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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31480</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31480</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
    <article-title>Las desigualdades del alumnado extranjero en la educación obligatoria española. Una visión crítica desde la teoría del cuidado </article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>The Inequalities Facing Foreign Students in Spanish Compulsory Education. A Critical View from the Theory of Care</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8984-583X</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>ESC&#x00C1;MEZ MARSILLA</surname>
<given-names>Juan Isidro</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_Esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_Esp"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_Esp">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia &#x201C;San Vicente M&#x00E1;rtir&#x201D;. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia &#x201C;San Vicente M&#x00E1;rtir&#x201D;</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_Esp"><email>ji.escamez@ucv.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
    <day>01</day>
    <month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2024361</issue-id>
<fpage>137</fpage>
<lpage>156</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>21</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>18</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>

<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
    <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo describe las desigualdades educativas entre el alumnado extranjero y nativo en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola: en el aprendizaje de competencias, repetici&#x00F3;n de curso y abandono escolar temprano. Esas desigualdades producen exclusi&#x00F3;n social. La tesis fundamental argumenta la incoherencia entre los medios insuficientes para los procesos de aprendizaje del alumnado extranjero, los inadecuados instrumentos de su evaluaci&#x00F3;n y la sanci&#x00F3;n de exclusi&#x00F3;n social que padece. La incoherencia se produce por la vigencia del liberalismo y neoliberalismo en el sistema educativo. Se propone la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado como alternativa para comprender la ra&#x00ED;z del problema y proponer orientaciones para su soluci&#x00F3;n. La introducci&#x00F3;n argumenta la importancia del problema, los antecedentes de la literatura de la investigaci&#x00F3;n que lo plantea y la pertinencia de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado para su comprensi&#x00F3;n. La metodolog&#x00ED;a describe los criterios para la selecci&#x00F3;n de las fuentes bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas, internacionales y nacionales, y argumenta la validez del m&#x00E9;todo hermen&#x00E9;utico para la interpretaci&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado. Los resultados confirman la brecha educativa en competencias cognitivas (matem&#x00E1;ticas, cient&#x00ED;ficas y lectoras), en repeticiones de curso y en abandono escolar temprano. La discusi&#x00F3;n de los resultados se hace desde dos perspectivas: se confrontan con los resultados de investigaciones actuales sobre el problema en Espa&#x00F1;a; y se hace una cr&#x00ED;tica a los mismos desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado. Las conclusiones hacen referencia a las preguntas formuladas en los objetivos sobre las desigualdades educativas y su incidencia en la exclusi&#x00F3;n social; y a la propuesta de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado como alternativa a las propuestas del aprendizaje y evaluaci&#x00F3;n desde las teor&#x00ED;as liberales y neoliberales.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>This article describes the educational inequalities between foreign and native students in Spanish compulsory education in learning competences, repeating years and early school leaving. These inequalities lead to social exclusion. The basic thesis of this article is that the social exclusion that foreign students suffer from contrasts with the insufficiency of the means provided for their learning processes and the inadequate assessment tools. This disconnection is the result of the predominance of liberalism and neo-liberalism in the education system. The theory of care is proposed as an alternative for understanding the root of the problem and proposing guidelines for solving it. The introduction sets out why this issue is important, the precursors in the research literature that considers it and the relevance of the theory of care for understanding it. The methodology describes the criteria for selecting international and national bibliographical sources and argues that the hermeneutic method is valid for the ethical and political interpretation of the theory of care. The results confirm the educational gap in cognitive skills (mathematics, science and reading), repeating years and early school leaving. We discuss the results from two perspectives: we compare the results with the results of current research on the problem in Spain, and we critique them from the theory of care. The conclusions refer to the questions formulated in the objectives regarding educational inequalities and their effect on social exclusion, and to the proposal of the theory of care as an alternative to the proposals of learning and evaluation from liberal and neo-liberal theories.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabas clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>&#x00E9;tica</kwd>
<kwd>cuidado</kwd>
<kwd>integraci&#x00F3;n social</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>fracaso escolar</kwd>
<kwd>alumno extranjero</kwd>
<kwd>hermen&#x00E9;utica</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>ethics</kwd>
<kwd>child care</kwd>
<kwd>social integration</kwd>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>school failure</kwd>
<kwd>foreign students</kwd>
<kwd>hermeneutics</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31480_Esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>En Espa&#x00F1;a, toda persona que habita su territorio, nativa o extranjera, con documentaci&#x00F3;n o sin ella, tiene derecho legalmente reconocido a la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria. Se entiende por alumnado extranjero aquel que no tiene la nacionalidad espa&#x00F1;ola. Debido a la alternancia de los partidos pol&#x00ED;ticos en los gobiernos durante los &#x00FA;ltimos 53 a&#x00F1;os (desde 1970) y a otras circunstancias, se han promulgado 9 Leyes Org&#x00E1;nicas de Educaci&#x00F3;n no universitaria; tal cantidad de leyes no ha beneficiado el buen funcionamiento del sistema educativo. No se ha conseguido el deseable <italic>acuerdo por la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic>. A pesar de ello, se han mantenido los ciclos formativos b&#x00E1;sicos establecidos por la <italic>Ley Org&#x00E1;nica de Ordenaci&#x00F3;n General del Sistema Educativo</italic> <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31480_Esp">(LOGSE) de 1990</xref>: Educaci&#x00F3;n Infantil de 0 a 5 a&#x00F1;os, Educaci&#x00F3;n Primaria de 6 a 11 a&#x00F1;os y Educaci&#x00F3;n Secundaria Obligatoria (ESO) de 12 a 16 a&#x00F1;os.</p>
<p>El derecho a esa Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria significa que &#x00BF;Espa&#x00F1;a es un pa&#x00ED;s de acogida con est&#x00E1;ndares altos de inclusi&#x00F3;n social? La <italic>acogida</italic> del alumnado extranjero implica el reconocimiento del derecho a su educaci&#x00F3;n, a sus creencias y modos de vida; exige pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas que atiendan la complejidad de las situaciones y la diversidad de identidades culturales. A su vez, la <italic>inclusi&#x00F3;n</italic> requiere la superaci&#x00F3;n de las desigualdades educativas. Contestando a la pregunta: &#x00BF;Espa&#x00F1;a es un pa&#x00ED;s de acogida con est&#x00E1;ndares altos de inclusi&#x00F3;n social? Creemos que no, de acuerdo con los resultados del estudio que aqu&#x00ED; se expone.</p>
<p>En el art&#x00ED;culo describe las desigualdades educativas entre alumnado nativo y extranjero en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria. La elecci&#x00F3;n de este problema se debe a tres razones fundamentales: 1) la primera de ellas porque la educaci&#x00F3;n y la salud son considerados por los expertos como los dos indicadores m&#x00E1;s fiables del desarrollo de las sociedades y de los individuos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31480_Esp">Piketty, 2021</xref>); 2) la segunda porque el sistema educativo es percibido como la agencia m&#x00E1;s importante tanto del aprendizaje de competencias para la socializaci&#x00F3;n de los individuos como para su incorporaci&#x00F3;n al sistema productivo de una sociedad concreta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31480_Esp">Piketty, 2021</xref>); 3) la tercera raz&#x00F3;n porque la actuaci&#x00F3;n temprana en la Ense&#x00F1;anza Obligatoria (Infantil, Primaria y Secundaria Obligatoria) es fundamental para reducir las desigualdades sociales.</p>
<p>Las cl&#x00E1;sicas investigaciones del premio Nobel de econom&#x00ED;a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31480_Esp">Heckman (2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31480_Esp">2008</xref>) ofrecen tres conclusiones importantes: 1) invertir en ni&#x00F1;os y adolescentes menos aventajados es una pol&#x00ED;tica p&#x00FA;blica rara, pero promueve la justicia social y la producci&#x00F3;n en la econom&#x00ED;a y en la sociedad a largo plazo; 2) hay una sobreinversi&#x00F3;n en los niveles superiores de formaci&#x00F3;n y una subinversi&#x00F3;n en edades tempranas; 3) la Educaci&#x00F3;n B&#x00E1;sica tiene una mayor tasa de retorno social del capital invertido en ella en comparaci&#x00F3;n con el retorno del capital invertido en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Superior. Conclusiones que no suelen ser aceptadas por las sociedades de econom&#x00ED;a neoliberal y tampoco por muchos responsables acad&#x00E9;micos y dise&#x00F1;adores de las pol&#x00ED;ticas p&#x00FA;blicas de la educaci&#x00F3;n que siguen aferrados al mito de la meritocracia.</p>
<p>En el caso de Espa&#x00F1;a, la reciente revisi&#x00F3;n de la literatura de la investigaci&#x00F3;n en los niveles preuniversitarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31480_Esp">Turienzo y Manso, 2022</xref>) evidencia que las desigualdades educativas se est&#x00E1;n produciendo tambi&#x00E9;n en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria como un exponente claro de la falta de justicia social. La igualdad educativa ha sido proclamada como un derecho, a partir de la <italic>Declaraci&#x00F3;n Universal de los Derechos Humanos</italic> de 1948, y nunca llevada a la pr&#x00E1;ctica. El problema fundamental es la existencia de un abismo entre el discurso oficial sobre la igualdad de oportunidades promovida por la educaci&#x00F3;n y la realidad de las desigualdades educativas a las que se enfrentan las clases desfavorecidas.</p>
<p>&#x00BF;Por qu&#x00E9; se analizan las desigualdades entre alumnado nativo y extranjero en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria? Las familias de origen extranjero, en la mayor&#x00ED;a de los casos, tienen una situaci&#x00F3;n sociodemogr&#x00E1;fica d&#x00E9;bil. A la circunstancia de su mala situaci&#x00F3;n econ&#x00F3;mica, se a&#x00F1;ade su condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a. Desde la perspectiva del &#x00E9;xito escolar, en una sociedad justa, no se trata &#x00FA;nicamente de que todo el alumnado est&#x00E9; debidamente escolarizado. Hay que atender a c&#x00F3;mo de real es la igualdad de oportunidades. La peor segregaci&#x00F3;n social, o no inclusi&#x00F3;n social, es la que se oculta tras resultados acad&#x00E9;micos insuficientes, sesgados por la procedencia cultural y socioecon&#x00F3;mica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31480_Esp">Prieto, 2022</xref>). Es necesario abordar, de una vez, el verdadero problema al que se enfrenta la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera que cursa Ense&#x00F1;anza Obligatoria: la incoherencia entre las declaraciones pol&#x00ED;ticas, plasmadas en las leyes educativas, y la falta de recursos econ&#x00F3;micos y de formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado para las aplicaciones efectivas de tales leyes.</p>
<p>La condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a del alumnado no es un asunto menor. Como han argumentado los Nobel en econom&#x00ED;a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31480_Esp">Banerjee y Duflo (2019)</xref>, la inmigraci&#x00F3;n es una cuesti&#x00F3;n tan importante como para condicionar la pol&#x00ED;tica en general y la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa en especial; y, sobre todo, produce un clima social de prejuicios en amplios sectores de la poblaci&#x00F3;n de acogida y en una parte sustancial del profesorado. Las sinrazones (o prejuicios) son m&#x00FA;ltiples; entre ellos, que los niveles educativos de los extranjeros son inferiores a los de los nativos para promover el aprendizaje de competencias y para contribuir al desarrollo econ&#x00F3;mico del pa&#x00ED;s de acogida.</p>
<p>Para el problema que nos ocupa, consideramos como antecedentes inmediatos del presente trabajo: 1) los resultados del Informe, del proyecto emprendido por la <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31480_Esp">European Commission (2011)</xref> <italic>Reducing Early School Leving in the EU (RESL. eu),</italic> presentado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31480_Esp">Szalai (2013-2018</xref>); 2) el Informe de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31480_Esp">Carrasco, Pami&#x00E9;s y Narciso (2018)</xref> sobre la brecha educativa del alumnado de Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria debido a su origen extranjero, que responde a los datos de la investigaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica en Catalu&#x00F1;a del proyecto europeo anterior; 3) el Informe PISA 2018 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Esp">OCDE, 2019a</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31480_Esp">b</xref>) en lo que se refiere a las desigualdades educativas del alumnado extranjero en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola; 4) el Informe de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31480_Esp">Prieto-Mendaza (2022)</xref> sobre la integraci&#x00F3;n del alumnado de origen migrante (realidades, resultados y carencias del sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol); 5) el Informe de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Esp">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado y Medina-Moral (2022)</xref> sobre la integraci&#x00F3;n del alumnado extranjero de Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria en el sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol; 6) el Informe de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31480_Esp">Caraba&#x00F1;a (2023)</xref> sobre el peso de la segregaci&#x00F3;n social entre centros y sus implicaciones para las desigualdades educativas del alumnado extranjero; y 7) los &#x00FA;ltimos datos publicados por el <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31480_Esp">INE (2023a</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31480_Esp">b</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31480_Esp">Eurostat (2023)</xref> y Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional del Gobierno de Espa&#x00F1;a. Tales Informes han sido publicados en los &#x00FA;ltimos 5 a&#x00F1;os.</p>
