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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31102</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31102</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>UNA TEOR&#x00CD;A PARA LA MEJORA SIST&#x00C9;MICA DE LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N EN AM&#x00C9;RICA LATINA</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>A Theory For Systemic Improvement of Education in Latin America</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4714-3511</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>RIVAS</surname>
<given-names>Axel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_esp"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_esp">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de San Andr&#x00E9;s. Argentina.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de San Andr&#x00E9;s</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_esp"><email>arivas@udesa.edu.ar</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>99</fpage>
<lpage>120</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>12</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>03</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>El estudio de la mejora de los sistemas educativos tiene un escaso desarrollo en la tradici&#x00F3;n de la investigaci&#x00F3;n en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. La aparici&#x00F3;n de las evaluaciones estandarizadas, que permiten la comparaci&#x00F3;n en el tiempo de los logros, ha generado interpretaciones sesgadas o simplistas sobre las causas de los resultados de aprendizajes. La propuesta de una teor&#x00ED;a de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica parte de estas advertencias y busca generar un marco que escape a los sesgos de las evaluaciones con una actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica que pueda interpretarlas y usarlas para consolidar una visi&#x00F3;n de la complejidad de los sistemas educativos.</p>
<p>La teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada que se presenta est&#x00E1; basada en m&#x00FA;ltiples investigaciones previas y se organiza en base a cuatro ejes anal&#x00ED;ticos combinados: 1-la gobernanza sist&#x00E9;mica, 2-la expansi&#x00F3;n de capacidades de los actores del sistema, 3-la alineaci&#x00F3;n de la rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas y 4-la coherencia en la traducci&#x00F3;n curricular. Estos ejes requieren entrar en la caja negra del funcionamiento de los sistemas educativos y advertir las m&#x00FA;ltiples capas que median entre las pol&#x00ED;ticas y las pr&#x00E1;cticas de ense&#x00F1;anza. Para lograr avanzar en esta direcci&#x00F3;n se plantean una serie de derivaciones metodol&#x00F3;gicas que favorezcan testeos emp&#x00ED;ricos de la propuesta te&#x00F3;rica. Finalmente, se aborda el problema epistemol&#x00F3;gico y pol&#x00ED;tico de la definici&#x00F3;n de los procesos de &#x201C;mejora sist&#x00E9;mica&#x201D; y la necesidad de usar y al mismo tiempo ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las evaluaciones estandarizadas.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>The study of the improvement of educational systems has little development in the tradition of research in Latin America. The appearance of standardized assessments, which allow the comparison of student&#x2019;s achievement over time, has generated biased or simplistic interpretations of the causes of learning outcomes. The proposal for a theory of systemic improvement is based on these warnings and seeks to generate a framework that escapes evaluation biases with a pragmatic attitude that can interpret and use them to consolidate a vision of the complexity of educational systems.</p>
<p>The grounded theory that is presented is based on multiple previous research and is organized based on four combined analytical axes: 1-systemic governance, 2-the expansion of capacities of the education system actors, 3-the alignment of accountability and 4-coherence in curricular translation. These axes require entering the black box of the functioning of educational systems and noticing the multiple layers that mediate between policies and teaching practices. In order to advance in this direction, a series of methodological derivations are proposed that favor empirical testing of the theoretical proposal. Finally, the epistemological and political problem of defining the processes of &#x0022;systemic improvement&#x0022; and the need to use and at the same time go beyond standardized evaluations are addressed.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>mejora sist&#x00E9;mica</kwd>
<kwd>sistemas educativos</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n comparada</kwd>
<kwd>Am&#x00E9;rica Latina</kwd>
<kwd>pol&#x00ED;tica educativa</kwd>
<kwd>evaluaciones estandarizadas</kwd>
<kwd>calidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>gobernanza educativa</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>systemic improvement</kwd>
<kwd>educational systems</kwd>
<kwd>comparative education</kwd>
<kwd>Latin America</kwd>
<kwd>educational policy</kwd>
<kwd>standardized assessments</kwd>
<kwd>quality of education</kwd>
<kwd>educational governance</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31102_esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>En Am&#x00E9;rica Latina las evaluaciones estandarizadas que miden los aprendizajes aparecieron en la mayor&#x00ED;a de los pa&#x00ED;ses a comienzos de los a&#x00F1;os 1990 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31102_esp">Mart&#x00ED;nez Rizo, 2008</xref>). En estos largos 30 a&#x00F1;os surgieron tambi&#x00E9;n las pruebas comparadas internacionales que se aplican en la regi&#x00F3;n: PISA de la OECD para nivel secundario y ERCE de la UNESCO para nivel primario. Am&#x00E9;rica Latina se pobl&#x00F3; de mediciones que permiten comparar la evoluci&#x00F3;n de los resultados en el tiempo. Sin embargo, casi no existen antecedentes de investigaci&#x00F3;n sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos a partir de estos datos. Mucho menos podemos hablar de un campo de investigaci&#x00F3;n sobre la tem&#x00E1;tica. Justamente cuando es posible medir la evoluci&#x00F3;n de los sistemas y <italic>se&#x00F1;alar</italic> qui&#x00E9;nes mejoran o empeoran en los titulares de los peri&#x00F3;dicos, no parece ser objeto de atenci&#x00F3;n desde el campo de la investigaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Esta es la paradoja de las pruebas estandarizadas: echan luz sobre los sistemas hasta enceguecerlos. Las pruebas son muchas veces mal interpretadas o utilizadas pol&#x00ED;ticamente. Generan malestar en casi todos los sistemas. Incluso los que mejoran muchas veces no lo saben porque la noticia es el &#x201C;bajo nivel&#x201D;, siempre detectable en una regi&#x00F3;n con tan amplias deudas sociales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31102_esp">Ravela, 2003</xref>). Identificar los casos de mejora parece ser un trabajo c&#x00F3;mplice con estos reflectores estandarizados que se posan sobre los sistemas. Aparecen las dudas, los temores, las excusas y el desinter&#x00E9;s por la &#x201C;mejora medible&#x201D;, como si fuese un mero efecto de poder de quienes usan las pruebas para juzgar desde fuera lo que ocurre dentro de los sistemas.</p>
<p>Ese vac&#x00ED;o del campo de la investigaci&#x00F3;n es llenado de manera apresurada por int&#x00E9;rpretes no especializados que realizan an&#x00E1;lisis superficiales o por la impronta tecnocr&#x00E1;tica de los organismos internacionales que buscan establecer relaciones de causalidad para realizar recomendaciones de pol&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>La ausencia de estudios comparados profundos y rigurosos sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos en la regi&#x00F3;n es el punto de partida de este art&#x00ED;culo. En su base est&#x00E1; la b&#x00FA;squeda de una comprensi&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s elaborada sobre c&#x00F3;mo funcionan los sistemas, c&#x00F3;mo pueden llegar a mejorar y qu&#x00E9; significados tiene el concepto de &#x201C;mejora&#x201D;. Con ese fin propongo una teor&#x00ED;a para analizar la mejora de los sistemas educativos en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina que pueda escapar a las conclusiones apresuradas y a las desconfianzas en las mediciones. Una visi&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica es un paso necesario ante la avalancha de discursos no especializados que realizan hip&#x00F3;tesis ingenuas o incompletas sobre los resultados de las pruebas. Al mismo tiempo, es un eslab&#x00F3;n necesario entre la investigaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica y las recomendaciones de pol&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>Para abordar este prop&#x00F3;sito propongo comenzar por identificar algunos de los obst&#x00E1;culos que enfrenta el estudio de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica en la regi&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>En primer lugar, debemos enfrentar las limitaciones metodol&#x00F3;gicas de las pruebas. En estudios previos hemos demostrado que las propias pruebas PISA han tenido cambios metodol&#x00F3;gicos que hacen incomparables los resultados posteriores a las ediciones 2006 con las previas en los pa&#x00ED;ses de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-31102_esp">Rivas y Scasso, 2021</xref>). Es posible advertir esto a partir de la transparencia de las bases de datos y los marcos metodol&#x00F3;gicos de la prueba PISA. Sin embargo, las pruebas nacionales de calidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n en los pa&#x00ED;ses de la regi&#x00F3;n muchas veces no presentan la informaci&#x00F3;n abierta y no aclaran hasta qu&#x00E9; punto es v&#x00E1;lida la comparaci&#x00F3;n intertemporal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31102_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Cano, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, la limitaci&#x00F3;n de las pruebas m&#x00E1;s conocida es la referida al recorte particular del sistema educativo y a los posibles incentivos para focalizar la ense&#x00F1;anza en aquello que es medido. Muchos estudios previos han analizado los efectos de la &#x201C;ense&#x00F1;anza para la prueba&#x201D; de las pol&#x00ED;ticas basadas en resultados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-31102_esp">Verger <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31102_esp">Lewis, y Lingard, 2015</xref>). Los incentivos de las evaluaciones pueden generar sesgos en el curr&#x00ED;culum y limitar la visi&#x00F3;n del aprendizaje a aquello que es medido. El exceso de presi&#x00F3;n de los resultados tambi&#x00E9;n puede generar un efecto de agotamiento en los docentes y acelerar su salida del sistema educativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31102_esp">Gundlach <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>).</p>
<p>En tercer lugar, debemos encontrar la manera de mirar la educaci&#x00F3;n latinoamericana en su propio contexto. El an&#x00E1;lisis regional de los sistemas educativos permite una comparaci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s equidistante, poniendo en relieve aspectos culturales, econ&#x00F3;micos y sociales que comparten los pa&#x00ED;ses de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de sus evidentes diferencias. La mirada regional en la educaci&#x00F3;n comparada es especialmente adecuada para evitar el foco en pa&#x00ED;ses o sistemas individuales o saltar a comparaciones de contextos muy diferentes.</p>
