00E1;zquez Barquero, 2007</xref>). Investing in rural schools&#x2014;including improving infrastructure, transport, and digital connectivity&#x2014;is not a sunk cost, but rather an endogenous development strategy that activates the latent potential of the territory. Ensuring equitable services and connected centres (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32740-EN">Mart&#x00ED;nez G&#x00F3;mez, 2024</xref>) is a <italic>sine qua non</italic> condition for retaining population and attracting talent, overcoming the mercantilist view of short-term school profitability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32740-EN">Corch&#x00F3;n, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Finally, teacher training must transcend technical training to embrace the principles of Sensitive Education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32740-EN">Mart&#x00ED;nez-Dom&#x00ED;nguez, 2022</xref>). Teachers must be able to recognise the "absolute originality" of each rural student, avoiding stigmatising projections. Training programmes must include specific skills in rural pedagogy and multigrade teaching (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32740-EN">Mu&#x00F1;oz Dom&#x00ED;nguez et al., 2022</xref>), as well as tools to foster the "mature love" for the environment proposed by ESD, consolidating communities of practice that break professional isolation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32740-EN">D&#x00ED;ez-Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2025</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-15-32740-EN" sec-type="conclusions">
<label>7.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusions</sc></title>
<p>This study reveals that "Empty Spain" is not merely a demographic problem, but rather the manifestation of an interconnected eco-social and territorial crisis. In this crisis, economic and social disinvestment, coupled with environmental vulnerability, is driving population decline.</p>
<p>In this context, education emerges as a crucial element, not only as a basic service, but as a "backbone" and a potential driver for identity (re)construction and sustainable development.</p>
<p>A key finding is the tension between current education policies and curricula, which often have an urban-centric bias, devaluing rural life and encouraging the migration of young people. This curricular narrative, perceived by teachers and students, contributes to a "resignation" in expectations for the future in rural areas.</p>
<p>Despite legislative intentions to guarantee equal opportunities, policies such as the creation of Rural Grouped Centres (CRA) have had mixed effects. The criterion of 'profitability' continues to threaten the existence of rural schools, which contradicts their social value.</p>
<p>However, research has also revealed a paradox: many of the characteristics perceived as challenges in rural education (low ratios, multigrade classrooms, proximity to nature, community cohesion) are, in fact, unique pedagogical opportunities. Strategies such as Place-Based Education (PBE), Service Learning (ApS) and the Recovery of Local Knowledge demonstrate enormous potential for fostering roots, positive rural identity and a transformative connection with the natural environment. By integrating learning with the local reality and community action, these pedagogies enable students to apply their knowledge in real contexts and revalue their cultural heritage.</p>
<p>The integration of Sensitive Education, Theories of Identity and Place, Critical Rural Pedagogies, Education for Sustainable Development, and Territorial Capital and Endogenous Development has made it possible to propose theoretical principles for transformative education. These principles advocate for an education that cultivates personal originality and coexistence with the environment, contextualises the curriculum in the place, fosters critical awareness and 'reinhabitation', develops skills for sustainability, and enhances territorial capital and local agency.</p>
<p>Future lines of research in rural pedagogy could focus on evaluating the long-term impact of methodologies such as Service-Learning (ApS) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32740-EN">Novales Ordax et al., 2023</xref>), Place-Based Pedagogy (PBE) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32740-EN">Garc&#x00ED;a, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32740-EN">Higgins, 2021</xref>) and the Recovery of Local Knowledge in youth engagement and sustainable development. The use of traditional practices and the analysis of local heritage in the classroom, with the support of ICT, has proven effective in promoting knowledge of the environment and identity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32740-EN">Hern&#x00E1;ndez-S&#x00E1;nchez, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32740-EN">Pedrouzo Fari&#x00F1;a &#x0026; Castro-Fern&#x00E1;ndez, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>It is also essential to design contextualised curricula that integrate critical and rural- sensitive pedagogies, as well as to analyse the training needs of teachers in order to strengthen their resilience and permanence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32740-EN">Mu&#x00F1;oz Gaviria, 2020</xref>). Current university training is perceived as scarce and deficient in this area (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32740-EN">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal- Romero, 2025</xref>), highlighting the urgency of developing training programmes that address the particularities of rural teaching and digital skills (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32740-EN">Hern&#x00E1;ndez V&#x00E1;squez, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>It is also necessary to study intersectoral public policies that link education, health and economic development to combat depopulation. The implementation of specific measures and criteria for small municipalities and rural areas, such as the Rural Guarantee Mechanism, seeks to evaluate the territorial effects of public policies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32740-EN">Ministry of Finance and Public Service, 2023</xref>). In addition, the digitisation of the agricultural sector and the promotion of innovation are pillars of economic sustainability in rural areas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32740-EN">Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Finally, exploring the potential of artificial intelligence and emerging technologies as inclusive tools adapted to the particularities of the rural environment. However, a significant digital divide persists, especially in smaller municipalities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32740-EN">Hern&#x00E1;ndez-S&#x00E1;nchez, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32740-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Gonz&#x00E1;lez &#x0026; Fern&#x00E1;ndez-&#x00C1;lvarez, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Digital transformation and open education are seen as key to enhancing educational achievements and attracting population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32740-EN">Carrete-Mar&#x00ED;n &#x0026; Domingo-Pe&#x00F1;afiel, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32740-EN">Moraleda-Ruano &#x0026; Bernal-Romero, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>Beyond its instrumental usefulness, the use of AI in rural research requires critical epistemological vigilance. There is a risk of "algorithmic blindness" where rural realities, historically less digitised, are rendered invisible or biased by language models trained predominantly with urban-centric corpora.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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