<p>&#x00BF;Por qu&#x00E9; criticamos los resultados sobre las desigualdades educativas del alumnado extranjero desde la perspectiva de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado? Porque los vigentes modelos de aprendizaje escolar y su evaluaci&#x00F3;n responden a planteamientos del pensamiento liberal, en el mejor de los casos, y mayoritariamente a planteamientos neoliberales de cariz economicista, que son insuficientes para comprender la ra&#x00ED;z de las desigualdades educativas e inadecuados para su evaluaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, la actual Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado presenta dos l&#x00ED;neas prometedoras para la educaci&#x00F3;n: la &#x00E9;tica y la pol&#x00ED;tica. La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado ha alcanzado un vigor considerable con el surgimiento actual de las &#x00E9;ticas aplicadas. Es una &#x00E9;tica de casos, en la que cada individuo o grupo social tiene sus propias necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas, y demanda el deber de facilitar las oportunidades para satisfacerlas. La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado transciende la &#x00E9;tica de la justicia y la complementa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31480_Esp">Pau, 2020</xref>). La &#x00E9;tica de la justicia se basa en tratar igual a todos los individuos, mientras que la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado propugna lo opuesto: el trato no igualitario de todos ellos. El motivo es que partan de dos principios &#x00E9;ticos diferentes se debe a que el primero es un principio universal, objetivo y abstracto, ya que se enuncia respecto a todos los individuos en general; y el segundo es un principio particular, subjetivo y concreto, debido que se refiere a cada ser humano o grupo social en sus necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas. No existen motivos para enfrentar la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado y la &#x00E9;tica de la justicia: el cuidado debe tenerse en cuenta si se quiere lograr justicia. El cuidado es un valor m&#x00E1;s b&#x00E1;sico que la justicia en el sentido de que obliga a aplicar las pol&#x00ED;ticas de justicia de otra forma y, en consecuencia, las hace m&#x00E1;s justas.</p>
<p>Como el alumnado extranjero tiene circunstancias y necesidades muy especiales, la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado pone el foco en ellas e interpela tanto a los responsables de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas como al profesorado y a las familias para lograr su inclusi&#x00F3;n social:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>La escuela cada vez cumple menos la funci&#x00F3;n de ascensor social que se le adjudica porque no compensa las insuficiencias econ&#x00F3;micas y culturales de los alumnos m&#x00E1;s desfavorecidos. Todos los estudios realizados al respecto coinciden en constatar que el fracaso escolar se ceba sobre todo en los alumnos procedentes de la inmigraci&#x00F3;n y, en general, en las clases desfavorecidas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31480_Esp">Camps, 2021</xref>, p. 60).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La diversidad de las necesidades del alumnado extranjero debido a su cultura de procedencia; las dificultades que entra&#x00F1;a, con frecuencia, la incorporaci&#x00F3;n tard&#x00ED;a a un curr&#x00ED;culo escolar diferente al que cursaba en su pa&#x00ED;s de origen; el desconocimiento, a veces, de la lengua vehicular en la que se desarrolla el curr&#x00ED;culo en todo el Estado espa&#x00F1;ol o en sus Comunidades Aut&#x00F3;nomas, adem&#x00E1;s de otras circunstancias como los entornos sociales entre la escuela y la familia en los que el alumnado interact&#x00FA;a, exige una atenci&#x00F3;n sol&#x00ED;cita a sus peculiaridades y diferencias tanto culturales como personales. Por ello, los modelos educativos de la pol&#x00ED;tica liberal basados en la Teor&#x00ED;a de la Justicia deben ser revisados y complementados con otros modelos educativos alternativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31480_Esp">M&#x00ED;nguez y Linares, 2022</xref>) y los modelos neoliberales deben ser rechazados.</p>
<p>La complejidad de las situaciones que afectan al alumnado extranjero lo hace especialmente vulnerable. Y la soluci&#x00F3;n a los problemas de las personas vulnerables tambi&#x00E9;n tiene que ser pol&#x00ED;tica: &#x201C;Es una equivocaci&#x00F3;n mantener que solo la justicia ocupa el &#x00E1;mbito de lo p&#x00FA;blico mientras el cuidado sigue estando en el &#x00E1;mbito privado. El cuidado es un deber universal, debe ser accesible a cuantos lo solicitan justamente&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31480_Esp">Camps, 2021</xref>, p. 76). La respuesta a las necesidades de los m&#x00E1;s vulnerables no puede dejarse s&#x00F3;lo a merced de personas individuales sensibles. Tambi&#x00E9;n son necesarios los esfuerzos de los responsables pol&#x00ED;ticos y de los l&#x00ED;deres de la sociedad civil. La respuesta obligada a esos problemas es un imperativo ineludible que debe implicar a todos: desde el simple ciudadano hasta las organizaciones sociales de todo tipo, a las administraciones p&#x00FA;blicas, a los gobiernos y a las instituciones internacionales. El cuidado debe considerarse como un principio &#x00E9;tico normativo que debe regular todas las acciones humanas tanto individuales como organizacionales.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31480_Esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>O<sc>bjetivos</sc></bold></title>
<p>Como primer objetivo se describen las desigualdades educativas entre alumnado nativo y extranjero en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola, referidas a la adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias cognitivas, repeticiones de curso y abandono escolar temprano, seg&#x00FA;n los Informes internacionales y nacionales m&#x00E1;s recientes. Tales desigualdades educativas generan exclusi&#x00F3;n social.</p>
<p>Como segundo objetivo se critica la insuficiencia de los medios para el aprendizaje escolar del alumnado extranjero y los instrumentos de su evaluaci&#x00F3;n desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado. La mencionada Teor&#x00ED;a se propone como diferente y complementaria a la Teor&#x00ED;a de la Justicia del liberalismo y opuesta a la concepci&#x00F3;n educativa del neoliberalismo econ&#x00F3;mico que, en la actualidad, impera en las concepciones del aprendizaje escolar y sus evaluaciones. Desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado se proponen orientaciones pol&#x00ED;ticas, &#x00E9;ticas y pedag&#x00F3;gicas en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria para la inclusi&#x00F3;n social de la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31480_Esp" sec-type="methods">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>M<sc>etodolog&#x00ED;a</sc></bold></title>
<p>Este trabajo describe las desigualdades educativas entre el alumnado extranjero y nativo en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola. El problema se centra en Espa&#x00F1;a. Para ello se realiz&#x00F3; una revisi&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica de art&#x00ED;culos cient&#x00ED;ficos, de fuentes primarias oficiales y de fuentes secundarias. En relaci&#x00F3;n con los informes, estos nos sirven como antecedentes del presente art&#x00ED;culo. Los datos son de fuentes oficiales como el Instituto Nacional de Estad&#x00ED;stica, el Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, la Encuesta de Poblaci&#x00F3;n Activa, <italic>Eurostat</italic> o los Informes PISA. Adem&#x00E1;s, se han tenido en cuenta los Informes elaborados por especialistas (fuentes secundarias) a partir de esos datos. Estos cumplen los criterios siguientes: 1) est&#x00E1;n referidos a aspectos de las desigualdades educativas en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola o de alg&#x00FA;n pa&#x00ED;s de la UE; 2) han sido publicados en los 5 &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os; y 3) su metodolog&#x00ED;a es emp&#x00ED;rica o de revisi&#x00F3;n. Los resultados que se describen se refieren a la totalidad del Estado espa&#x00F1;ol; no est&#x00E1;n desagregados por Comunidades Aut&#x00F3;nomas ni por g&#x00E9;nero.</p>
<p>Para la correcta elaboraci&#x00F3;n de la revisi&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica, se han seguido las indicaciones establecidas en la declaraci&#x00F3;n PRISMA (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31480_Esp">Page <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). Se inicia la b&#x00FA;squeda el 20 de enero del 2023, en febrero se realiza el proceso de cribado y selecci&#x00F3;n y, en marzo, se procede al an&#x00E1;lisis de los datos. Se utilizaron las bases de datos <italic>WoS</italic> y <italic>Scopus</italic>, con las siguientes f&#x00F3;rmulas y t&#x00E9;rminos de b&#x00FA;squeda: Migrants* AND Outcomes* AND Spain* OR Migrants* AND Early school leaving * AND Spain*. Se observ&#x00F3; que incluir otros t&#x00E9;rminos en la f&#x00F3;rmula de b&#x00FA;squeda como &#x201C;Foreigners&#x201D;, &#x201C;Inequalities&#x201D; o &#x201C;Academic results&#x201D; no aumentaba el n&#x00FA;mero de los art&#x00ED;culos en el resultado de b&#x00FA;squeda.</p>
    <p>Se utilizaron filtros para la edad de la muestra y para los idiomas (ingl&#x00E9;s y espa&#x00F1;ol). Los art&#x00ED;culos se registraron en Microsoft Excel&#x00AE;, eliminando art&#x00ED;culos duplicados y seleccionando aquellos de inter&#x00E9;s seg&#x00FA;n los criterios recogidos en las <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-31480_Esp">Tablas 1</xref> y <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-2-31480_Esp">2</xref>. Los criterios para la selecci&#x00F3;n responden a los objetivos planteados a los que se trata de dar respuesta en el estudio. En la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-31480_Esp">Figura 1</xref> se muestra el proceso seguido para la selecci&#x00F3;n de los art&#x00ED;culos que incluyen esta revisi&#x00F3;n. De los 14 art&#x00ED;culos seleccionados, 5 fueron identificados en <italic>Scopus</italic> y 9 en <italic>WoS</italic>.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-31480_Esp">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 1.</label>
<caption><title>C<sc>riterios de inclusi&#x00F3;n</sc> /<sc>exclusi&#x00F3;n</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-31480_Esp" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="20%"/>
<col width="40%"/>
<col width="40%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Criterios de inclusi&#x00F3;n</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Criterios de exclusi&#x00F3;n</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Tipo de art&#x00ED;culo</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Trabajos emp&#x00ED;ricos o te&#x00F3;ricos fundamentados en fuentes primarias oficiales e informes nacionales o internacionales.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Trabajos te&#x00F3;ricos o de revisi&#x00F3;n que no incluyen la valoraci&#x00F3;n de desigualdades educativas entre migrantes y poblaci&#x00F3;n local.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Publicaci&#x00F3;n</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x2265; 5 a&#x00F1;os.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>&#x003E;</bold> 5 a&#x00F1;os.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="4"><p><bold>Muestra</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Tama&#x00F1;o de la muestra &#x2265;1 50.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Tama&#x00F1;o de la muestra &#x003C; 150.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Incluye subgrupos de migrantes.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>No incluye subgrupo de migrantes.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Incluyen aspectos relacionados con desigualdades educativas en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>No est&#x00E1;n referidos a las desigualdades educativas en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Informes espa&#x00F1;oles o europeos.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Informes fuera de Europa.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Idioma</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Ingl&#x00E9;s o castellano.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Otros idiomas.</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tabw-2-31480_Esp">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 2.</label>
<caption><title>S<sc>&#x00ED;ntesis de resultados</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-2-31480_Esp" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="70%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Estudio</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Resultados</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31480_Esp">Ferrara (2022)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Desventajas en educaci&#x00F3;n secundaria superior y condici&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tnica.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31480_Esp">Labussi&#x00E8;re <italic>et al.</italic> (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>La infancia considerada como extranjera y oportunidades educativas.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31480_Esp">Cucal&#x00F3;n-Tirado y Olmo-Pintado (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Dilemas y tensiones del profesorado en la ense&#x00F1;anza del alumnado extranjero.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31480_Esp">Gries <italic>et al.</italic> (2022)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Retos y barreras en los logros educativos comparando nativos con los inmigrantes.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31480_Esp">Grana (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Las narrativas familiares e institucionales sobre las barreras de acceso a la escuela del alumnado extranjero y sus familias.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31480_Esp">Cebolla-Boado <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Papel de la educaci&#x00F3;n para explicar las diferencias ante el riesgo de desempleo de la poblaci&#x00F3;n migrante y nativa.</p>
<p>Desigualdades en resultados acad&#x00E9;micos y promoci&#x00F3;n educativa entre etapas del alumnado extranjero comparado con el nativo.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Esp">Onses-Segarra y Estalayo-Bielsa (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>La necesidad de mejorar las pol&#x00ED;ticas de integraci&#x00F3;n de los ni&#x00F1;os extranjeros para evitar la exclusi&#x00F3;n social.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31480_Esp">Domingo y Bayona i Carrasco (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Las diferencias en el alumnado son notablemente visibles en los colectivos cuyo acceso es m&#x00E1;s f&#x00E1;cil a la nacionalidad.</p>
<p>En un contexto de desigual distribuci&#x00F3;n territorial de estos colectivos en la ciudad, introducen impactos diferentes seg&#x00FA;n el barrio.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31480_Esp">Volante <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Punto de partida &#x00FA;til para formular pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas que enfrentan el desaf&#x00ED;o de mejorar los resultados acad&#x00E9;micos de las poblaciones de estudiantes inmigrantes dentro de su pa&#x00ED;s.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31480_Esp">Essomba-Gelabert <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Propuestas para una pol&#x00ED;tica intercultural.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31480_Esp">Ambrosetti <italic>et al.</italic> (2023)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>El bienestar en la escuela es mucho m&#x00E1;s importante para los logros de los alumnos inmigrantes, en comparaci&#x00F3;n con sus compa&#x00F1;eros nativos, especialmente en el primer ciclo de secundaria.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31480_Esp">Intxausti-Intxausti <italic>et al.</italic> (2022)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>La brecha en los resultados acad&#x00E9;micos del alumnado extranjero y nativo cuando existe en el centro un alto nivel de inmigrantes</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31480_Esp">Francia <italic>et al.</italic> (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Necesidad de prestar atenci&#x00F3;n a la integraci&#x00F3;n de la CDN en la promulgaci&#x00F3;n de los objetivos y metas de la Agenda 2030 para evitar un an&#x00E1;lisis simplista y limitado de la sostenibilidad.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31480_Esp">Koehler y Schneider (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Introducci&#x00F3;n al contexto: los refugiados en los sistemas educativos de los pa&#x00ED;ses de la UE</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<fig id="fig-1-31480_Esp">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>D<sc>iagrama de flujo a partir de indicaciones de prisma</sc> 2020</title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-31480_Esp.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: Elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia seg&#x00FA;n las bases de datos consultadas</attrib>