<p>Para adentrarnos en el contexto de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina, este art&#x00ED;culo plantea el desarrollo de una teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada (<italic>grounded theory</italic>) de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica de la educaci&#x00F3;n. En base a distintas investigaciones previas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31102_esp">Rivas y Scasso, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31102_esp">Rivas, 2021</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31102_esp">Rivas, 2022</xref>), junto con un amplio equipo de colaboradores hemos elaborado concepciones que dialogan con la evidencia emp&#x00ED;rica recolectada sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos a nivel nacional y subnacional en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. Hemos comparado durante dos d&#x00E9;cadas cientos de sistemas educativos en la regi&#x00F3;n a partir de numerosas variables y metodolog&#x00ED;as. El di&#x00E1;logo entre esta evidencia emp&#x00ED;rica y las teor&#x00ED;as internacionales sobre la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica alimenta la propuesta te&#x00F3;rica de este art&#x00ED;culo.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31102_esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>U<sc>n objeto de estudio elusivo</sc></bold></title>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis de la mejora de los sistemas educativos reconoce una larga l&#x00ED;nea de estudios de la tradici&#x00F3;n comparada de la educaci&#x00F3;n que ha buscado casos de &#x00E9;xito mundial para copiar las &#x201C;recetas&#x201D; en otros contextos. Con la aparici&#x00F3;n de las evaluaciones estandarizadas internacionales esta literatura emergi&#x00F3; con m&#x00E1;s fuerza al tener un par&#x00E1;metro de medici&#x00F3;n de los aprendizajes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31102_esp">Barber, y Mourshed, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31102_esp">OECD, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-31102_esp">Tucker, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-31102_esp">Steward, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31102_esp">Creese <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-31102_esp">Schleicher, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31102_esp">Crato, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Pero estas eran las miradas sobre &#x201C;los mejores del mundo&#x201D;, no sobre los que lograban mejorar en el tiempo. Los estudios sobre la mejora de los sistemas y subsistemas educativos reconocen una trayectoria m&#x00E1;s prolongada en la comparaci&#x00F3;n subnacional de distritos y estados en Estados Unidos, un pa&#x00ED;s que combina la fuerte descentralizaci&#x00F3;n con la medici&#x00F3;n de los aprendizajes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31102_esp">Murphy, y Hallinger, 1988</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-31102_esp">Snipes <italic>et al.</italic>, 2002</xref>). Las historias de los casos de &#x00E9;xito de los distritos comenzaron a ser analizadas: el distrito 2 de Nueva York, Long Beach, el distrito Sanger de California y San Diego, entre otros.</p>
<p>En una perspectiva m&#x00E1;s internacional, el documento que marca un antes y un despu&#x00E9;s en esta literatura es el informe de la consultora McKinsey sobre 20 casos de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica en distintos lugares del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31102_esp">Mourshed <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). El estudio encontr&#x00F3; una serie de estadios de crecimiento de los sistemas educativos que est&#x00E1;n marcados por fases evolutivas de recetas universales de pol&#x00ED;ticas. Este estudio fue criticado por sus criterios blandos de comparaci&#x00F3;n, que desconocen la complejidad de los contextos hist&#x00F3;ricos y culturales de los pa&#x00ED;ses estudiados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31102_esp">Coffield, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>Como analizamos en una revisi&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica de la literatura sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31102_esp">Barrenechea, Beech y Rivas, 2022</xref>), existen otros numerosos antecedentes de estudios de casos individuales de mejora: Ontario en Canada, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31102_esp">Osmond y Campbell 2018</xref>), Shanghai en China (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-31102_esp">Pang y Miao, 2017</xref>), Londres en Inglaterra (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31102_esp">McAleavy y Elwick, 2016</xref>), Polonia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-31102_esp">Zawistowska, 2014</xref>), Gales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31102_esp">Harris y Jones, 2017</xref>) y Sud&#x00E1;frica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31102_esp">Fleisch, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Esta literatura gira en torno de distintos ejes anal&#x00ED;ticos, donde predominan las perspectivas de cambio cultural de los sistemas educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31102_esp">Fullan, 2016</xref>). El influyente estudio de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31102_esp">Elmore (2004)</xref> caracterizan a los procesos de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica como integrados, multidimensionales, altamente focalizados en objetivos comunes y con coherencia en las intervenciones. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31102_esp">Hopkins (2007)</xref> destaca que las reformas que logran mejoras sist&#x00E9;micas construyen capacidades a nivel de las escuelas con apoyo externo combinado con crecimiento end&#x00F3;geno de autonom&#x00ED;a pedag&#x00F3;gica.</p>
<p>Esta literatura se ocupa predominantemente de los pa&#x00ED;ses desarrollados. Existen algunos antecedentes cl&#x00E1;sicos que analizan la mejora en pa&#x00ED;ses en v&#x00ED;as de desarrollo con escasos recursos y capacidades instaladas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31102_esp">Dalin, 1994</xref>). Otros estudios se han concentrado en analizar los factores asociados a los resultados educativos, especialmente en las nuevas tendencias que se concentran en sistematizar las evaluaciones de impacto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31102_esp">Masino y Ni&#x00F1;o-Zaraz&#x00FA;a, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>En Am&#x00E9;rica Latina el campo de investigaci&#x00F3;n sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos es limitado. El estudio de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31102_esp">Carnoy (2007)</xref> analiz&#x00F3; los casos de Brasil, Chile y Cuba, aunque no en base a la mejora en las pruebas sino en el resultado est&#x00E1;tico que mostraba a Cuba con los mejores resultados de la regi&#x00F3;n en las pruebas de la UNESCO. Nuestro propio estudio pionero elabor&#x00F3; algunas hip&#x00F3;tesis luego de comparar a lo largo de 15 a&#x00F1;os las pol&#x00ED;ticas y los resultados educativos de siete pa&#x00ED;ses de la regi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-31102_esp">Rivas, 2015</xref>). Otro antecedente es la investigaci&#x00F3;n comparada de estados y municipalidades en Brasil que lograron mejoras en sus resultados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31102_esp">Carnoy <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). El estudio reciente del proyecto RISE analiz&#x00F3; casos internacionales de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica de la educaci&#x00F3;n en pa&#x00ED;ses en v&#x00ED;as de desarrollo e incluy&#x00F3; algunos de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31102_esp">Crouch, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Estudios m&#x00E1;s espec&#x00ED;ficos se han centrado en el an&#x00E1;lisis individual de los casos: Per&#x00FA; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31102_esp">Cueto <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>), Cear&#x00E1; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-31102_esp">Vieira <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>), Sobral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31102_esp">Cruz y Loureiro, 2020</xref>) y Pernambuco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31102_esp">Neto, 2017</xref>). Nuestra investigaci&#x00F3;n comparada sobre 12 casos de mejora a nivel subnacional retoma varios de estos trabajos previos en el primer an&#x00E1;lisis en profundidad de varios casos de mejora en distintos pa&#x00ED;ses de la regi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31102_esp">Rivas, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>La construcci&#x00F3;n de teor&#x00ED;a sobre la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica de la educaci&#x00F3;n no termina de hallar forma en un campo con tan pocos antecedentes emp&#x00ED;ricos. Los organismos internacionales de cr&#x00E9;dito han elaborado algunos modelos te&#x00F3;ricos basados en la nueva gesti&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica y la creaci&#x00F3;n de mecanismos de incentivos basados en la competencia de mercado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-31102_esp">Vegas y Petrow, 2008</xref>). Otros estudios complementarios a esa perspectiva buscaron las claves de la econom&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica que favorecen las reformas basadas en la descentralizaci&#x00F3;n y la presi&#x00F3;n de la competencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31102_esp">Grindle, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Las pruebas de la UNESCO en la regi&#x00F3;n dieron lugar a documentos sobre los factores asociados a los logros en las pruebas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31102_esp">LLECE-UNESCO, 2013</xref>), aunque todav&#x00ED;a resta investigar en profundidad sobre los contextos y las pol&#x00ED;ticas de los pa&#x00ED;ses que han logrado mejoras en la regi&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>La ausencia de un campo de investigaciones sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos se ve contrastada en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina por la emergencia reciente del campo de las escuelas efectivas, una tem&#x00E1;tica cercana en t&#x00E9;rminos te&#x00F3;ricos y metodol&#x00F3;gicos. Este campo de investigaci&#x00F3;n es abundante y tiene sus anclajes en publicaciones claves (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31102_esp">Murillo, 2007</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31102_esp">Bellei <italic>et al</italic>., 2014</xref>), revistas acad&#x00E9;micas e incluso congresos internacionales. Con una audiencia m&#x00E1;s concentrada en los directivos escolares, esta literatura ha consolidado distintos marcos te&#x00F3;ricos que convergen en un campo de investigaci&#x00F3;n consolidado. En cambio, la mejora de los sistemas educativos es todav&#x00ED;a un terreno poco explorado, que no parece llamar la atenci&#x00F3;n de la investigaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica pese a la existencia de m&#x00FA;ltiples casos nacionales y subnacionales para comparar luego de tres d&#x00E9;cadas de evaluaciones. Tampoco ha sido objeto de debates te&#x00F3;ricos o de la b&#x00FA;squeda de distintas metodolog&#x00ED;as para abordar las preguntas que dejan abiertas estas evaluaciones.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31102_esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>ondiciones te&#x00F3;ricas</sc></bold></title>
<p>Toda teor&#x00ED;a asume referencias filos&#x00F3;ficas, pol&#x00ED;ticas y epistemol&#x00F3;gicas que conviene explicitar. El campo de estudio de la mejora de los sistemas educativos est&#x00E1; atravesado por disputas que van m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de lo metodol&#x00F3;gico y reconstruyen modelos de razonamiento cient&#x00ED;fico, campos disciplinares y tradiciones te&#x00F3;ricas.</p>
<p>Para estudiar la mejora de los sistemas educativos, propongo una primera condici&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica referida a un abordaje epistemol&#x00F3;gico que permita escapar a la disputa entre el positivismo y la hermen&#x00E9;utica interpretativa como paradigmas dominantes de la educaci&#x00F3;n comparada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31102_esp">Crossley, y Watson, 2003</xref>). En las posiciones m&#x00E1;s cercanas al positivismo, que encuentran su vertiente cl&#x00E1;sica en Edmund King, se propone asimilar los m&#x00E9;todos de las ciencias naturales para encontrar f&#x00F3;rmulas generalizables, leyes predictivas del comportamiento de los sistemas educativos. En la tradici&#x00F3;n interpretativa se encuentran las visiones arraigadas en la educaci&#x00F3;n comparada de Brian Holmes, que analiza la historia y los contextos en profundidad, buscando ampliar la comprensi&#x00F3;n de los sistemas y no la aplicaci&#x00F3;n de recetas de pol&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>La b&#x00FA;squeda de leyes universales tiene un apego por los m&#x00E9;todos cuantitativos que las evaluaciones estandarizadas han favorecido. La impronta positivista se conecta con el inter&#x00E9;s pr&#x00E1;ctico de la investigaci&#x00F3;n para la toma de decisiones y con realizar recomendaciones &#x201C;basadas en evidencia&#x201D;. En su an&#x00E1;lisis del campo del estudio de la efectividad escolar, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31102_esp">Fuller y Clarke (1994)</xref> llamaban a quienes pertenecen a esta tradici&#x00F3;n los &#x201C;mec&#x00E1;nicos de la pol&#x00ED;tica&#x201D;. Las soluciones parecen no tener fronteras: basta encontrar una pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa que funcione para llevarla a otro contexto totalmente distinto. En cambio, los &#x201C;culturalistas del aula&#x201D; responden a paradigmas interpretativos donde las pol&#x00ED;ticas se encuentran con distintas tradiciones y sentidos que no pueden extraerse de sus contextos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31102_esp">Fuller y Clarke, 1994</xref>). En esta segunda perspectiva, las pr&#x00E1;cticas pedag&#x00F3;gicas, los materiales de ense&#x00F1;anza, los procesos de socializaci&#x00F3;n que atraviesan los alumnos est&#x00E1;n inevitablemente atravesados por los significados culturales en los cuales se insertan, lo cual limita la replicabilidad de las pol&#x00ED;ticas.</p>
<p>La disputa epistemol&#x00F3;gica cl&#x00E1;sica entre la generalizaci&#x00F3;n y la especificaci&#x00F3;n puede ser eludida desde una tercera tradici&#x00F3;n, que asumimos en nuestra posici&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica: la actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica. Lars <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31102_esp">Mj&#x00F8;set (2006)</xref> presenta esta corriente te&#x00F3;rica para el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n comparada. La actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica continua una tradici&#x00F3;n empirista con un fuerte desarrollo te&#x00F3;rico. La teor&#x00ED;a es definida como una acumulaci&#x00F3;n reflexiva de conocimiento emp&#x00ED;rico que realiza un ejercicio en espiral de constataci&#x00F3;n y reformulaci&#x00F3;n. Las metodolog&#x00ED;as cualitativas permiten mayor flexibilidad para esta actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica que busca &#x201C;el estudio sistem&#x00E1;tico de constelaciones de factores individuales&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31102_esp">Mj&#x00F8;set, 2006</xref>, p. 350).</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s de una actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica, se propone un abordaje hol&#x00ED;stico que sea capaz de analizar la complejidad de los sistemas educativos situados en contextos culturales, sociales y pol&#x00ED;ticos espec&#x00ED;ficos. Las miradas simplistas sobre los resultados educativos son un obst&#x00E1;culo epistemol&#x00F3;gico. Resulta tentador buscar grandes factores para explicar la mejora: un cambio de gobierno, el aumento del financiamiento educativo o ciertas pol&#x00ED;ticas estelares. Sin embargo, los procesos de cambio de pr&#x00E1;cticas de ense&#x00F1;anza a gran escala tienen una complejidad que impide el an&#x00E1;lisis lineal de causa-efecto. Nuestro postulado es que si no se entra en esa &#x201C;caja negra&#x201D; de los procesos de cambio de las pr&#x00E1;cticas de ense&#x00F1;anza no es posible conceptualizar la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica.</p>
<p>Nuestra perspectiva te&#x00F3;rica toma como referencia los estudios previos sobre la complejidad de los sistemas educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31102_esp">Burns, y K&#x00F6;ster, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31102_esp">OECD, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-31102_esp">Snyder, 2013</xref>). En esta perspectiva, los resultados no pueden ser explicados por v&#x00ED;a de los componentes singulares de intervenciones sino en base a los flujos de interacci&#x00F3;n entre sujetos e instituciones educativa a gran escala. Los sistemas educativos son estructuras org&#x00E1;nicas no lineales que evolucionan en m&#x00FA;ltiples capas de retroalimentaci&#x00F3;n de interacciones simult&#x00E1;neas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-31102_esp">Sabelli, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>Este abordaje implica combinar saberes de distintas disciplinas. El campo de la ciencia pol&#x00ED;tica permite analizar los sistemas de gobierno y las relaciones de poder entre las instancias centrales estatales y las instituciones locales de educaci&#x00F3;n. El campo de la did&#x00E1;ctica y el curr&#x00ED;culum permiten conceptualizar la estructura del conocimiento y la ense&#x00F1;anza, sus modos y posibilidades de cambio en base a influencias externas o internas de los actores. Al mismo tiempo, la sociolog&#x00ED;a favorece las reflexiones sobre la distribuci&#x00F3;n de los aprendizajes y los efectos sociales de las pol&#x00ED;ticas y estructuras educativas. Incluso una mirada m&#x00E1;s epistemol&#x00F3;gica, filos&#x00F3;fica y antropol&#x00F3;gica nos abre las puertas para pensar los significados de la mejora medible en las pruebas y c&#x00F3;mo conceptualizar las ideas sobre los aprendizajes m&#x00E1;s valiosos para una sociedad y sus individuos.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis de estos procesos solo puede profundizarse de manera localizada. Nuestra hip&#x00F3;tesis te&#x00F3;rica es que la mejorar sist&#x00E9;mica cobra rasgos espec&#x00ED;ficos en contextos regionales como Am&#x00E9;rica Latina, con una amplia tradici&#x00F3;n compartida de modos de organizaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n, capacidades instaladas en los actores del sistema y recursos disponibles en sociedades desiguales con amplios niveles de pobreza. Estas condiciones, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las enormes diferencias entre pa&#x00ED;ses, permiten situar los umbrales de actuaci&#x00F3;n de la pol&#x00ED;tica p&#x00FA;blica en contextos espec&#x00ED;ficos.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31102_esp">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>U<sc>na teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica de la educaci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Siguiendo la tradici&#x00F3;n pragm&#x00E1;tica de la teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31102_esp">Glaser, 1992</xref>), los postulados que aqu&#x00ED; se proponen est&#x00E1;n basados en m&#x00FA;ltiples investigaciones previas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31102_esp">Barrenechea, Beech y Rivas, 2022</xref>). En particular, la m&#x00E1;s relevante ha sido el estudio comparado de 486 sistemas educativos subnacionales en Argentina, Brasil, Chile, Colombia, M&#x00E9;xico y Per&#x00FA; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31102_esp">Rivas y Scasso, 2020</xref>). All&#x00ED; comparamos todos los indicadores educativos durante el per&#x00ED;odo 2004-19, identificando casos de mejora en cada uno de los pa&#x00ED;ses y constat&#x00E1;ndolos a partir de una consulta con expertos. La selecci&#x00F3;n de 12 casos de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica prolongada en el tiempo nos permiti&#x00F3; estudiarlos en profundidad con entrevistas a los actores clave. Este trabajo fue desarrollado por un equipo de 19 investigadores de los seis pa&#x00ED;ses y permiti&#x00F3; construir el desarrollo de una teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica para el contexto de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina que se presenta en este art&#x00ED;culo.</p>
<p>La teor&#x00ED;a propone cuatro grandes ejes anal&#x00ED;ticos combinados:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>la gobernanza sist&#x00E9;mica</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>la expansi&#x00F3;n de capacidades de los actores del sistema</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>la alineaci&#x00F3;n de la rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>la coherencia en la traducci&#x00F3;n curricular.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>La gobernanza sist&#x00E9;mica refiere a las capacidades estatales de gesti&#x00F3;n de un proceso de mejora. Una amplia literatura sobre las capacidades estatales permite situar este eje en las teor&#x00ED;as provenientes de las ciencias pol&#x00ED;ticas. El cl&#x00E1;sico estudio de Mann se&#x00F1;ala la importancia del poder infraestructural del estado, como un tejido de legitimidad que permite penetrar en las creencias y pr&#x00E1;cticas de la sociedad dentro de un territorio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31102_esp">Mann, 1984</xref>). A diferencia del poder desp&#x00F3;tico, el poder infraestructural implica relaciones de cooperaci&#x00F3;n y confianza entre los ciudadanos y su gobierno.</p>
<p>Los estudios sobre capacidades estatales destacan la necesidad de priorizar entre demandas m&#x00FA;ltiples, hacer un uso eficaz de los recursos, coordinar objetivos contradictorios en un todo coherente y lograr estabilidad institucional de las pol&#x00ED;ticas, entre otras cuestiones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-31102_esp">Weaver y Rockman, 1993</xref>). En el campo educativo, algunas investigaciones han propuesto una sistematizaci&#x00F3;n de las dimensiones que definen la calidad de la gobernanza de los sistemas educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31102_esp">L&#x00F3;pez Rup&#x00E9;rez <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>) y las capacidades estatales en la conducci&#x00F3;n de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31102_esp">IIEP-UNESCO, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis espec&#x00ED;fico de las capacidades estatales en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina ha sido un tema ampliamente estudiado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-31102_esp">Repetto, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31102_esp">Grassi y Memoli, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-31102_esp">Soifer, 2012</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31102_esp">Kurtz, 2013</xref>). El trabajo reciente del Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo se concentra en el concepto de la confianza como eje vertebrador de la calidad y la sustentabilidad de las pol&#x00ED;ticas p&#x00FA;blicas en la regi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31102_esp">Keefer y Scartascini, 2022</xref>). Esto coincide con el enfoque de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31102_esp">Ehren y Baxter (2021)</xref> y los estudios de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31102_esp">Cerna (2014)</xref> sobre la importancia de la confianza en la gesti&#x00F3;n de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas.</p>