</fig>
<p>Nos ha sorprendido que, en la revisi&#x00F3;n, las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas no abordan directamente la pr&#x00E1;ctica del cuidado como soluci&#x00F3;n de las desigualdades educativas del alumnado extranjero. La mayor&#x00ED;a de ellos tratan cuestiones que se clasifican en 3 categor&#x00ED;as de an&#x00E1;lisis: 1) el cuidado en el sistema educativo, especialmente referido a la formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado; 2) sociedad, cuidado y justicia social; y 3) el cuidado como valor universal. En esta revisi&#x00F3;n bibliogr&#x00E1;fica, tambi&#x00E9;n se ha puesto de manifiesto la importancia que diversos autores conceden al cuidado para la educaci&#x00F3;n: la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado aparece como uno de los ejes principales para la articulaci&#x00F3;n de la pedagog&#x00ED;a contempor&#x00E1;nea puesto que los valores de esta son esenciales para la creaci&#x00F3;n de una sociedad m&#x00E1;s justa y sostenible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31480_Esp">V&#x00E1;zquez, 2010</xref>).</p>
<p>Por ello, para la discusi&#x00F3;n de los resultados, partiremos de los autores cl&#x00E1;sicos de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31480_Esp">Gilligan -1982</xref>-, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31480_Esp">Tronto -2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31480_Esp">2017</xref>- y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31480_Esp">Brug&#x00E8;re -2021</xref>) usando la metodolog&#x00ED;a hermen&#x00E9;utica, especialmente adecuada para el an&#x00E1;lisis de la vulnerabilidad de las personas y sus relaciones con los dem&#x00E1;s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31480_Esp">Domingo-Moratalla, 2022</xref>). Esta metodolog&#x00ED;a es exigida por la perspectiva te&#x00F3;rica del cuidado, iniciada por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31480_Esp">Gilligan (1982)</xref>, y por las condiciones para la pr&#x00E1;ctica del cuidado propuestas por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31480_Esp">Brug&#x00E8;re (2021)</xref> que no han sido suficientemente exploradas en las investigaciones actuales para la orientaci&#x00F3;n de las pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31480_Esp" sec-type="results">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>R<sc>esultados</sc></bold></title>
<p>Las desigualdades educativas entre alumnado nativo y extranjero en Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria se manifiestan en tres indicadores: la adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias cognitivas (matem&#x00E1;ticas, cient&#x00ED;ficas y lectoras), las repeticiones de curso y el abandono escolar temprano. A esas desigualdades, est&#x00E1; referido principalmente este apartado. Sin embargo, hay dos problemas que es conveniente abordar previamente por las controversias que generan en amplias capas de la poblaci&#x00F3;n espa&#x00F1;ola y entre sectores del profesorado. Sobre ellos, tambi&#x00E9;n se aportan datos. Esos problemas son: 1) el incremento de la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os en Espa&#x00F1;a; y 2) extranjeros matriculados actualmente en Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria y su distribuci&#x00F3;n por etapas y centros de titularidad p&#x00FA;blica y privada</p>
<p>En cuanto al primer problema, el incremento de poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera, Espa&#x00F1;a ha sido hist&#x00F3;ricamente un pa&#x00ED;s de emigrantes hasta finales del siglo XX. El siglo XXI ha modificado esa realidad hist&#x00F3;rica y Espa&#x00F1;a actualmente es un pa&#x00ED;s receptor de extranjeros. Desde el a&#x00F1;o 2001 al 2008, se produjo un incremento de la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera; debido a la crisis econ&#x00F3;mica de 2008, se inicia un decrecimiento hasta el a&#x00F1;o 2015. El flujo migratorio en todos y cada uno de los &#x00FA;ltimos 7 a&#x00F1;os, 2016-2022, ha sido positivo: han venido m&#x00E1;s extranjeros que se han marchado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31480_Esp">Instituto Nacional de Estad&#x00ED;stica de Espa&#x00F1;a, 2023</xref>). En t&#x00E9;rminos absolutos, la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera en Espa&#x00F1;a ha aumentado en los 7 &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os de 4 418 898 en 2016 (9.32 % del total de poblaci&#x00F3;n) a 5 407 491 en 2022 (11.64 %).</p>
    <p>Respecto al segundo de los problemas, la evoluci&#x00F3;n del alumnado extranjero matriculado en ense&#x00F1;anzas de r&#x00E9;gimen general y en ense&#x00F1;anzas de r&#x00E9;gimen especial no universitarias, desde el curso 2001-2002 al 2020-2021, se han producido los altibajos que hemos se&#x00F1;alado para la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera en general: crecimiento de matr&#x00ED;cula hasta el curso 2008-2009, decrecimiento hasta el curso 2015-16 y vuelta al crecimiento desde ese curso hasta la actualidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31480_Esp">Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, 2022</xref>). En las mencionadas ense&#x00F1;anzas que incluyen, adem&#x00E1;s de la Obligatoria, el Bachillerato, la Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional de 1&#x00BA; y 2&#x00BA; grados y las Ense&#x00F1;anzas de R&#x00E9;gimen especial, el porcentaje m&#x00E1;ximo de alumnado extranjero matriculado no ha superado el 9.9 % del alumnado no universitario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31480_Esp">Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, 2021</xref>).</p>
    <p>Si se atiende a la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria y a su distribuci&#x00F3;n por etapas y centros de titularidad p&#x00FA;blica y/o privada, la <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-3-31480_Esp">Tabla 3</xref> muestra los datos:</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-3-31480_Esp">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 3.</label>
<caption><title>D<sc>istribuci&#x00F3;n porcentual del alumnado extranjero seg&#x00FA;n ense&#x00F1;anza obligatoria de r&#x00E9;gimen general</sc>. C<sc>urso</sc> 2020/2021</title></caption>
<table id="tab-3-31480_Esp" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="25%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="2"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="2"><p><bold>TOTAL extranjeros (cifras absolutas)</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center" colspan="2"><p><bold>Centros P&#x00FA;blicos</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center" colspan="2"><p><bold>Centros Privados</bold></p></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>Absoluto</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>%</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>Absoluto</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>%</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>R&#x00E9;gimen General Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>693 079</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>545 541</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>78.71 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>147 538</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>21.28 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>E. Infantil</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>160 188</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>125 806</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>78.54 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>34 382</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>21.46 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>E. Primaria</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>337 050</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>271 494</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>80.55 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>65 556</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>19.45 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Educaci&#x00F3;n Especial</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>5 135</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>3 657</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>71.22 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>1 478</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>28.78 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>ESO</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>190 706</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>144 584</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>75.82 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>46 122</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>24.18 %</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
    <p>En cuanto al problema central del art&#x00ED;culo, las desigualdades educativas entre nativos y extranjeros, se atiende al &#x00E9;xito escolar obtenido al finalizar la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria en tres indicadores: a) adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias en matem&#x00E1;ticas, ciencias y lectura (PISA-2018 en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Esp">OCDE, 2019a</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31480_Esp">b</xref>); b) repetidores de curso en Primaria y ESO (PISA-2018 en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Esp">OCDE, 2019a</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31480_Esp">b</xref>); c) abandono escolar temprano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31480_Esp">Eurostat, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Respecto a la adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias cognitivas, en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria del sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol, el alumnado extranjero obtiene: 1) 40 puntos menos en competencias matem&#x00E1;ticas que los nativos; 2) 34 puntos menos en ciencias; y 3) 32 puntos menos en competencias lectoras. Tales diferencias son significativas. Para la mayor&#x00ED;a de los autores que elaboran sus Informes a partir de esos datos, la brecha se produce b&#x00E1;sicamente por las condiciones sociodemogr&#x00E1;ficas que afectan a las familias extranjeras: nivel de estudios de los padres, tipo de empleo y capital acumulado (ISEC. &#x00CD;ndice Socioecon&#x00F3;mico y Cultural) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Esp">OCDE, 2019a</xref>)</p>
<p>El menor rendimiento escolar en competencias cognitivas tiene una consecuencia inmediata en la tasa de repetici&#x00F3;n de curso. As&#x00ED;, a partir de los datos de PISA-18, la tasa de repetici&#x00F3;n de los nativos a los 15 a&#x00F1;os es del 22 %, en el caso del alumnado extranjero es del 50 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Esp">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado y Medina-Moral, 2022</xref>, p. 63). Repetir curso acad&#x00E9;mico, para una parte importante del profesorado espa&#x00F1;ol, puede proporcionar a los estudiantes con dificultades m&#x00E1;s tiempo para <italic>alcanzar</italic> acad&#x00E9;micamente a sus compa&#x00F1;eros. Espa&#x00F1;a ocupa uno de los puestos de cabeza en repetidores de curso.</p>
    <p>Se entiende por abandono escolar temprano el porcentaje de poblaci&#x00F3;n de 18 a 24 a&#x00F1;os que no ha completado el bachillerato y no sigue otro tipo de formaci&#x00F3;n. Respecto al abandono escolar temprano, en todos los pa&#x00ED;ses de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea es mayor entre los j&#x00F3;venes extranjeros. Espa&#x00F1;a tiene el desafortunado privilegio de situarse tambi&#x00E9;n a la cabeza de este indicador de desigualdad: por cada estudiante nativo, lo hacen m&#x00E1;s de dos estudiantes extranjeros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31480_Esp">Carrasco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Esp">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado y Medina-Moral, 2022</xref>, p. 64). Aunque la situaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; mejorando en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os, el problema persiste en la serie hist&#x00F3;rica de los &#x00FA;ltimos 7 a&#x00F1;os (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-4-31480_Esp">Tabla 4</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-4-31480_Esp">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 4.</label>
<caption><title>A<sc>bandono educativo temprano de la poblaci&#x00F3;n de</sc> 18 <sc>a</sc> 24 <sc>a&#x00F1;os por origen y a&#x00F1;o</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-4-31480_Esp" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="center" colspan="8"><p><bold>Ambos sexos</bold></p></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2021</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2020</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2019</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2018</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2017</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2016</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2015</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" colspan="8"><p><bold>TOTAL</bold></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Total (%)</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>13.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>17.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>17.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>18.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>19.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.0</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Espa&#x00F1;ola (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>11.4</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>13.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>14.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.4</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>17.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Extranjera (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>26.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>32.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>35.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>35.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>35.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>37.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>36.9</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" colspan="8"><p><bold>Con t&#x00ED;tulo de ESO</bold></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Total (%)</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Espa&#x00F1;ola (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;8.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.0</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Extranjera (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>14.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>19.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>19.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>18.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" colspan="8"><p><bold>Sin t&#x00ED;tulo de ESO</bold></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Total (%)</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;8.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.1</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Espa&#x00F1;ola (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;4.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.7</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Extranjera (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>12.4</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>12.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>18.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.2</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31480_Esp">Educabase (2023)</xref>. Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, a partir de la Encuesta de Poblaci&#x00F3;n Activa. Porcentaje calculado con la metodolog&#x00ED;a establecida por Eurostat</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31480_Esp" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscusi&#x00F3;n de los resultados</sc></bold></title>