<p>Nuestra investigaci&#x00F3;n previamente citada nos ha permito elaborar una conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de las capacidades estatales en la gobernanza de los sistemas educativos que lograron mejorar en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. Con base en la evidencia emp&#x00ED;rica recolectada, all&#x00ED; destacamos las siguientes caracter&#x00ED;sticas de las capacidades estatales que inciden en la mejora de los sistemas educativos subnacionales de la regi&#x00F3;n:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(1)</label> <p>otorgar prioridad pol&#x00ED;tica a la educaci&#x00F3;n y blindarla de las batallas partidarias de corto plazo</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(2)</label> <p>comprender la cultura del sistema educativo, escuchar sus voces y respetar a los docentes</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(3)</label> <p>tener un liderazgo serio, reflexivo y flexible para generar acuerdos y legitimidad en las acciones</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(4)</label> <p>desarrollar equipos profesionales en la gesti&#x00F3;n de las pol&#x00ED;ticas</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(5)</label> <p>generar articulaciones con distintos actores dentro y fuera del sistema educativo.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Estas caracter&#x00ED;sticas se combinan con un enfoque incremental de la pol&#x00ED;tica p&#x00FA;blica, que parece especialmente relevante en la inestabilidad pol&#x00ED;tica y social de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. A diferencia de los estudios que concentran su foco en recetas de pol&#x00ED;ticas a implementar m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de los contextos, como el conocido Informe Mckinsey (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31102_esp">Mourshed <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>), lo que encontramos en nuestras investigaciones previas es que la mejora se construye de manera din&#x00E1;mica y flexible. Como se&#x00F1;alaba <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-31102_esp">Oszlak (1980)</xref>, el intento de planificaci&#x00F3;n excesiva no brinda las dosis de realismo necesario de los territorios inestables de actores en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. A diferencia de los enfoques ex ante, la tradici&#x00F3;n incremental se&#x00F1;ala la importancia de los pasos intermedios o de efectos &#x201C;bola de nieve&#x201D; de pol&#x00ED;ticas que se abren paso ganando legitimidad y continuidad.</p>
<p>Esto se constata en los enfoques de iteraciones de resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31102_esp">Andrews <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>): es m&#x00E1;s importante lograr avanzar a paso cierto y generar confianza en la capacidad de solucionar temas relevantes para los actores del sistema que seguir unas recetas universales de pol&#x00ED;tica. Gracias a estos giros de retroalimentaci&#x00F3;n se genera m&#x00E1;s confianza en las distintas esferas de gobierno y se construye un camino flexible con foco en la mejora por v&#x00ED;a de distintas puertas al sistema. Este enfoque construye lo que hemos llamado en estudios anteriores, una &#x201C;plataforma de gobierno de la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D;, sin la cual no es posible implementar de manera efectiva las complejas pol&#x00ED;ticas que alteran los resultados de aprendizaje a gran escala (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31102_esp">Rivas y Scasso, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>La gobernanza sist&#x00E9;mica genera efectos combinados en la dimensi&#x00F3;n simb&#x00F3;lica y material del espacio y el tiempo de los sistemas educativos. En el campo simb&#x00F3;lico afianza en los actores del sistema una serie de prioridades, motivaciones y visiones compartidas. En el plano de la secuencia temporal genera garant&#x00ED;as de continuidad y sostenibilidad de las pol&#x00ED;ticas.</p>
<p>El segundo eje, referido a las capacidades de los actores del sistema, define las condiciones de la din&#x00E1;mica y horizontalidad de los procesos de mejora. Las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas tienen la caracter&#x00ED;stica de ser muy descentralizadas e interpersonales: operan en el nivel micro de las aulas mediadas por la intervenci&#x00F3;n personal de miles de docentes individuales. No se puede forzar la mejora ni digitar desde fuera: es necesaria la participaci&#x00F3;n, el involucramiento y la subjetivaci&#x00F3;n de los procesos encarnados en numerosos actores individuales y colectivos.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31102_esp">Burns y Koster (2016)</xref> desarrollan un enfoque de las capacidades de un sistema educativo en cuatro niveles: individual, institucional (a nivel escolar), sist&#x00E9;mico y societal. El nivel individual se define a partir de las posibilidades que tienen los sujetos del sistema de desarrollar nuevas ideas en el contexto local a partir del conocimiento existente. Esto se expande a partir del nivel institucional donde es clave la direcci&#x00F3;n escolar para generar ambientes de aprendizaje y reflexi&#x00F3;n constante.</p>
<p>Este eje puede implicar la generaci&#x00F3;n, expansi&#x00F3;n y liberaci&#x00F3;n de capacidades dentro del sistema educativo, tres procesos diferentes que pueden combinarse entre s&#x00ED;. Lo relevante en este eje es la construcci&#x00F3;n de una din&#x00E1;mica creciente de aprendizaje, reflexi&#x00F3;n y poder de agencia por parte de los educadores. Sin este enfoque din&#x00E1;mico los procesos de mejora pueden suceder en una etapa (quiz&#x00E1;s m&#x00E1;s instrumental y tecnocr&#x00E1;tica) pero no sostenerse en el tiempo. Avanzar en esta direcci&#x00F3;n implica la construcci&#x00F3;n de un cierto ecosistema donde se valoren y comuniquen de manera efectiva los procesos de aprendizaje a nivel local para que no se dispersen y, de esta manera, evitar la dependencia de las pol&#x00ED;ticas que intervienen desde fuera hacia dentro o desde arriba hacia abajo en t&#x00E9;rminos jer&#x00E1;rquicos.</p>
<p>En Am&#x00E9;rica Latina encontramos contextos diversos de interacci&#x00F3;n de los actores educativos. En algunos sistemas educativos como el caso de Colombia, existe una fuerte tradici&#x00F3;n de autonom&#x00ED;a de las escuelas y docentes, mientras en otros casos como M&#x00E9;xico hay mecanismos de regulaci&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica centralizada m&#x00E1;s r&#x00ED;gidos y estructurados (como los libros de texto que produce el Estado y entrega a todos los alumnos del pa&#x00ED;s). M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de ciertas caracter&#x00ED;sticas compartidas en la regi&#x00F3;n, esta dimensi&#x00F3;n var&#x00ED;a ampliamente tanto en los circuitos de formaci&#x00F3;n docente inicial como en las pr&#x00E1;cticas de regulaci&#x00F3;n y control de las escuelas.</p>
<p>El tercer eje refiere a los procesos de rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas que expresan la alineaci&#x00F3;n y el control de los sistemas educativos. La rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas indica la existencia de una serie de objetivos compartidos, definidos con claridad, comunicables y alcanzables, que son monitoreados con regularidad y producen cierta consistencia sist&#x00E9;mica entre las pr&#x00E1;cticas, las motivaciones y las expectativas de los actores e instituciones educativas.</p>
<p>La rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas depende de la creaci&#x00F3;n de un tablero de control de datos que permiten identificar responsabilidades y logros a escala de las instituciones educativas. En todos los casos estudiados de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica, esta base de informaci&#x00F3;n sist&#x00E9;mica y detallada aparece como una condici&#x00F3;n necesaria para la planificaci&#x00F3;n de acciones y para la asignaci&#x00F3;n compartida de responsabilidades. Esto es lo que llamamos en estudios anteriores el &#x201C;enfoque multifocal&#x201D; de la mejora: un dispositivo de flujo de informaci&#x00F3;n constante sobre los logros de cada escuela en m&#x00FA;ltiples indicadores para poder definir un plan de mejora, asistencia externa y/o incentivos para impulsar a los diversos actores del sistema en objetivos compartidos.</p>
<p>Estudios previos se han centrado particularmente en los esquemas de rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas como el n&#x00FA;cleo de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31102_esp">Pritchett (2015)</xref> desarroll&#x00F3; un modelo te&#x00F3;rico centrado en la coherencia sist&#x00E9;mica. La coherencia se construye cuando el equilibrio es balanceado en la autonom&#x00ED;a, las capacidades y la rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas que tienen los actores del sistema; cuando la informaci&#x00F3;n fluye de manera clara y compacta para definir los prop&#x00F3;sitos; y cuando estos prop&#x00F3;sitos son coherentes a escala del sistema completo, demarcando un rumbo compartido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31102_esp">Pritchett, 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>Nuestra hip&#x00F3;tesis te&#x00F3;rica en este punto es que los procesos de rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina son indisociables de la gobernanza sist&#x00E9;mica: necesitan de instituciones de gobierno s&#x00F3;lidas, confiables y perdurables para asentarse en los actores de una manera no excesivamente r&#x00ED;gida ni sofocante. Los casos de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica que hemos estudiado previamente muestran la importancia de los sistemas de rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas: en Cear&#x00E1;, Pernambuco (estados de Brasil) y Puebla (estado de M&#x00E9;xico) encontramos sistemas alineados de objetivos, incentivos y mediciones constantes. Sin embargo, estos sistemas estaban acompa&#x00F1;ados de grandes dosis de confianza en las instituciones de gobierno y procesos de apoyo constante a las escuelas que tienen condiciones m&#x00E1;s adversas. No se trata de sistemas de competencia excluyente sino que combinan una &#x201C;presi&#x00F3;n positiva&#x201D; por los resultados con mecanismos de apoyo preventivos basados en la colaboraci&#x00F3;n y coordinaci&#x00F3;n entre escuelas.</p>
<p>El cuarto eje abre la caja negra de los procesos de mejora y se refiere a la estructura de la traducci&#x00F3;n del conocimiento escolar. En palabras de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31102_esp">Basil Bersntein (2000)</xref> nos referimos a los procesos de recontextualizaci&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica que condensan la organizaci&#x00F3;n y gesti&#x00F3;n sist&#x00E9;mica del curr&#x00ED;culum.</p>
<p>La gobernanza curricular nos remite a los estudios sobre el flujo pedag&#x00F3;gico que viaja de las pol&#x00ED;ticas a las aulas. El trabajo pionero de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31102_esp">Cohen y Spillane (1992)</xref> se&#x00F1;alaba la importancia de combinar consistencia, especificidad y claridad con los niveles de prescripci&#x00F3;n, jerarquizaci&#x00F3;n y secuenciaci&#x00F3;n del curr&#x00ED;culum. Quiz&#x00E1;s el estudio m&#x00E1;s emblem&#x00E1;tico de esta corriente teor&#x00ED;a es el libro &#x201C;<italic>Why Schools Matter</italic>&#x201D;, que estudi&#x00F3; el flujo de la pol&#x00ED;tica curricular en los 54 pa&#x00ED;ses participantes de la prueba TIMMS. All&#x00ED; se destacaba que los pa&#x00ED;ses con mejores resultados tienen una estructura curricular con m&#x00E1;s foco, claridad, articulaci&#x00F3;n y rigurosidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-31102_esp">Schimdt <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>).</p>
<p>La hip&#x00F3;tesis detr&#x00E1;s de este cuarto eje de la teor&#x00ED;a es que no se puede producir una mejora sist&#x00E9;mica sin comprender la din&#x00E1;mica interna de gesti&#x00F3;n del conocimiento escolar. En algunos casos de sistemas educativos subnacionales se pueden producir procesos de mejora con relativa independencia de la estructura de gobierno curricular, pero estas mejoras estar&#x00E1;n siempre limitadas por un factor externo no controlable que puede ser potenciado por las agencias que tienen mayor capacidad de regulaci&#x00F3;n curricular (en muchos pa&#x00ED;ses estas atribuciones est&#x00E1;n en manos nacionales, mientras los gobiernos locales tienen facultades curriculares acotadas).</p>
<p>La capacidad de adecuaci&#x00F3;n curricular y pedag&#x00F3;gica requiere una combinaci&#x00F3;n de conocimientos t&#x00E9;cnicos, di&#x00E1;logos con los actores del sistema y continuidad en el tiempo. Estos tres factores escasean en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. Quiz&#x00E1;s esa sea una de las razones por las cuales es tan dif&#x00ED;cil encontrar procesos de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica en la regi&#x00F3;n. En estudios previos en la regi&#x00F3;n se desataca el bajo nivel de claridad, foco y rigor en los instrumentos curriculares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-31102_esp">Valverde, 2009</xref>). Una investigaci&#x00F3;n comparada sobre los sistemas educativos de Cuba, Chile y Brasil destacaba c&#x00F3;mo Cuba lograba mejores resultados educativos en base a una fuerte integraci&#x00F3;n entre el curr&#x00ED;culum, la formaci&#x00F3;n docente y los materiales para la ense&#x00F1;anza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31102_esp">Carnoy, 2007</xref>).</p>
<p>Los casos que hemos hallado en nuestra propia investigaci&#x00F3;n sobre los sistemas educativos subnacionales en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina van en la misma direcci&#x00F3;n. Los casos de Cear&#x00E1; y Pernambuco en Brasil, C&#x00F3;rdoba en Argentina y Puebla en M&#x00E9;xico tuvieron una capacidad destacada de gesti&#x00F3;n curricular, con fuertes competencias t&#x00E9;cnicas y dispositivos coordinados que producen materiales y gu&#x00ED;as en di&#x00E1;logo con los docentes y las escuelas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31102_esp">Rivas, 2021</xref>). Estos son ejemplos de conversi&#x00F3;n de los canales de pol&#x00ED;tica curricular y pedag&#x00F3;gica en verdaderos dispositivos que traccionan en conjunto para lograr mejores resultados.</p>
<p>Nuevamente este eje se potencia con el desarrollo de los ejes anal&#x00ED;ticos anteriores. Por ejemplo, las pol&#x00ED;ticas curriculares tambi&#x00E9;n se combinan con la legitimidad de las instituciones de gobierno. Estudios previos comparados indican que los pa&#x00ED;ses con mejores resultados en las evaluaciones estandarizadas tienen un sistema de gobierno curricular confiable que propone a los docentes contenidos que puedan interpretar, entender y aplicar, con procesos de retroalimentaci&#x00F3;n y calibraci&#x00F3;n constante (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-31102_esp">Schimdt y Prawat, 2006</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31102_esp">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>strategias metodol&#x00F3;gicas</sc></bold></title>
<p>El marco te&#x00F3;rico para el an&#x00E1;lisis de la mejora de los sistemas educativos en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina tiene una derivaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica directa. En este apartado se presentan algunas estrategias metodol&#x00F3;gicas que permiten el an&#x00E1;lisis de los procesos de mejora utilizando este marco te&#x00F3;rico.</p>
<sec id="sec-6-31102_esp">
<label>5.1.</label>
<title><italic>Multiplicar las fuentes de datos sobre los procesos de mejora y analizar la validez intertemporal de cada fuente</italic></title>
<p>La primera estrategia metodol&#x00F3;gica retoma uno de los obst&#x00E1;culos centrales de los estudios sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos: la fr&#x00E1;gil validez metodol&#x00F3;gica de la comparaci&#x00F3;n intertemporal de las evaluaciones estandarizadas (especialmente) y otros indicadores educativos.</p>
<p>Existen distintas estrategias metodol&#x00F3;gicas para enfrentar este obst&#x00E1;culo. La primera implica en an&#x00E1;lisis metodol&#x00F3;gico de la validez intertemporal de las evaluaciones estandarizadas. Un an&#x00E1;lisis de los documentos metodol&#x00F3;gicos de las pruebas es un primer paso, pero muchas veces en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina las pruebas no definen de manera expl&#x00ED;cita estos aspectos t&#x00E9;cnicos y es necesario realizar entrevistas con los agentes especializados oficiales para comprender mejor los posibles sesgos y problemas metodol&#x00F3;gicos de las pruebas. Lamentablemente las pruebas estandarizadas son instrumentos con alto margen de error y pueden terminar generando estudios sobre casos de mejora que en realidad solo cristalizan alguna falla metodol&#x00F3;gica en la aplicaci&#x00F3;n de las pruebas.</p>
<p>Una segunda estrategia complementaria es la multiplicaci&#x00F3;n de las fuentes de datos que permiten medir los casos de mejora. Si se analizan pa&#x00ED;ses se recomienda comparar distintas evaluaciones estandarizadas: las pruebas nacionales e internacionales (la mayor&#x00ED;a de los pa&#x00ED;ses de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina tiene evaluaciones propias y participa de pruebas internacionales). Otra manera de multiplicar las fuentes es apelar a una visi&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s amplia del ecosistema de datos que tienen los pa&#x00ED;ses: datos de acceso a la educaci&#x00F3;n, trayectorias de los alumnos, equidad educativa, entre otros. As&#x00ED; se pueden seleccionar casos de mejora en varios indicadores consistentes a lo largo del tiempo, evitando grandes saltos de un a&#x00F1;o a otro en las evaluaciones estandarizadas que pueden ser fruto de problemas estad&#x00ED;sticos y no mejoras reales.</p>
<p>Otras estrategias cuantitativas m&#x00E1;s sofisticadas pueden permitir comprender el funcionamiento de distintas variables asociadas a las pruebas y en particular el efecto de valor agregado entre distintas ediciones, controlando otros factores como el contexto social de los estudiantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31102_esp">Carnoy <italic>et al</italic>. 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>Finalmente, otra manera de escapar de las trampas de las evaluaciones estandarizadas es ampliar la mirada sobre qu&#x00E9; significa la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica. Por ejemplo, se pueden realizar entrevistas a expertos en los sistemas educativos analizados para encontrar posibles procesos de mejora que no sean captados en las evaluaciones o se puede consultar a los actores del sistema sobre aspectos educativos que no son evaluados de manera estandarizada.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-31102_esp">
<label>5.2.</label>
<title><italic>Comparaci&#x00F3;n de casos mediante m&#x00FA;ltiples variables cuanti y cualitativas</italic></title>
<p>Para generar hip&#x00F3;tesis sobre los procesos de mejora sist&#x00E9;mica es clave apelar al an&#x00E1;lisis comparado de descripci&#x00F3;n, interpretaci&#x00F3;n, yuxtaposici&#x00F3;n y comparaci&#x00F3;n simult&#x00E1;nea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31102_esp">Beraday, 1964</xref>). Un caso que logra mejoras en su propia prueba puede ser analizado, pero la mirada comparada con otros casos que participan de pruebas comparadas internacionales o subnacionales permitir&#x00E1; poner en juego m&#x00FA;ltiples variables anal&#x00ED;ticas. Muchas de las explicaciones singulares pueden ser falsificadas a partir de la comparaci&#x00F3;n con casos equiparables.</p>
<p>Las estrategias cuantitativas pueden servir si existen datos comparables que permitan medir factores asociados a lo largo del tiempo en un conjunto de casos. Esto permite realizar an&#x00E1;lisis de regresi&#x00F3;n m&#x00FA;ltiples para aislar variables.</p>
<p>El estudio de factores macro-estructurales que afectan los resultados educativos es una estrategia complementaria necesaria para evitar los posibles sesgos de las bases de datos disponibles. Por ejemplo, es clave estudiar las diferencias en los resultados en las pruebas estandarizadas en distintas &#x00E1;reas de aprendizaje y a&#x00F1;os evaluados para confrontar distintos tipos de pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas implementadas.</p>
<p>El principio de la falsificaci&#x00F3;n requiere comparar m&#x00FA;ltiples variables con distintos tipos de datos disponibles. Si la mejora se concentr&#x00F3; en lectura pero no en matem&#x00E1;tica, &#x00BF;hay posibles hip&#x00F3;tesis de intervenciones diferenciales de pol&#x00ED;tica? Si la mejora fue mayor en primaria que en secundaria, &#x00BF;fue porque hubo diferencias de pol&#x00ED;ticas, de gobernabilidad del subsistema o de factores ex&#x00F3;genos a la educaci&#x00F3;n que afectaron m&#x00E1;s a un grupo etario que a otro? Si la mejora fue durante un per&#x00ED;odo de tiempo y luego se detuvo, &#x00BF;hubo pol&#x00ED;ticas espec&#x00ED;ficas que se discontinuaron? Si la mejora fue en una edici&#x00F3;n de la prueba, &#x00BF;cu&#x00E1;l es el plazo de los efectos de las pol&#x00ED;ticas, considerando que los alumnos comienzan su escolarizaci&#x00F3;n mucho antes de ser evaluados y arrastran esos aprendizajes de manera longitudinal?</p>
<p>Para indagar estas grandes preguntas es importante mapear las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas en su contexto hist&#x00F3;rico. El an&#x00E1;lisis de documentos y la realizaci&#x00F3;n de entrevistas con actores claves son las metodolog&#x00ED;as m&#x00E1;s conocidas para esta tarea de reconstrucci&#x00F3;n de las trayectorias de las pol&#x00ED;ticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31102_esp">Gale, 2001</xref>). Esto permite construir un mapa sistem&#x00E1;tico de intervenciones en un per&#x00ED;odo de tiempo que deber&#x00ED;a retomar el momento en que comenzaron su recorrido educativo los alumnos evaluados en la primera edici&#x00F3;n de las pruebas que se est&#x00E1;n comparando hasta el a&#x00F1;o final de esas mismas pruebas. La secuenciaci&#x00F3;n del contexto socio-econ&#x00F3;mico y de cada una de las estrategias relevantes de pol&#x00ED;tica permitir&#x00E1; construir distintos escenarios y contrastar hip&#x00F3;tesis que aparecen muchas veces a priori y que no sobreviven la comparaci&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica de variables en el tiempo y espacio.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-31102_esp">
<label>5.3.</label>
<title><italic>Analizar la recepci&#x00F3;n de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas y la cultura del sistema</italic></title>