<p>En este apartado se adoptan dos perspectivas para la discusi&#x00F3;n: 1) la confrontaci&#x00F3;n con los resultados de otras investigaciones similares en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os; y 2) la cr&#x00ED;tica a los planteamientos neoliberales que transitan los procesos de aprendizaje y evaluaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado.</p>
<p>En cuanto al incremento de la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera, &#x00BF;se ha producido una avalancha de poblaci&#x00F3;n inmigrante hacia los pa&#x00ED;ses ricos? Problema que ha sido denominado <italic>De la boca del tibur&#x00F3;n</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31480_Esp">Banerje y Duflo, 2019</xref>) por el p&#x00E1;nico y las repercusiones pol&#x00ED;ticas que provoca en gran parte de los pa&#x00ED;ses de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europa y en Estados Unidos. Seg&#x00FA;n el <italic>Informe sobre las Migraciones en el Mundo 2020</italic>, la proporci&#x00F3;n de migrantes internacionales en relaci&#x00F3;n con la poblaci&#x00F3;n mundial es casi la misma que en los a&#x00F1;os 1960 o 1990 o 2017: el 3.5 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31480_Esp">ONU - OIM, 2019</xref>). Seg&#x00FA;n el Informe, en nuestro entorno geopol&#x00ED;tico, Europa albergaba en 2019 alrededor de 82 millones de migrantes internacionales, el 18 % del total de la poblaci&#x00F3;n. A pesar de esta migraci&#x00F3;n internacional, la poblaci&#x00F3;n ha decrecido en 2019 y 2020 un -0,4 % y un -0,6 % respectivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31480_Esp">Eurostat 2023</xref>). Dif&#x00ED;cilmente esto puede considerarse una avalancha de inmigrantes, si bien la guerra en territorio de Ucrania puede alterar los datos anteriores.</p>
<p>En el caso de Espa&#x00F1;a, los datos manifiestan tres evidencias: 1) los espa&#x00F1;oles somos ciudadanos de un pa&#x00ED;s de emigrantes hasta tiempos recientes y debemos recordar esa realidad hist&#x00F3;rica; 2) no hay una avalancha de poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera que amenace nuestros puestos de trabajo ni la existencia del Estado; m&#x00E1;s a&#x00FA;n, no alcanzamos el porcentaje del 18% de extranjeros de la media de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea; 3) pertenecemos a un pa&#x00ED;s multicultural y de mezcla de culturas, tanto por el devenir de nuestra propia historia como por la nueva realidad de las migraciones.</p>
<p>En la tasa de matriculaci&#x00F3;n de extranjeros en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; dicen los datos?: 1) no hay una avalancha en relaci&#x00F3;n con la tasa de matr&#x00ED;cula de la poblaci&#x00F3;n total, si bien la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria es el nivel con mayor n&#x00FA;mero de alumnado con la condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a; 2) el porcentaje m&#x00E1;s alto se concentra en la Ense&#x00F1;anza Primaria; 3) hay un descenso notable de alumnado en Ense&#x00F1;anza Secundaria Obligatoria respecto a la Primaria; probablemente atribuible al abandono escolar temprano; 4) menos del 25 % del alumnado est&#x00E1; matriculado en centros de titularidad privada, sean concertados o no; 5) el hecho anterior manifiesta una segregaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado extranjero seg&#x00FA;n tipo de centros. Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31480_Esp">Caraba&#x00F1;a (2023)</xref>, esa situaci&#x00F3;n es simplemente un hecho que no representa un problema generador de desigualdades educativas y sociales; para otros investigadores, con los que estamos de acuerdo, es un claro exponente de tales desigualdades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31480_Esp">Lubi&#x00E1;n-Grana, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>En las desigualdades en <italic>competencias cognitivas</italic>, hay acuerdo entre los investigadores sobre el peso de las condiciones socio-demogr&#x00E1;ficas que afectan a las familias extranjeras (ISEC). Sin embargo, aducen matices diferenciales cuando profundizan en el an&#x00E1;lisis de la condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a. As&#x00ED;, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31480_Esp">Essomba-Gelabert <italic>et al</italic>. (2019)</xref> proponen centrarse en factores concretos que inciden en la superaci&#x00F3;n de las desigualdades: el aprendizaje de la lengua, la educaci&#x00F3;n comunitaria, la formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado para el desarrollo de un enfoque intercultural y la participaci&#x00F3;n de las familias. Tambi&#x00E9;n proponen atender las recomendaciones de expertos de 2018 en el marco de la red europea SIRIUS sobre nuevas orientaciones pol&#x00ED;ticas dirigidas a la integraci&#x00F3;n de los ni&#x00F1;os y adolescentes extranjeros con un enfoque hol&#x00ED;stico centrado en el alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Esp">Onses-Segarra y Estalayo-Bielsa, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>En las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas de integraci&#x00F3;n de la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera, los resultados revelan una falta de coordinaci&#x00F3;n entre gobierno e instituciones educativas y, sobre todo, una ausencia de colaboraci&#x00F3;n de los responsables de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas con otros agentes del gobierno responsables de las pol&#x00ED;ticas econ&#x00F3;micas, sanitarias, laborales y de inmigraci&#x00F3;n. Sin esa visi&#x00F3;n hol&#x00ED;stica del problema de la integraci&#x00F3;n, el valor de los actuales conjuntos de datos a gran escala es muy limitado para la investigaci&#x00F3;n y el an&#x00E1;lisis pol&#x00ED;tico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31480_Esp">Volante <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Los resultados de otras investigaciones inciden en el clima de acogida del profesorado y de los centros, escuchando las aspiraciones de las familias y del alumnado. Se ha constatado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31480_Esp">Carrasco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>) que, a pesar de las distintas formas de apoyo recibidas por parte de sus familias, las aspiraciones del alumnado extranjero son a menudo ignoradas o desatendidas en las respuestas educativas que dan sectores del profesorado y los equipos directivos de un n&#x00FA;mero considerable de centros.</p>
<p>En cuanto al profesorado, como los recursos educativos disponibles no son adecuados ni suficientes para satisfacer las necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas de este alumnado, usa argumentos y estrategias para su orientaci&#x00F3;n hacia itinerarios educativos que entran en conflicto con las mayores expectativas de los estudiantes sobre su propio rendimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31480_Esp">Cucalon-Tirado y Olmo-Pintado, 2019</xref>). En cuanto a los centros, seg&#x00FA;n narrativas familiares y declaraciones de equipos directivos, hay barreras institucionales por la condici&#x00F3;n de migrantes a la hora de elegir centro para sus hijos, debido a las regulaciones de acceso que penalizan en mayor medida a estas familias; y en algunos centros, las barreras institucionales son consecuencia de inaceptables pr&#x00E1;cticas discriminatorias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31480_Esp">Grana, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>La percepci&#x00F3;n que tiene el estudiantado extranjero de ESO de las expectativas del profesorado sobre sus posibilidades de &#x00E9;xito escolar es mala y siempre por debajo de las expectativas que atribuye a sus padres (PISA-2018, en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Esp">OCDE, 2019a</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31480_Esp">b</xref>). Eso influye en su autoconcepto, regulaci&#x00F3;n y cumplimiento acad&#x00E9;mico, sentido de pertenencia al centro escolar y confianza en la educaci&#x00F3;n. El bienestar subjetivo del alumnado en el centro est&#x00E1; positivamente correlacionado con el rendimiento escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31480_Esp">Ambrosetti <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Respecto a las repeticiones de curso del alumnado extranjero, las investigaciones evidencian, desde hace tiempo, que la repetici&#x00F3;n de curso tiene efectos negativos en el rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico posterior y en las actitudes relacionadas con el centro educativo. En la media de pa&#x00ED;ses OCDE, la diferencia en el rendimiento en lectura entre estudiantes repetidores y no repetidores es de 98 puntos y algo menos, 93 puntos, en el total de la UE, a favor de los no repetidores. La diferencia entre los dos grupos en Espa&#x00F1;a es de 97 puntos. Del an&#x00E1;lisis de los datos PISA-2018, se deduce que la repetici&#x00F3;n de curso no ayuda a mejorar el rendimiento de los estudiantes en lectura, ni en matem&#x00E1;ticas ni en ciencias. La reducci&#x00F3;n de la tasa de repetidores de curso en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria sigue siendo una asignatura pendiente del sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol.</p>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, los costes del <italic>abandono escolar temprano</italic>, tanto desde el punto de vista de los j&#x00F3;venes que abandonan como del conjunto de la sociedad, son sustanciales. As&#x00ED; lo indican las estimaciones sobre la inserci&#x00F3;n laboral, la participaci&#x00F3;n en el mercado de trabajo, la estabilidad del empleo, los salarios y la productividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31480_Esp">Cebolla-Boado <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). El abandono escolar temprano es otro indicador importante de la brecha educativa en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria que origina exclusi&#x00F3;n social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Esp">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado y Medina-Moral, 2022</xref>). Aunque la situaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; mejorando en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os, el problema persiste en la serie hist&#x00F3;rica de los &#x00FA;ltimos 7 a&#x00F1;os.</p>
<p>Por ello, el segundo momento de la discusi&#x00F3;n de los resultados es una cr&#x00ED;tica a los planteamientos liberales y neoliberales del aprendizaje del alumnado y a su evaluaci&#x00F3;n desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado. Esta segunda perspectiva est&#x00E1; avalada por la revisi&#x00F3;n de la literatura de la investigaci&#x00F3;n durante un per&#x00ED;odo de 10 a&#x00F1;os (2010-2020) sobre &#x00E9;tica del cuidado y educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31480_Esp">Babarro <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>). Se revisaron 1189 trabajos en <italic>ERIC, WOS</italic> y <italic>DIALNET</italic> y del an&#x00E1;lisis de los art&#x00ED;culos que pasaron todos los filtros de selecci&#x00F3;n se han identificado 6 tem&#x00E1;ticas principales: cuidado y justicia social, cuidado y educaci&#x00F3;n, identidad docente, cuidado y g&#x00E9;nero, formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado, diversidad cultural y educaci&#x00F3;n. La revisi&#x00F3;n evidencia que el cuidado es un eje central de la pedagog&#x00ED;a actual.</p>
<p>Como bien argumenta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31480_Esp">Brug&#x00E8;re (2021)</xref>, la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado rechaza los relatos colectivos que engloban impersonalmente a todos los individuos. La afirmaci&#x00F3;n de las libertades individuales y de la autonom&#x00ED;a personal debe ser analizada de nuevo desde un mundo interdependiente, con variadas formas de vulnerabilidad y de injusticia con las que est&#x00E1;n en relaci&#x00F3;n. M&#x00E1;s a&#x00FA;n, se trata de volver la mirada a la vida ordinaria, a los sujetos encarnados y relacionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31480_Esp">Goz&#x00E1;lvez y Jover, 2016</xref>). Si la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado puede postular unas pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas complementarias a las del liberalismo y alternativas a las del neoliberalismo es porque pone en guardia contra las derivas mercantiles y burocr&#x00E1;ticas de nuestras sociedades, proponiendo la necesidad de tener presente a los <italic>otros</italic> concretos, poniendo en marcha pol&#x00ED;ticas sociales m&#x00E1;s justas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31480_Esp">Jackson, 2014</xref>). Tener cuidado de los dem&#x00E1;s es atender sol&#x00ED;citamente a aquellas personas vulnerables, d&#x00E1;ndoles los medios para participar de las riquezas y bienes, de los poderes de decisi&#x00F3;n, con la pretensi&#x00F3;n de instaurar un mundo com&#x00FA;n sin exclusiones por g&#x00E9;nero, riqueza o extranjer&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>Desde esa perspectiva, hacemos una cr&#x00ED;tica a la mayor&#x00ED;a de los planteamientos de los procesos de aprendizaje que, normalmente. Son homog&#x00E9;neos para el alumnado nativo y extranjero sin tener en cuenta sus peculiaridades personales, sus condicionamientos culturales y las circunstancias en las que se ha producido la entrada de cada individuo en el sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol. Y, sobre todo, criticamos la estandarizaci&#x00F3;n de los procesos de evaluaci&#x00F3;n internacional sobre competencias del alumnado, sin atender a sus caracter&#x00ED;sticas personales y su condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a; estandarizaci&#x00F3;n que ha adquirido carta de naturaleza y prestigio socio-acad&#x00E9;mico. La persistencia de la brecha de desigualdades manifiesta el fracaso de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas neoliberales en sus aplicaciones pr&#x00E1;cticas. Son necesarias otras pol&#x00ED;ticas que atiendan a las caracter&#x00ED;sticas individuales, familiares, y culturales del alumnado extranjero y que conecten al sistema educativo con otras instancias importantes dentro de los gobiernos, como la econ&#x00F3;mica, sanitaria, laboral y protecci&#x00F3;n social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31480_Esp">Volante <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-31480_Esp" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></bold></title>