<p>El mapeo de pol&#x00ED;ticas y variables macro-estructurales son herramientas vitales pero limitadas para comprender la complejidad de los sistemas educativos. Incluso los cuestionarios complementarios a las pruebas, que aportan informaci&#x00F3;n relevante de los actores e instituciones del sistema, tienen limitaciones metodol&#x00F3;gicas evidentes. Una tercera estrategia metodol&#x00F3;gica implica entrar en el tejido interno del sistema educativo para captar las traducciones de las pol&#x00ED;ticas, las interpretaciones y las capacidades de los actores en su territorio. La realizaci&#x00F3;n de entrevistas con docentes, alumnos y actores de la comunidad educativa es un paso clave, pero requiere muchos recursos y tiempo para realizar muestras representativas. Cabe aqu&#x00ED; remarcar que aunque no respondan a una muestra representativa estas entrevistas pueden ser importantes para tomar la temperatura del sistema y conocer desde los testimonios algunas visiones que permitan sofisticar o matizar argumentos macro-pol&#x00ED;ticos.</p>
<p>Realizar entrevistas o grupos focales con directivos de escuelas puede ser una estrategia valiosa para captar las representaciones de los actores del sistema en una escala m&#x00E1;s acotada. Un paso m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; siempre deseable pero muy costoso para practicar es la observaci&#x00F3;n o filmaci&#x00F3;n de clases o los trabajos de corte etnogr&#x00E1;fico de observaci&#x00F3;n participante de la vida diaria de las instituciones educativas. Esta v&#x00ED;a permite encontrar las pr&#x00E1;cticas en su ambiente natural, no mediadas por las representaciones de los testimonios de los actores entrevistados.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis del interior del sistema educativo favorece la reconstrucci&#x00F3;n de los recorridos, traducciones y reinterpretaciones de las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas. Esto permite revisar hip&#x00F3;tesis muchas veces ingenuas o incompletas sobre los efectos de las pol&#x00ED;ticas en los resultados educativos. A su vez, la visi&#x00F3;n de los actores del sistema (incluyendo a los estudiantes) es un camino recomendable para analizar qu&#x00E9; significa la mejora m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las mediciones. En muchas entrevistas y observaciones se puede escapar a la prisi&#x00F3;n de los datos cuantitativos para interpretar c&#x00F3;mo un sistema educativo genera m&#x00FA;ltiples efectos y aprendizajes que no pueden ser captados por sistemas estandarizados.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-31102_esp">
<label>5.4.</label>
<title><italic>An&#x00E1;lisis del flujo curricular</italic></title>
<p>Una estrategia metodol&#x00F3;gica complementaria a las anteriores es el estudio del flujo de la pol&#x00ED;tica curricular. Esta estrategia permite abrir la caja negra de las traducciones de la estructura del conocimiento escolar. Algunos estudios internacionales han analizado el impacto del curr&#x00ED;culum prescripto, los libros de texto y la planificaci&#x00F3;n docente en los resultados de las evaluaciones estandarizadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-31102_esp">Schmidt <italic>et al</italic>., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-31102_esp">Westbury y Hsu, 1996</xref>). Estas l&#x00ED;neas de investigaci&#x00F3;n no se han aplicado en general en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina y queda mucho por conocer de los procesos de traducci&#x00F3;n curricular, su evoluci&#x00F3;n en el tiempo y la comparaci&#x00F3;n de contextos y pa&#x00ED;ses.</p>
<p>El prop&#x00F3;sito central de esta estrategia es comparar los modelos de organizaci&#x00F3;n, prescripci&#x00F3;n, coherencia y extensi&#x00F3;n curricular para comprender la manera en que afectan los procesos de aprendizaje.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-31102_esp" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscusi&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Los cuatro ejes anal&#x00ED;ticos de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica son piezas que encajan en un rompecabezas. No pueden verse aisladamente. Es en la combinaci&#x00F3;n que generan lo que podr&#x00ED;amos llamar &#x201C;la combusti&#x00F3;n&#x201D; necesaria para la mejora sostenible continua. Esto no implica que los sistemas mejoren &#x00FA;nicamente cuando est&#x00E1;n presentes estos cuatro ejes, desde ya que pueden estar m&#x00E1;s desarrollados unos que otros y sintonizar de distintas maneras en cada contexto con las tradiciones vigentes de ese sistema educativo.</p>
<p>El esquema te&#x00F3;rico propuesto intenta dar un marco para desarrollar estudios emp&#x00ED;ricos. Viene de las investigaciones en sistemas comparados y vuelve a ellas. La teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada se construye en base a mucha investigaci&#x00F3;n previa que permite desarrollar categor&#x00ED;as asentadas en evidencias concretas y un marco que pueda pasar por la verificaci&#x00F3;n de m&#x00FA;ltiples casos de mejora.</p>
<p>Se trata de un modelo te&#x00F3;rico que se apoya especialmente en los estudios previos compilados por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31102_esp">Ehren y Baxter (2021)</xref>. All&#x00ED; las autoras desarrollan un marco anal&#x00ED;tico de las reformas sist&#x00E9;micas basado en tres ejes vertebradores: la confianza, la rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas y las capacidades. Estas tres dimensiones son complementadas en nuestro marco te&#x00F3;rico por una cuarta, referida al proceso de traducci&#x00F3;n curricular que brinda m&#x00E1;s relieve a las maneras en las cuales se vinculan las pol&#x00ED;ticas macro con las pr&#x00E1;cticas locales con foco en la coherencia y alineaci&#x00F3;n curricular del sistema.</p>
<p>A su vez, nuestra teor&#x00ED;a busca un desarrollo espec&#x00ED;fico para el contexto de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. Partiendo del estudio de casos de mejora en la regi&#x00F3;n y de la adecuaci&#x00F3;n de las categor&#x00ED;as a las particularidades del contexto, este art&#x00ED;culo favorece una mirada comparada de los sistemas educativos basada en la yuxtaposici&#x00F3;n de factores de semejanza y cercan&#x00ED;a. &#x00BF;Puede este mismo marco te&#x00F3;rico ser &#x00FA;til para analizar la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica en otros contextos? Desde luego que s&#x00ED;, pero partiendo de la concepci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada, basada en m&#x00FA;ltiples estudios emp&#x00ED;ricos previos, resulta m&#x00E1;s adecuado plantear la propuesta te&#x00F3;rica ajustada al contexto del cual parte.</p>
<p>El di&#x00E1;logo de este modelo te&#x00F3;rico con algunos antecedentes relevantes en el campo de la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa es inevitable. Existe en particular un anclaje central en el estudio de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica que es el conocido Informe Mckinsey (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31102_esp">Mourshed <italic>et al</italic>., 2010</xref>). Nuestros estudios previos encuentran muchas similitudes con algunas de las conclusiones centrales de este informe. En particular, vemos el flujo que se produce entre la regulaci&#x00F3;n centralizada para los contextos de bajo desarrollo y la extensi&#x00F3;n de las capacidades locales para lograr consolidar procesos de mejora. Sin embargo, nuestro enfoque se diferencia en un eje central que es el de la lectura de los contextos y el an&#x00E1;lisis de las modalidades de gobierno.</p>
<p>A diferencia de las recetas universales que plantea el Informe Mckinsey, nuestra teor&#x00ED;a argumenta que la mejora es posible en condiciones de flexibilidad y con enfoques incrementales. No es tan decisivo qu&#x00E9; pol&#x00ED;ticas se implementan sino de qu&#x00E9; manera se gobierna el sistema: es m&#x00E1;s importante lograr avances concretos, generar confianza, construir legitimidad y abrir puertas que aplicar una receta espec&#x00ED;fica de manual. Los sistemas educativos de Am&#x00E9;rica Latina son fr&#x00E1;giles e inciertos: lo que genera procesos de mejora es din&#x00E1;mico, contextualizado y fuertemente apoyado en la resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas concretos que viven los actores del sistema. Esta l&#x00F3;gica m&#x00E1;s territorial, situada e incremental se combina con los otros ejes analizados: la construcci&#x00F3;n de capacidades; la definici&#x00F3;n clara de objetivos y la coherencia de la rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas; y la alineaci&#x00F3;n sist&#x00E9;mica de los marcos curriculares que alimentan las pr&#x00E1;cticas pedag&#x00F3;gicas.</p>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, cabe remarcar el punto ciego de nuestra teor&#x00ED;a. Uno de los ejes que explican la baja densidad te&#x00F3;rica y emp&#x00ED;rica del debate acad&#x00E9;mico sobre la mejora de los sistemas educativos en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina es el significado que adquieren las mediciones estandarizadas de la calidad. Reducidas a recortes sesgados sobre los fines de la educaci&#x00F3;n, las pruebas son una jaula de hierro para los sistemas. Cuando son fuertes marcas del camino a seguir (mediante rendiciones de cuentas de alto impacto) tienen el riesgo de reducir las &#x00E1;reas no evaluadas y ense&#x00F1;ar para la prueba.</p>
<p>&#x00BF;Puede esta teor&#x00ED;a ser suficiente para escapar a este magnetismo de lo medible? Hay dos maneras de contestar esta pregunta. La primera es emp&#x00ED;rica y requiere estudios que analicen si las pruebas estandarizas se correlacionan bien con los aprendizajes no medibles. Sabemos poco en este terreno, pero no es imposible avanzar desde la investigaci&#x00F3;n en medir de maneras m&#x00E1;s amplias y en analizar aquello que no se mide con otras estrategias metodol&#x00F3;gicas.</p>
<p>La segunda respuesta est&#x00E1; anclada en el posicionamiento pol&#x00ED;tico de nuestra propuesta te&#x00F3;rica. No es necesario caer en una polarizaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;blanco-negro&#x201D;. Las pruebas estandarizadas bien pueden tener o generar sesgos, pero tambi&#x00E9;n tienen un valor en s&#x00ED; mismo. Basta ver lo m&#x00E1;s b&#x00E1;sico: si los alumnos pueden o no leer y comprender un texto es un componente central de su derecho a la educaci&#x00F3;n y esto puede efectivamente medirse. Esta actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica, como la hemos definido, no cae en la mirada tecnocr&#x00E1;tica de las evaluaciones como espejos de los sistemas. Justamente es el estrato te&#x00F3;rico el que permite conceptualizar la complejidad de lo que se mide y, sobre todo, de c&#x00F3;mo se modifican las pr&#x00E1;cticas de un sistema completo para que sus resultados cambien.</p>
<p>Salir de los sesgos anal&#x00ED;ticos simplistas que proponen hip&#x00F3;tesis lineales de explicaci&#x00F3;n de los resultados es un paso necesario para revisar qu&#x00E9; es y qu&#x00E9; significa la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica. Esperamos contribuir a esta b&#x00FA;squeda con una teor&#x00ED;a que sea aplicable y abierta a la vez a otras visiones sobre cu&#x00E1;les son los objetivos de los sistemas educativos en contextos diversos y en un mundo cambiante e incierto.</p>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31102</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31102</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>A THEORY FOR SYSTEMIC IMPROVEMENT OF EDUCATION IN LATIN AMERICA</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>Una teor&#x00ED;a para la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica de la educaci&#x00F3;n en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4714-3511</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>RIVAS</surname>
<given-names>Axel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_eng"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_eng">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de San Andr&#x00E9;s. Argentina.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de San Andr&#x00E9;s</institution>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_eng"><email>arivas@udesa.edu.ar</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
    <fpage>99</fpage>
    <lpage>120</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>12</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>03</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>The study of the improvement of educational systems has little development in the tradition of research in Latin America. The appearance of standardized assessments, which allow the comparison of student&#x2019;s achievement over time, has generated biased or simplistic interpretations of the causes of learning outcomes. The proposal for a theory of systemic improvement is based on these warnings and seeks to generate a framework that escapes evaluation biases with a pragmatic attitude that can interpret and use them to consolidate a vision of the complexity of educational systems.</p>
<p>The grounded theory that is presented is based on multiple previous research and is organized based on four combined analytical axes: 1-systemic governance, 2-the expansion of capacities of the education system actors, 3-the alignment of accountability and 4-coherence in curricular translation. These axes require entering the black box of the functioning of educational systems and noticing the multiple layers that mediate between policies and teaching practices. In order to advance in this direction, a series of methodological derivations are proposed that favor empirical testing of the theoretical proposal. Finally, the epistemological and political problem of defining the processes of &#x0022;systemic improvement&#x0022; and the need to use and at the same time go beyond standardized evaluations are addressed.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>El estudio de la mejora de los sistemas educativos tiene un escaso desarrollo en la tradici&#x00F3;n de la investigaci&#x00F3;n en Am&#x00E9;rica Latina. La aparici&#x00F3;n de las evaluaciones estandarizadas, que permiten la comparaci&#x00F3;n en el tiempo de los logros, ha generado interpretaciones sesgadas o simplistas sobre las causas de los resultados de aprendizajes. La propuesta de una teor&#x00ED;a de la mejora sist&#x00E9;mica parte de estas advertencias y busca generar un marco que escape a los sesgos de las evaluaciones con una actitud pragm&#x00E1;tica que pueda interpretarlas y usarlas para consolidar una visi&#x00F3;n de la complejidad de los sistemas educativos.</p>
<p>La teor&#x00ED;a fundamentada que se presenta est&#x00E1; basada en m&#x00FA;ltiples investigaciones previas y se organiza en base a cuatro ejes anal&#x00ED;ticos combinados: 1-la gobernanza sist&#x00E9;mica, 2-la expansi&#x00F3;n de capacidades de los actores del sistema, 3-la alineaci&#x00F3;n de la rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas y 4-la coherencia en la traducci&#x00F3;n curricular. Estos ejes requieren entrar en la caja negra del funcionamiento de los sistemas educativos y advertir las m&#x00FA;ltiples capas que median entre las pol&#x00ED;ticas y las pr&#x00E1;cticas de ense&#x00F1;anza. Para lograr avanzar en esta direcci&#x00F3;n se plantean una serie de derivaciones metodol&#x00F3;gicas que favorezcan testeos emp&#x00ED;ricos de la propuesta te&#x00F3;rica. Finalmente, se aborda el problema epistemol&#x00F3;gico y pol&#x00ED;tico de la definici&#x00F3;n de los procesos de &#x201C;mejora sist&#x00E9;mica&#x201D; y la necesidad de usar y al mismo tiempo ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las evaluaciones estandarizadas.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>systemic improvement</kwd>
<kwd>educational systems</kwd>
<kwd>comparative education</kwd>
<kwd>Latin America</kwd>
<kwd>educational policy</kwd>
<kwd>standardized assessments</kwd>
<kwd>quality of education</kwd>
<kwd>educational governance</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>mejora sist&#x00E9;mica</kwd>
<kwd>sistemas educativos</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n comparada</kwd>
<kwd>Am&#x00E9;rica Latina</kwd>
<kwd>pol&#x00ED;tica educativa</kwd>
<kwd>evaluaciones estandarizadas</kwd>
<kwd>calidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>gobernanza educativa</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31102_eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>In Latin America, standardized assessments that measure learning appeared in most countries in the early 1990s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31102_eng">Mart&#x00ED;nez Rizo, 2008</xref>). During these long 30 years, international comparative tests were also applied in the region: OECD&#x0027;s PISA for secondary level and UNESCO&#x0027;s ERCE for primary level. Latin America has been populated with measurements that make it possible to compare the evolution of educational results over time. However, there is almost no precedents of research on the improvement of education systems based on these data. Much less can we speak of a field of research on the subject. Precisely when it is possible to measure the evolution of the systems and to point out who is improving or worsening in the headlines of the newspapers, it does not seem to be the object of attention from the field of research.</p>
<p>This is the paradox of standardized tests: they shine a light on systems until they blind them. Tests are often misinterpreted or used politically. They generate discomfort in almost all systems. Even those that improve often do not know it because the news is the &#x0022;low level&#x0022;, always detectable in a region with such large social debts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31102_eng">Ravela, 2003</xref>). Identifying cases of improvement seems to be an accomplice work with these standardized reflectors that rest on the systems. Doubts, fears, excuses and disinterest in &#x0022;measurable improvement&#x0022; appear, as if it were a mere power effect of those who use evidence to judge from the outside what happens within the systems.</p>
<p>This vacuum in the field of research is hastily filled by non-specialized interpreters who carry out superficial analyses or by the technocratic imprint of international organizations that seek to establish causal relationships in order to make policy recommendations.</p>
<p>The absence of in-depth and rigorous comparative studies on the improvement of education systems in the region is the starting point for this article. At its base is the search for a more elaborate understanding of how systems function, how they can improve and what meanings the concept of &#x0022;improvement&#x0022; has. To that end, I propose a theory for analyzing the improvement of educational systems in Latin America that can escape hasty conclusions and mistrust of measurement. A theoretical vision of systemic improvement is a necessary step in the face of the avalanche of non-specialized discourses that make na&#x00EF;ve or incomplete hypotheses about test results. At the same time, it is a necessary link between empirical research and policy recommendations.</p>
<p>To address this purpose I propose to begin by identifying some of the obstacles facing the study of systemic improvement in the region.</p>
<p>First, we must confront the methodological limitations of the evidence. In previous studies we have shown that the PISA tests themselves have had methodological changes that make the results after the 2006 editions incomparable with the previous ones in Latin American countries (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-31102_eng">Rivas &#x0026; Scasso, 2021</xref>). It is possible to notice thanks to the transparency of the databases and methodological frameworks of the PISA test. However, national tests of the quality of education in the countries of the region often do not present open information and do not clarify to what extent the intertemporal comparison is valid (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31102_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Cano, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Secondly, the most well-known limitation of the tests is the one referred to the cutback of what educational system are and the possible incentives to focus teaching on what is measured. Many previous studies have analyzed the &#x0022;teaching to the test&#x0022; effects of performance-based policies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-31102_eng">Verger et al., 2018</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31102_eng">Lewis &#x0026; Lingard, 2015</xref>). Assessment incentives can create biases in the curriculum and limit the view of learning to that which is measured. Excessive pressure for results can also generate a burnout effect on teachers and accelerate their exit from the education system (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31102_eng">Gundlach et al., 2010</xref>).</p>
<p>Third, we must find a way to look at Latin American education in its own context. Regional analysis of education systems allows for a more equidistant comparison, highlighting cultural, economic and social aspects that Latin American countries share, beyond their obvious differences. The regional perspective in comparative education is especially appropriate to avoid focusing on individual countries or systems or jumping to comparisons of very different contexts.</p>
<p>In order to enter the Latin American context, this article proposes the development of a grounded theory of systemic improvement in education. Based on previous research (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31102_eng">Rivas &#x0026; Scasso, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31102_eng">Rivas, 2021</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31102_eng">Rivas, 2022</xref>), together with a large team of collaborators, we have developed conceptions that dialogue with the empirical evidence collected on the improvement of education systems at the national and subnational levels in Latin America. For two decades, we have compared hundreds of education systems in the region based on numerous variables and methodologies. The dialogue between this empirical evidence and international theories on systemic improvement feeds the theoretical proposal of this article.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31102_eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>n elusive object of study</sc></bold></title>
<p>The analysis of the improvement of educational systems recognizes a long line of studies in the comparative tradition of education that has sought global success stories in order to copy &#x0022;recipes&#x0022; in other contexts. With the emergence of international standardized assessments this literature emerged more strongly by having a parameter for measuring learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31102_eng">Barber &#x0026; Mourshed, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31102_eng">OECD, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-31102_eng">Tucker, 201</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-31102_eng">Steward, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31102_eng">Creese et al., 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-31102_eng">Schleicher, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31102_eng">Crato, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>But these were studies about &#x0022;the best in the world,&#x0022; not aimed at those who managed to improve over time. Studies on the improvement of educational systems and subsystems recognize a longer trajectory of subnational comparison of districts and states in the United States, a country that combines strong decentralization with measurement of learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31102_eng">Murphy &#x0026; Hallinger, 1988</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-31102_eng">Snipes et al., 2002</xref>). District success stories began to be analyzed: New York&#x0027;s District 2, Long Beach, California&#x0027;s Sanger District, and San Diego, among others.</p>