<p>En relaci&#x00F3;n con el primer objetivo, la descripci&#x00F3;n de las desigualdades educativas, las principales conclusiones son las siguientes:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Hay acuerdo en las investigaciones sobre el hecho de que se producen desigualdades educativas entre alumnado extranjero y nativo en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria respecto a la adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias cognitivas (matem&#x00E1;ticas, cient&#x00ED;ficas y lectoras), repeticiones de curso y abandono escolar temprano. Tales desigualdades son significativas. As&#x00ED; lo avalan los Informes internacionales referidos a Espa&#x00F1;a y los datos aportados por el Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, el Instituto Nacional de Estad&#x00ED;stica y Eurostat. Y tambi&#x00E9;n hay acuerdo que el factor m&#x00E1;s influyente en esas desigualdades es el &#x00CD;ndice Socio-Econ&#x00F3;mico y Social (ISEC) de las familias, sean nativas o extranjeras.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>No hay acuerdo en la consideraci&#x00F3;n de la extranjer&#x00ED;a del alumnado como factor de peso importante para las desigualdades educativas. En algunas investigaciones, las menos, la condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a es un asunto menor en la organizaci&#x00F3;n escolar de los centros y en los hechos de su presencia reducida en los centros escolares m&#x00E1;s prestigiosos y de su ausencia de los itinerarios curriculares que conducen a estudios formativos superiores. Para la mayor&#x00ED;a de las investigaciones, la condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a s&#x00ED; es importante en las desigualdades educativas y en la exclusi&#x00F3;n social del alumnado.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Las investigaciones que consideran importante la condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a, insisten en la ausencia de pol&#x00ED;ticas realistas que atiendan las necesidades particulares de la poblaci&#x00F3;n extranjera. Especialmente se&#x00F1;alan: 1) la falta de atenci&#x00F3;n a la diversidad por origen cultural; y 2) la desconexi&#x00F3;n entre las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas y el resto de las pol&#x00ED;ticas del gobierno que afectan a la econom&#x00ED;a, a la salud, al trabajo, a la inmigraci&#x00F3;n y a la protecci&#x00F3;n social. Para una educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva hay que dise&#x00F1;ar pol&#x00ED;ticas que atiendan tanto a los individuos como a sus entornos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>En concreto, ponen &#x00E9;nfasis en la necesidad de programas espec&#x00ED;ficos y adaptados para el aprendizaje de la lengua, la educaci&#x00F3;n comunitaria y la participaci&#x00F3;n de las familias. Insisten en la necesidad de escuchar a las familias y alumnado en sus preferencias y expectativas tanto para el acceso a los centros como a los itinerarios curriculares.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Cap&#x00ED;tulo aparte es la importancia que se concede a la formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado: para la acogida del alumnado siendo sensible a sus necesidades, el respeto a sus expectativas escolares, el acompa&#x00F1;amiento en la transici&#x00F3;n de las etapas escolares y en la formaci&#x00F3;n para un enfoque intercultural de la ense&#x00F1;anza.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>En relaci&#x00F3;n con el segundo objetivo, la cr&#x00ED;tica a los planteamientos vigentes en los procesos de aprendizaje y su evaluaci&#x00F3;n desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado, las conclusiones son:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado rechaza los planteamientos de los procesos de aprendizaje comunes a todos los individuos. Los procesos de aprendizaje tienen que estar adaptados a las necesidades y circunstancias de cada individuo y/o grupo social.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>El <italic>cuidado</italic> es una Teor&#x00ED;a, &#x00E9;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica, que postula pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas m&#x00E1;s justas que las propugnadas por el liberalismo al que complementa; y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas alternativas a las del neoliberalismo que excluye. El cuidado del alumnado extranjero exige la atenci&#x00F3;n sol&#x00ED;cita a su vulnerabilidad, d&#x00E1;ndole los medios para la igualdad real de oportunidades.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Desde esa perspectiva, se cr&#x00ED;tica a la mayor&#x00ED;a de los planteamientos de los procesos de aprendizaje que, normalmente, son homog&#x00E9;neos para todo el alumnado, nativo y/o extranjero. Y, sobre todo, se critica la legitimidad de los resultados de las evaluaciones internacionales de rendimiento, como los programas de Evaluaci&#x00F3;n Internacional del Alumnado (Informes-PISA) o el Informe <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31480_Esp">PIRLS-2021 (2023)</xref> sobre la comprensi&#x00F3;n lectora del alumnado de 4&#x00AA; de Primaria en el sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol en comparaci&#x00F3;n con el alumnado de otros pa&#x00ED;ses de la OCDE y la UE. El mencionado Informe, ni siquiera contempla la condici&#x00F3;n de extranjer&#x00ED;a. Es necesario un cambio de v&#x00ED;a si se pretende solucionar el grave problema de las desigualdades educativas y la exclusi&#x00F3;n social del alumnado extranjero. La Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado, en sus vertientes &#x00E9;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica, puede ser esa v&#x00ED;a puesto que vislumbra alternativas educativas que tendr&#x00ED;an que ser exploradas.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31480</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31480</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
    <article-title>The Inequalities Facing Foreign Students in Spanish Compulsory Education. A Critical View from the Theory of Care</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>Las desigualdades del alumnado extranjero en la educaci&#x00F3;n obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola. Una visi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica desde la teor&#x00ED;a del cuidado</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8984-583X</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>ESC&#x00C1;MEZ MARSILLA</surname>
<given-names>Juan Isidro</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_Eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_Eng"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_Eng">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia &#x201C;San Vicente M&#x00E1;rtir&#x201D;. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia &#x201C;San Vicente M&#x00E1;rtir&#x201D;</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_Eng"><email>ji.escamez@ucv.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
    <day>01</day>
    <month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2024361</issue-id>
<fpage>137</fpage>
<lpage>156</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>21</day>
<month>05</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>18</day>
<month>08</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>

<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>This article describes the educational inequalities between foreign and native students in Spanish compulsory education in learning competences, repeating years and early school leaving. These inequalities lead to social exclusion. The basic thesis of this article is that the social exclusion that foreign students suffer from contrasts with the insufficiency of the means provided for their learning processes and the inadequate assessment tools. This disconnection is the result of the predominance of liberalism and neo-liberalism in the education system. The theory of care is proposed as an alternative for understanding the root of the problem and proposing guidelines for solving it. The introduction sets out why this issue is important, the precursors in the research literature that considers it and the relevance of the theory of care for understanding it. The methodology describes the criteria for selecting international and national bibliographical sources and argues that the hermeneutic method is valid for the ethical and political interpretation of the theory of care. The results confirm the educational gap in cognitive skills (mathematics, science and reading), repeating years and early school leaving. We discuss the results from two perspectives: we compare the results with the results of current research on the problem in Spain, and we critique them from the theory of care. The conclusions refer to the questions formulated in the objectives regarding educational inequalities and their effect on social exclusion, and to the proposal of the theory of care as an alternative to the proposals of learning and evaluation from liberal and neo-liberal theories.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo describe las desigualdades educativas entre el alumnado extranjero y nativo en la Educaci&#x00F3;n Obligatoria espa&#x00F1;ola: en el aprendizaje de competencias, repetici&#x00F3;n de curso y abandono escolar temprano. Esas desigualdades producen exclusi&#x00F3;n social. La tesis fundamental argumenta la incoherencia entre los medios insuficientes para los procesos de aprendizaje del alumnado extranjero, los inadecuados instrumentos de su evaluaci&#x00F3;n y la sanci&#x00F3;n de exclusi&#x00F3;n social que padece. La incoherencia se produce por la vigencia del liberalismo y neoliberalismo en el sistema educativo. Se propone la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado como alternativa para comprender la ra&#x00ED;z del problema y proponer orientaciones para su soluci&#x00F3;n. La introducci&#x00F3;n argumenta la importancia del problema, los antecedentes de la literatura de la investigaci&#x00F3;n que lo plantea y la pertinencia de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado para su comprensi&#x00F3;n. La metodolog&#x00ED;a describe los criterios para la selecci&#x00F3;n de las fuentes bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas, internacionales y nacionales, y argumenta la validez del m&#x00E9;todo hermen&#x00E9;utico para la interpretaci&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado. Los resultados confirman la brecha educativa en competencias cognitivas (matem&#x00E1;ticas, cient&#x00ED;ficas y lectoras), en repeticiones de curso y en abandono escolar temprano. La discusi&#x00F3;n de los resultados se hace desde dos perspectivas: se confrontan con los resultados de investigaciones actuales sobre el problema en Espa&#x00F1;a; y se hace una cr&#x00ED;tica a los mismos desde la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado. Las conclusiones hacen referencia a las preguntas formuladas en los objetivos sobre las desigualdades educativas y su incidencia en la exclusi&#x00F3;n social; y a la propuesta de la Teor&#x00ED;a del Cuidado como alternativa a las propuestas del aprendizaje y evaluaci&#x00F3;n desde las teor&#x00ED;as liberales y neoliberales.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>ethics</kwd>
<kwd>child care</kwd>
<kwd>social integration</kwd>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>school failure</kwd>
<kwd>foreign students</kwd>
<kwd>hermeneutics</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabas clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>&#x00E9;tica</kwd>
<kwd>cuidado</kwd>
<kwd>integraci&#x00F3;n social</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>fracaso escolar</kwd>
<kwd>alumno extranjero</kwd>
<kwd>hermen&#x00E9;utica</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31480_Eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
    <p>Everyone who lives in Spain &#x2013; native or foreign, with or without documentation &#x2013; has a legally recognised right to compulsory education. Foreign students are defined as ones who do not have Spanish nationality. As a result of the alternation of political parties in governments over the last 53 years (since 1970) and other circumstances, nine non-university Organic Education Acts have been enacted; this series of laws has not benefited the good functioning of the education system. The <italic>accord on education</italic> that would be wished for has not been achieved. Despite this, the basic educational cycles established by 1990&#x2019;s <italic>Ley Org&#x00E1;nica de Ordenaci&#x00F3;n General del Sistema Educativo</italic> (Organic Organisation of the Education System Law, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31480_Eng">LOGSE</xref>) have been maintained: Early Years Education from 0 to 5 years, Primary Education from 6 to 11 years and Compulsory Secondary Education (ESO) from 12 to 16.</p>
<p>Does the right to this compulsory education mean that Spain is a host country with high standards of social inclusion? <italic>Accepting</italic> foreign students involves recognising their right to education and to their beliefs and ways of life; it requires educational policies and practices that take into account the complexity of situations and the diversity of cultural identities. In turn, <italic>inclusion</italic> requires overcoming educational inequalities. In answer to the question of whether Spain is a host country with high standards of social inclusion, we believe it is not, as shown by the results of this study.</p>
<p>This article describes the educational inequalities between native and foreign students in compulsory education. We chose this problem for three fundamental reasons: 1) firstly, experts regard education and health as the two most reliable indicators of the development of societies and individuals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31480_Eng">Piketty, 2021</xref>); 2) secondly, the education system is regarded as the most important agency for acquisition of competences for the socialisation of individuals and for their incorporation into the productive system of a particular society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31480_Eng">Piketty, 2021</xref>); 3) and thirdly, early action in compulsory education (early years, primary and compulsory secondary) is fundamental for reducing social inequalities.</p>
<p>The classic research by the Nobel economics laureate <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31480_Eng">Heckman (2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31480_Eng">2008</xref>) offers three major conclusions: 1) investing in more disadvantaged children and adolescents is an uncommon public policy, but in the long term it promotes social justice and productivity in the economy and society; 2) there is over-investment in the higher levels of education and under-investment at early ages; 3) basic education has a higher rate of social return on the capital invested in it compared with the return on capital invested in higher education. These conclusions are not usually accepted by societies with neo-liberal economies or by many senior academics and designers of public education policies who continue to cling on to the myth of meritocracy.</p>
<p>In the case of Spain, a recent literature review of research into pre-university levels (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31480_Eng">Turienzo &#x0026; Manso, 2022</xref>) found that educational inequalities also occur in compulsory education and are a clear example of a lack of social justice. Educational equality has been proclaimed a right, on the basis of the <italic>Universal Declaration of Human Rights</italic> of 1948, but it has never been the case in practice. The fundamental problem is that there is a gulf between the official discourse on equality of opportunities promoted by education and the reality of the educational inequalities that underprivileged groups face. Why analyse inequalities between native and foreign students in compulsory education? In most cases, families of foreign origin face challenging sociodemographic situations. In addition to the circumstance of low economic status, there is their position as foreigners. Regarding school achievement, in a just society, this is not just a matter of all students duly attending school. It is necessary to consider how real the equality of opportunities actually is. The worst social segregation or social non-inclusion is that which is hidden behind poor academic results, skewed by cultural and socioeconomic background (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31480_Eng">Prieto, 2022</xref>). It is necessary to address, once and for all, the true problem faced by the foreign population in compulsory education: the mismatch between political declarations, set out in education acts, and the lack of financial resources and teacher training for the effective implementation of these laws.</p>
<p>The students&#x2019; position as foreigners is no small matter. As the Nobel Economics laureates <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31480_Eng">Banerjee and Duflo (2019)</xref> have argued, immigration is a question that is important enough to shape policy in general and educational policy in particular; and, above all, it produces a social climate of prejudices in broad sectors of the host population and among a significant number of teachers. There are many absurdities (or prejudices); among them, the idea that the educational levels of the foreign students are lower than those of the natives for promoting the learning of competences and for contributing to the economic development of the host country.</p>
<p>Regarding the question that concerns us, we believe the following are immediate precursors to the present work: 1) the results of the report from the project undertaken by the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31480_Eng">European Commission (2011)</xref> <italic>Reducing Early School Leaving in the EU (RESL.eu)</italic>, presented by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31480_Eng">Szalai (2013&#x2013;2018</xref>); 2) the report by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31480_Eng">Carrasco, Pami&#x00E9;s and Narciso (2018)</xref> on the educational gap of students in compulsory education owing to their foreign origin, which is based on the data from the empirical research in Catalonia of the above-mentioned EU project; 3) the PISA 2018 report (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Eng">OECD, 2019a</xref> &#x0026; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31480_Eng">b</xref>) with regards to the educational inequalities of foreign students in Spanish compulsory education; 4) the report by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31480_Eng">Prieto-Mendaza (2022)</xref> on the integration of students of immigrant origin (realities, results and shortcomings of the Spanish education system); 5) the report by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Eng">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado and Medina-Moral (2022)</xref> on the integration of foreign students in compulsory education in the Spanish education system; 6) the report by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31480_Eng">Caraba&#x00F1;a (2023)</xref> on the impact of social segregation between centres and its implications for the educational inequalities of foreign students; and 7) the most recent data published by Spain&#x2019;s National Statistics Institute (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31480_Eng">INE, 2023a</xref> &#x0026; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31480_Eng">b</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31480_Eng">Eurostat (2023)</xref> and the Spanish government&#x2019;s Ministry of Education and Professional Training. These reports were all published in the last five years.</p>
<p>Why do we critique the results relating to educational inequalities of foreign students from the perspective of theory of care? Because in the best cases the dominant models of school learning and assessment follow approaches from liberal thought and in the majority follow neo-liberal approaches with an economistic outlook, which are insufficient for understanding the root of educational inequalities and inadequate for evaluating them.</p>
<p>Nonetheless, the current theory of care offers two promising lines for education: ethics and policy. Ethics of care have acquired considerable profile with the current emergence of applied ethics. It is an ethics of cases in which each individual or social group has its own specific needs, and they demand the duty to facilitate the opportunities to satisfy them. The ethics of care transcend and complement the ethics of justice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31480_Eng">Pau, 2020</xref>). The ethics of justice are based on treating all individuals the same, while the ethics of care propose the opposite: unequal treatment for different people. This is because they start from two different ethical principles: the former is a universal, objective and abstract principle as it is enunciated in regards to all individuals in general, while the latter is a particular, subjective and concrete principle that refers to each human being or social group in its specific needs. There is no reason to set the ethics of care and the ethics of justice against each other: care must be taken into consideration if we are to achieve justice. Care is a more basic value than justice in that it obliges the policies of justice to be applied in a different way, thus making them more just.</p>
<p>As foreign students have very special circumstances and needs, the ethics of care focus on these circumstances and needs and call on the people responsible for educational policies and teachers and families to achieve social inclusion:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Schools increasingly fail to fulfil the role of facilitating social mobility that is assigned to them because they do not offset the most disadvantaged students&#x2019; economic and cultural deficiencies. All of the studies carried out in this regard agree in concluding that school failure above all harms immigrant students and, in general, students from disadvantaged sectors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31480_Eng">Camps, 2021</xref>, p. 60).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The diversity of the needs of foreign students owing to their culture of origin, the difficulties that often result from late entry to a school curriculum that is different to the one they studied in their country of origin, lack of knowledge, in some cases, of the vehicular language in which the curriculum is delivered in Spain as a whole or in its autonomous communities, and other circumstances such as the social settings between the school and the family in which the students interact, requires careful attention to their particular features and differences, both cultural and personal. Therefore, the educational models of liberal politics based on the theory of justice should be reconsidered and complemented with other alternative educational models (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31480_Eng">M&#x00ED;nguez &#x0026; Linares, 2022</xref>) and neo-liberal approaches should be rejected.</p>
<p>The complexity of the situations that affect foreign students makes them especially vulnerable. And solutions to the problems of vulnerable people also have to be political: &#x201C;It is a mistake to maintain that justice alone is part of the public sphere while care remains in the private sphere. Care is a universal duty; it should be accessible to anyone who justly requests it&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31480_Eng">Camps, 2021</xref>, p. 76, own translation). Meeting the needs of the most vulnerable cannot be left solely to the mercy of sensitive individuals. Efforts by political leaders and leaders of civil society are also needed. The necessary response to these problems is an essential imperative that should involve everyone: from ordinary citizen to social organisations of all types, from public bodies to governments and international institutions. Care should be regarded as a normative ethical principle that should govern all human actions, both individual and organisational.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31480_Eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>O<sc>bjectives</sc></bold></title>
<p>Our first objective is to identify the educational inequalities between native and foreign students in Spanish compulsory education, relating to the acquisition of cognitive competences, repetition of years and early school leaving, according to the most recent national and international reports. These educational inequalities lead to social exclusion.</p>
<p>The second objective is to provide a critique from theory of care of the insufficiency of the means for school learning for foreign students and the instruments for assessing it. This theory is proposed as one that differs from and complements the theory of justice of liberalism and is in opposition to the educational concept of economic neo-liberalism which currently dominates conceptions of school learning and its evaluation. From theory of care, political, ethical and pedagogical guidelines for compulsory education are proposed for the social inclusion of the foreign population.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31480_Eng" sec-type="methods">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>M<sc>ethodology</sc></bold></title>
<p>This work describes educational inequalities between foreign and native students in compulsory education in Spain. The question focusses on Spain. To provide this description, we carry out a systematic review of academic articles from official primary sources and secondary sources. These reports are the precursors to this article. The data come from official sources such as Spain&#x2019;s National Statistics Institute, its Ministry for Education and Professional Training, its Active Population Survey, <italic>Eurostat</italic> and the PISA reports. We have also taken into account reports prepared by specialists (secondary sources) based on these data. These all meet the following criteria: 1) they relate to aspects of educational inequality in Spanish compulsory education or in another EU state; 2) they were published in the last 5 years; and 3) their methodology is empirical or they are reviews. The results described refer to the whole of Spain and are not disaggregated by autonomous community or by gender.</p>
<p>In order to carry out the systematic review correctly, we followed the PRISMA guidelines (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31480_Eng">Page <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>). We started the search on 20 January 2023, we performed the screening and selection process in February and we carried out the data analysis in March. We used the <italic>WoS</italic> and <italic>Scopus</italic> databases with the following search formulas and terms: Migrants* AND Outcomes* AND Spain* OR Migrants* AND Early school leaving * AND Spain*. We found that including other search terms such as &#x201C;Foreigners&#x201D;, &#x201C;Inequalities&#x201D; or &#x201C;Academic results&#x201D; did not increase the number of articles in the results.</p>
    <p>We filtered by age of the sample and language (English and Spanish). The articles were recorded in Microsoft Excel&#x00AE;, eliminating duplicate articles and selecting ones that were of interest according to the criteria set out in <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-31480_Eng">Tables 1</xref> and <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-2-31480_Eng">2</xref>. The selection criteria correspond to the proposed objectives which the study attempts to answer. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-31480_Eng">Figure 1</xref> shows the process followed to select the articles included in this review. Of the 14 articles selected, 5 were identified in <italic>Scopus</italic> and 9 in <italic>WoS</italic>.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-31480_Eng">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 1.</label>
<caption><title>I<sc>nclusion</sc>/<sc>exclusion criteria</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-31480_Eng" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="20%"/>
<col width="40%"/>
<col width="40%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Inclusion criteria</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Exclusion criteria</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Type of article</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Empirical or theoretical works based on official primary sources and national or international reports.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Theoretical or review works that do not include evaluation of educational inequalities between migrants and the local population.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Publication</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x2264; 5 years.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>&#x003E;</bold> 5 years.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" rowspan="4"><p><bold>Sample</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Sample size &#x2265; 150.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Sample size &#x003C; 150.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Includes subgroups of migrants.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Does not include subgroups of migrants.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Includes aspects relating to educational inequalities in compulsory education.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Does not refer to educational inequalities in compulsory education.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Reports from Spain or elsewhere in Europe.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Reports from outside Europe.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Language</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>English or Spanish.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Other languages.</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: prepared by authors</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<table-wrap id="tabw-2-31480_Eng">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 2.</label>
<caption><title>S<sc>ummary of results</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-2-31480_Eng" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="70%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Study</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Results</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31480_Eng">Ferrara (2022)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Disadvantages in higher secondary education and ethnic status.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31480_Eng">Labussi&#x00E8;re <italic>et al.</italic> (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Children classed as foreign and educational opportunities.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31480_Eng">Cucal&#x00F3;n-Tirado &#x0026; Olmo-Pintado (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Teachers&#x2019; dilemmas and tensions when teaching foreign students.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31480_Eng">Gries <italic>et al.</italic> (2022)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Challenges and barriers in educational achievements comparing native and immigrant students.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31480_Eng">Grana (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>[Family and institutional narratives regarding barriers to accessing school for foreign students and their families.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31480_Eng">Cebolla-Boado <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>The role of education in explaining the differences before the risk of unemployment in the migrant and native population: Inequalities in academic results and educational progression between levels of foreign students compared with native ones.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Eng">Onses-Segarra &#x0026; Estalayo-Bielsa (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>The need to improve integration policies for foreign children to avoid social exclusion.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31480_Eng">Domingo &#x0026; Bayona i Carrasco (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Differences in students are highly visible in groups whose access to nationality is easier: In a context of unequal territorial distribution of these groups in the city, different impacts are introduced by neighbourhood.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31480_Eng">Volante <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>A useful starting point to formulate educational policies that confront the challenge of improving academic results of immigrant student populations within their country.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31480_Eng">Essomba-Gelabert <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Proposals for intercultural politics.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31480_Eng">Ambrosetti <italic>et al.</italic> (2023)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Well-being in school is much more important for the achievements of immigrant students compared with their native classmates, especially in the first cycle of secondary education.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31480_Eng">Intxausti-Intxausti <italic>et al.</italic> (2022)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>The gap in academic results between foreign and native students when there is a high level of immigrants in the school.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31480_Eng">Francia <italic>et al.</italic> (2021)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>The need to pay attention to the integration of the CDN in the enactment of the Agenda 2030 goals to avoid a simplistic and limited analysis of sustainability.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31480_Eng">Koehler &#x0026; Schneider (2019)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Introduction to the context: refugees in the education systems of EU member states.</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: prepared by authors</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<fig id="fig-1-31480_Eng">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>F<sc>low chart based on prisma</sc> 2020 <sc>guidelines</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-31480_Eng.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: Prepared by authors based on the databases consulted</attrib>
</fig>
<p>We were surprised to find in the review that educational policies do not directly address the practice of care as a solution to the educational inequalities facing foreign students. Most of the works we found address questions that can be classified in 3 categories of analysis: 1) care in the education system, especially in relation to teacher training; 2) society, care and social justice; and 3) care as a universal value. This literature review has also shown the importance that various authors place on care for education: the ethics of care are one of the principal foundations for the articulation of contemporary pedagogy given that their values are essential for the creation of a more just and sustainable society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31480_Eng">V&#x00E1;zquez, 2010</xref>).</p>
<p>Therefore, in order to consider the results, we will start from the classical authors in the field of theory of care (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31480_Eng">Gilligan, 1982</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31480_Eng">Tronto, 2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31480_Eng">2017</xref> &#x0026; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31480_Eng">Brug&#x00E8;re, 2021</xref>) using the hermeneutic methodology, which is especially suited to analysis of people&#x2019;s vulnerabilities and how they relate to others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31480_Eng">Domingo-Moratalla, 2022</xref>). This methodology is required by the theoretical perspective of care, initiated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31480_Eng">Gilligan (1982)</xref>, and by the conditions for practising care proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31480_Eng">Brug&#x00E8;re (2021)</xref>, which have not been sufficiently explored in current research into the direction of educational policies and practices.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31480_Eng" sec-type="results">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>R<sc>esults</sc></bold></title>
<p>Educational inequalities between native and foreign students in compulsory education manifest themselves in three indicators: acquisition of cognitive competences (mathematics, science and reading), repeating years and early school leaving. This section principally refers to these inequalities. However, two issues should be addressed first given the controversies they generate in broad sections of Spain&#x2019;s population and among groups of teachers. Data are also provided regarding these issues. They are: 1) the increase in the foreign population in Spain in recent years; and 2) foreigners currently enrolled in compulsory education and their distribution by stages and by whether schools are publicly or privately owned.</p>
<p>With regards to the first issue, the increase in foreign population, Spain was historically a country of emigrants until the late-20th century. This historical situation has changed in the 21st century and Spain is now a country that receives foreigners. Between 2001 and 2008, there was an increase in the foreign population; this was followed by a decrease until 2015 owing to the 2008 financial crisis. The flow of migrants in each of the last 7 years (2016&#x2013;2022) has been positive: more foreigners arrived than left (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31480_Eng">Instituto Nacional de Estad&#x00ED;stica de Espa&#x00F1;a, 2023</xref>). In absolute terms, the foreign population in Spain has increased in the last 7 years from 4 418 898 in 2016 (9.32 % of the total population) to 5 407 491 in 2022 (11.64 %).</p>
    <p>With regards to the second problem, the progress of foreign students enrolled in mainstream education and in non-university special education from the 2001&#x2013;2002 academic year up to the 2020&#x2013;2021 academic year, the fluctuations we have identified in the foreign population in general have also occurred: growth in enrolment until the 2008&#x2013;2009 academic year, a decrease until the 2015&#x2013;16 academic year and a return to growth from that year to the present time (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31480_Eng">Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, 2022</xref>). In the teaching systems mentioned above, which include, as well as compulsory education, the Baccalaureate, level 1 and 2 professional training and special education, the maximum percentage of foreign students enrolled has not exceeded 9.9 % of the non-university students (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31480_Eng">Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-3-31480_Eng">Table 3</xref> shows the details of compulsory education and its distribution by stages and by publicly and/or privately owned schools:</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-3-31480_Eng">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 3.</label>
<caption><title>P<sc>ercentage distribution of foreign students by mainstream compulsory education</sc> 2020&#x2013;2021 <sc>academic year</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-3-31480_Eng" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="25%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<col width="15%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left" rowspan="2"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center" rowspan="2"><p><bold>TOTAL foreigners (absolute figures)</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center" colspan="2"><p><bold>State Schools</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center" colspan="2"><p><bold>Private Schools</bold></p></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>Absolute</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>%</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>Absolute</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="center"><p><bold>%</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Mainstream Compulsory Ed.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>693 079</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>545 541</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>78.71 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>147 538</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>21.28 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Early-Years Ed.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>160 188</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>125 806</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>78.54 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>34 382</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>21.46 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Primary Ed.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>337 050</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>271 494</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>80.55 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>65 556</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>19.45 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Special Ed.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>5 135</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>3 657</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>71.22 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>1 478</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>28.78 %</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Compulsory Secondary Ed.</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>190 706</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>144 584</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>75.82 %</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>46 122</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="center"><p>24.18 %</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: prepared by authors</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
    <p>Regarding the central problem of this article, educational inequalities between native and foreign students, we consider three indicators of school achievement on completion of compulsory education: a) acquisition of mathematics, science and reading competences (PISA-2018 in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Eng">OECD, 2019a</xref> &#x0026; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31480_Eng">b</xref>); b) students repeating years in primary and compulsory secondary education (PISA-2018 in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Eng">OECD, 2019a</xref> &#x0026; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31480_Eng">b</xref>); and c) early school leaving (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31480_Eng">Eurostat, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>With regards to the acquisition of cognitive competences, in compulsory education in the Spanish education system, foreign students score: 1) 40 points less in mathematics competences than native students; 2) 34 points less in scientific competences; and 3) 32 points less in reading competences. These differences are significant. Most of the authors who prepare their reports on the basis of these data believe that the gap is essentially caused by the socio-demographic conditions that affect foreign families: parents&#x2019; level of studies, type of employment and accumulated wealth (ESCS, index of economic, cultural and social status) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Eng">OECD, 2019a</xref>).</p>
<p>Lower school achievement in cognitive competences has an immediate impact on the rate of students repeating a year. So, according to the PISA-18 data, the rate of repetition for 15-year-old native students is 22 %, while for foreign students it is 50 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Eng">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado &#x0026; Medina-Moral, 2022</xref>, p. 63). A significant number of teachers in Spain believe that repeating a year can give students with difficulties more time to <italic>catch up</italic> with their classmates academically. Spain holds one of the top spots in students repeating a year.</p>
    <p>The early school leaving rate is defined as the percentage of the population aged between 18 and 24 that has not completed the Baccalaureate and is not in any other type of training. Early school leaving is higher among foreign young people in all of the member states of the European Union. Spain also has the unfortunate distinction of occupying the top spot in this indicator of inequality: for each native student who leaves school early, more than two foreign students do so (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31480_Eng">Carrasco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Eng">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado &#x0026; Medina-Moral, 2022</xref>, p. 64). Although this situation has improved in recent years, the problem has persisted in the figures from the last 7 years (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-4-31480_Eng">Table 4</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-4-31480_Eng">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 4.</label>
<caption><title>E<sc>arly school leaving in the population aged from</sc> 18 <sc>to</sc> 24 <sc>by origin and year</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-4-31480_Eng" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<col width="10%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="center" colspan="8"><p><bold>Both sexes</bold></p></th>
</tr>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2021</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2020</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2019</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2018</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2017</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2016</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>2015</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" colspan="8"><p><bold>TOTAL</bold></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Total (%)</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>13.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>17.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>17.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>18.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>19.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.0</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Spanish (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>11.4</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>13.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>14.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.4</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>17.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Foreign (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>26.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>32.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>35.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>35.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>35.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>37.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>36.9</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" colspan="8"><p><bold>With ESO title</bold></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Total (%)</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Spanish (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;8.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>10.0</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Foreign (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>14.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>19.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>19.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>18.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.8</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left" colspan="8"><p><bold>Without ESO title</bold></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Total (%)</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.0</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;8.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;9.1</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Spanish (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;4.7</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;5.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.3</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;6.9</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;&#x00A0;7.7</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Foreign (%)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>12.4</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>12.5</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.8</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>15.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>16.1</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>18.6</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>20.2</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31480_Eng">Educabase (2023)</xref>. Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional, based on the active population survey. Percentage calculated using the method established by Eurostat. ESO = Compulsory Secondary Education</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31480_Eng" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscussion of results</sc></bold></title>
<p>In this section, we adopt two perspectives to discuss the results: 1) comparing the results with other similar research from recent years; and 2) a critique from theory of care of the neo-liberal approaches that underpin students&#x2019; learning and evaluation processes.</p>
<p>With regards to the increase in foreign population, has there been an avalanche of immigrants towards rich countries? This problem has been called <italic>the mouth of the shark</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31480_Eng">Banerje &#x0026; Duflo, 2019</xref>) because of the panic and the political repercussion it has caused in many countries in the European Union and in the United States. According to the <italic>World Migration Report 2020</italic>, the proportion of international migrants in relation to the global population is almost the same as in the years 1960 or 1990 or 2017: 3.5 % (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31480_Eng">UN - IOM, 2019</xref>). According to this report, Europe, our geopolitical setting, hosted some 82 million international migrants in 2019, 18 % of its total population. Despite this international migration, the population fell in 2019 and 2020 by 0.4 % and 0.6 % respectively (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31480_Eng">Eurostat 2023</xref>). This can hardly be regarded as an avalanche, although the war in Ukraine might affect the previous figures.</p>
<p>In the case of Spain, the data reveal three phenomena: 1) until recently, the Spanish were citizens of a country of emigrants and we should remember this historical situation; 2) there is no avalanche of foreigners threatening our jobs or the existence of the Spanish state; furthermore, the proportion of foreigners in Spain is lower than the European Union mean of 18 %; 3) we belong to a multicultural country with a mix of cultures, both for the path of our own history and for the new reality of migrations.</p>
<p>What do the data say about the rate of enrolment of foreign students in compulsory education? 1) there is no avalanche in the rate of enrolment in the total population, although compulsory education is the level with the most foreign students; 2) the highest percentage is concentrated in primary education; 3) there is a notable fall in students in Compulsory Secondary Education compared to primary; this can probably be attributed to early school leaving; 4) less than 25 % of the students are enrolled in private schools, whether state-assisted or not; 5) the previous fact reflects segregation of foreign students by type of school. For <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31480_Eng">Caraba&#x00F1;a (2023)</xref>, this situation simply does not represent a problem that generates educational and social inequalities; for other researchers, with whom we agree, it is a clear exemplar of such inequalities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31480_Eng">Lubi&#x00E1;n-Grana, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Regarding inequalities in <italic>cognitive competences</italic>, there is agreement among researchers on the significance of the socio-demographic conditions that affect foreign families (ESCS). Nonetheless, they focus on different aspects when analysing the position of foreigners in greater depth. For example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31480_Eng">Essomba-Gelabert <italic>et al</italic>. (2019)</xref> suggest focussing on specific factors that help to overcome inequalities: learning the language, community education, training teachers to develop an intercultural focus and family participation. They also propose considering the recommendations by experts from 2018 in the framework of the European SIRIUS network regarding new policy guidelines aimed at the integration of foreign children and adolescents with a holistic student-centred focus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31480_Eng">Onses-Segarra &#x0026; Estalayo-Bielsa, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>In educational policies aimed at integrating the foreign population, the results reveal a lack of coordination between the government and educational institutions and, above all, a lack of collaboration by the people responsible for educational policies with other sections of the government responsible for economic, health, employment and immigration policies. Without this holistic overview of the problem of integration, the value of the current large-scale data sets is very limited for research and political analysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31480_Eng">Volante <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>The results of other pieces of research relate to the climate of reception of the teachers and by the centres, listening to the aspirations of the families and of the students. It has been established (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31480_Eng">Carrasco <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>) that despite the different forms of support received by their families, foreign students&#x2019; aspirations are often ignored or overlooked in the educational responses offered by sectors of teachers and the management teams of a large number of centres.</p>
<p>As for teachers, as the educational resources available are not adequate or sufficient to meet the specific needs of these students, they use arguments and strategies to direct their students towards educational itineraries that are in conflict with the students&#x2019; higher expectations of their own performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31480_Eng">Cucalon-Tirado &#x0026; Olmo-Pintado, 2019</xref>). Regarding the centres, according to family accounts and statements by management teams, there are institutional barriers relating to them being migrants when choosing a centre for their children owing to access regulations that penalise these families to a greater extent. In some centres, the institutional barriers are a consequence of unacceptable discriminatory practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31480_Eng">Grana, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Foreign ESO students&#x2019; perceptions of teachers&#x2019; expectations of their possibilities of school achievement is poor and always below the expectations they attribute to their parents (PISA-2018, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31480_Eng">OECD, 2019a</xref> &#x0026; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31480_Eng">b</xref>). This influences their self-concept, academic regulation and completion, sense of belonging in the school and confidence in their education. Students&#x2019; subjective well-being in the centre correlates positively with school achievement (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31480_Eng">Ambrosetti <italic>et al</italic>., 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Regarding foreign students who repeat a year, research has for some time shown that repeating a year has negative effects on subsequent academic performance and on attitudes towards the educational centre. The mean difference in reading performance between students who repeat a year and those who do not is 98 points for OECD countries. In the EU as a whole it is slightly lower at 93 points in favour of those who do not repeat. The difference between the two groups in Spain is 97 points. Analysis of the PISA-2018 figures shows that repeating a year does not help improve students&#x2019; reading, mathematics or science performance. Reducing the rate of people repeating a year in compulsory education is something that the Spanish education system still needs to address.</p>
<p><italic>Early school leaving</italic> has substantial costs, both from the point of view of the young people who leave and for society as a whole. This is indicated by projections regarding employability, participation in the job market, job stability, salaries and productivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31480_Eng">Cebolla-Boado <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Early school leaving is another important indicator of the educational gap in compulsory education that results in social exclusion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31480_Eng">Mah&#x00ED;a-Casado &#x0026; Medina-Moral, 2022</xref>). Although this situation has improved in recent years, the problem has persisted in figures from the last 7 years.</p>
<p>Therefore, the second part of the discussion of the results is a critique from the theory of care of liberal and neo-liberal approaches to students&#x2019; learning and their evaluation. This second perspective is backed by the literature review of research over a period of 10 years (2010&#x2013;2020) on ethics of care and education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31480_Eng">Babarro <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>). We reviewed 1189 works in <italic>ERIC, WoS</italic> and <italic>DIALNET</italic> and from this analysis of the articles that passed through all of the selection filters we identified six principal topics: care and social justice; care and education; teacher identity; care and gender; teacher training; and cultural diversity and education. This review found that care is a central pillar of current pedagogy.</p>
<p>As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31480_Eng">Brug&#x00E8;re (2021)</xref> argues, ethics of care reject the collective accounts that impersonally encompass all individuals. The assertion of individual liberties and personal autonomy should be analysed again from an interdependent world, with varying forms of vulnerability and injustice to which they relate. Moreover, it is necessary to turn our gaze to ordinary life, to embodied and relational subjects (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31480_Eng">Goz&#x00E1;lvez &#x0026; Jover, 2016</xref>). If the theory of care can propose educational policies and practices that complement those of liberalism and provide an alternative to those of neo-liberalism, it is because it puts us on guard against the commercialistic and bureaucratic tendencies of our societies, proposing the need to take into account the specific <italic>others</italic>, putting into effect more just social policies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31480_Eng">Jackson, 2014</xref>). Looking out for others means carefully considering vulnerable people, giving them the means to share in wealth, resources and decision-making powers, in order to establish a shared world in which people are not excluded because of their gender, wealth or because they are immigrants.</p>
<p>From this perspective, we criticise the majority of the approaches of the learning processes, that are normally the same for native and foreign students and do not take into account their personal traits, their cultural conditioning and the circumstances of each individual&#x2019;s entrance into the Spanish education system. In particular, we criticise the standardisation of international processes for assessing student competences, which do not take into account personal characteristics and students&#x2019; position as foreigners; a standardisation that has acquired socio-academic approval and prestige. The persistence of inequalities reveals the failure of the practical applications of neo-liberal education policies. Different policies are needed, that address the individual, family and cultural characteristics of foreign students and connect the education system to other important fields within governments, such as the economy, health, employment and social care (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31480_Eng">Volante <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-31480_Eng" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusions</sc></bold></title>
<p>In relation to the first objective, identifying educational inequalities, the principal conclusions are as follows:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Research agrees that educational inequalities exist between foreign and native students in compulsory education regarding the acquisition of cognitive competences (mathematics, science and reading), repeating years and early school leaving. These inequalities are significant. This is backed by the international reports relating to Spain and data provided by Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Education and Professional Training, its National Statistics Institute and Eurostat. There is also agreement that the most influential factor in these inequalities is the index of economic, cultural and social status (ESCS) of the families, whether native or foreign.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>There is no agreement on whether students being foreign is a significant factor for educational inequalities. Some research &#x2013; a minority &#x2013; sees students being foreign as a matter of little importance in the organisation of the schools and in these students&#x2019; lower presence at more prestigious schools and their absence from the curriculum pathways that lead to higher studies. Most research argues that being foreign is important in educational inequalities and the social exclusion of the students.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Research that considers being foreign to be important insists on the lack of realistic policies that take into account the particular needs of the foreign population. In particular, these works identify: 1) a lack of attention to diversity owing to cultural background; and 2) a disconnection between educational policies and the other government policies regarding the economy, health, employment, immigration and social care. For an inclusive education, it is necessary to design policies that consider individuals and their surroundings.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>In particular, they emphasise the need for specific and adapted programmes for language learning, community education and family participation. They insist on the need to listen to families and students in their preferences and expectations both for access to centres and for curriculum pathways.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The importance placed on teacher training is a separate matter: for the hosting of students to be sensitive to their needs, to respect their school expectations, provide accompaniment in the transition between school stages and in training for an intercultural focus in teaching.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>In relation to the second objective, the critique of the dominant approaches in learning processes and evaluating them from theory of care, the conclusions are:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>The ethics of care reject the approaches of learning processes that are the same for all individuals. Learning processes must be adapted to the needs and circumstances of each individual and/or social group.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p><italic>Care</italic> is an ethical and political theory that proposes fairer educational practices than those espoused by liberalism, which it complements, and alternative educational practices to those of neo-liberalism, which it repudiates. Care for foreign students requires careful attention to their vulnerability, giving them the means for real equality of opportunities.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>This perspective criticises the majority of the approaches to the learning process, which are normally the same for all students, native and/or foreign. Above all, it criticises the legitimacy of the results of the international performance assessments, such as the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA reports) or the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31480_Eng">PIRLS-2021 report (2023)</xref> on the reading comprehension of children in year 4 of primary school in the Spanish education system compared with students from other OECD and EU countries. The report in question did not even consider being foreign as a factor. A change of direction is needed if we are to solve the serious problem of educational inequalities and social exclusion of foreign students. The theory of care, in its ethical and political aspects, could provide this new direction as it foresees educational alternatives that would have to be explored.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list>
<title><bold>R<sc>eferences</sc></bold></title>
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