<p>In a more international perspective, the document that marks a before and after in this literature is the McKinsey consulting firm&#x0027;s report on 20 cases of systemic improvement in different parts of the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31102_eng">Mourshed et al., 2010</xref>). The study found a series of stages of educational systems that are marked by evolutionary phases of universal policy prescriptions. This study was criticized for its soft criteria for comparison, which ignore the complexity of the historical and cultural contexts of the countries studied (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31102_eng">Coffield, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>As we analyzed in a systematic review of the literature on improving education systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31102_eng">Barrenechea, Beech &#x0026; Rivas, 2022</xref>), there are numerous other antecedents of individual case studies of improvement: Ontario in Canada, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31102_eng">Osmond &#x0026; Campbell, 2018</xref>), Shanghai in China (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-31102_eng">Pang &#x0026; Miao, 2017</xref>), London in England (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31102_eng">McAleavy &#x0026; Elwick, 2016</xref>), Poland (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-31102_eng">Zawistowska, 2014</xref>), Wales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31102_eng">Harris &#x0026; Jones, 2017</xref>), and South Africa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31102_eng">Fleisch, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>This literature revolves around different analytical axes, where the cultural change perspectives of educational systems predominate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31102_eng">Fullan, 2016</xref>). The influential study by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31102_eng">Elmore (2004)</xref> characterizes systemic improvement processes as integrated, multidimensional, highly focused on common objectives and with coherence in interventions. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31102_eng">Hopkins (2007)</xref> highlights that reforms that achieve systemic improvement build capacity at the school level with external support combined with endogenous growth of pedagogical autonomy.</p>
<p>This literature is predominantly concerned with developed countries. There are some classic precedents that analyze improvement in developing countries with scarce resources and installed capacities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31102_eng">Dalin, 1994</xref>). Other studies have focused on analyzing the factors associated with educational outcomes, especially in the new trends that focus on systematizing impact evaluations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31102_eng">Masino &#x0026; Ni&#x00F1;o-Zaraz&#x00FA;a, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>In Latin America, the field of research on the improvement of educational achievement systems is limited. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31102_eng">Carnoy&#x0027;s study (2007)</xref> analyzed the cases of Brazil, Chile and Cuba, although not based on test-based improvement but on the static result that showed Cuba with the best results in the region in UNESCO tests. Our own pioneering study developed some hypotheses after comparing over 15 years the educational policies and results of seven countries in the region (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-31102_eng">Rivas, 2015</xref>). Another antecedent is the comparative research of states and municipalities in Brazil that achieved improvements in their results (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31102_eng">Carnoy et al., 2017</xref>). The recent RISE project study analyzed international cases of systemic improvement in education in developing countries and included some from Latin America (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31102_eng">Crouch, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>More specific studies have focused on individual case analysis: Peru (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31102_eng">Cueto et al., 2016</xref>), Cear&#x00E1; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-31102_eng">Vieira et al., 2019</xref>), Sobral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31102_eng">Cruz &#x0026; Loureiro, 2020</xref>) and Pernambuco (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31102_eng">Neto, 2017</xref>). Our comparative research on 12 cases of improvement at the subnational level takes up several of these previous works in the first in-depth analysis of several cases of improvement in different countries in the region (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31102_eng">Rivas, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>The construction of theory on the systemic improvement of education has not yet found its way into a field with so few empirical antecedents. International lending agencies have developed some theoretical models based on new public management and the creation of incentive mechanisms based on market competition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-31102_eng">Vegas &#x0026; Petrow, 2008</xref>). Other studies complementary to that perspective sought the political economy keys that favor reforms based on decentralization and competitive pressure (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31102_eng">Grindle, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>UNESCO tests in the region led to papers on the factors associated with achievement in the tests (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31102_eng">LLECE-UNESCO, 2013</xref>), although in-depth research on the contexts and policies of the countries that have achieved improvements in the region remains to be done.</p>
<p>The absence of a field of research on the improvement of education systems is contrasted in Latin America by the recent emergence of the field of effective schools, a topic that is close in theoretical and methodological terms. This field of research is abundant and has its anchors in key publications (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31102_eng">Murillo, 2007</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31102_eng">Bellei et al., 2014</xref>), academic journals and even international congresses. With an audience more focused on school managers, this literature has consolidated different theoretical frameworks that converge into a consolidated field of research. In contrast, the improvement of education systems is still an underexplored terrain, which does not seem to attract the attention of academic research despite the existence of multiple national and subnational cases for comparison after three decades of standardized assessments. Nor has it been the subject of theoretical debates or the search for different methodologies to address the questions left open by these assessments.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31102_eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>T<sc>heoretical conditions</sc></bold></title>
<p>Every theory assumes philosophical, political and epistemological references that should be made explicit. The field of study of the improvement of educational systems is crossed by disputes that can be traced on different models of scientific reasoning, disciplinary fields, and theoretical traditions.</p>
<p>To study the improvement of educational systems, I propose a first theoretical condition referring to an epistemological approach that allows us to escape the dispute between positivism and interpretative hermeneutics as the dominant paradigms of comparative education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31102_eng">Crossley &#x0026; Watson, 2003</xref>). In the positions closest to positivism, which find their classic reference in Edmund King, it is proposed to assimilate the methods of the natural sciences to find generalizable formulas, predictive laws of the behavior of educational systems. The interpretative tradition is rooted in the comparative education of Brian Holmes, who analyzes history and contexts in depth, seeking to broaden the understanding of systems and not the application of policy prescriptions.</p>
<p>The search for universal laws has an attachment to quantitative methods that standardized assessments have favored. The positivist imprint is connected with the practical interest of research for decision-making and with making &#x0022;evidence-based&#x0022; recommendations. In their analysis of the field of the study of school effectiveness, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31102_eng">Fuller &#x0026; Clarke (1994)</xref> called those who belong to this tradition the &#x0022;policy mechanics&#x0022;. The solutions seem to have no boundaries: it&#x00B4;s enough to find an educational practice that works to transfer it to a totally different context. In contrast, the &#x0022;classroom culturalists&#x0022; respond to interpretive paradigms where policies encounter different traditions and meanings that cannot be extracted from their contexts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31102_eng">Fuller &#x0026; Clarke, 1994</xref>). In this second perspective, pedagogical practices, teaching materials, and socialization processes that students go through are inevitably traversed by the cultural meanings in which they are inserted, which limits the replicability of policies.</p>
<p>The classical epistemological dispute between generalization and specification can be circumvented from a third tradition, which we assume in our theoretical position: the pragmatic attitude. Lars <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31102_eng">Mj&#x00F8;set (2006)</xref> presents this theoretical current for the field of comparative education. The pragmatic attitude continues an empiricist tradition with a strong theoretical development. Theory is defined as a reflexive accumulation of empirical knowledge that performs a spiraling exercise of ascertainment and reformulation. Qualitative methodologies allow more flexibility for this pragmatic attitude that seeks &#x0022;the systematic study of constellations of individual factors&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31102_eng">Mj&#x00F8;set, 2006</xref>, p. 350).</p>
<p>In addition to a pragmatic attitude, a holistic approach is proposed that is capable of analyzing the complexity of educational systems situated in specific cultural, social and political contexts. Simplistic views of educational outcomes are an epistemological obstacle. It is tempting to look for big factors to explain improvement: a change of government, increased educational funding or certain stellar policies. However, large-scale processes of change in teaching practices have a complexity that precludes linear cause-effect analysis. Our postulate is that without entering this &#x0022;black box&#x0022; of the processes of change in teaching practices, it is not possible to conceptualize systemic improvement.</p>
<p>Our theoretical perspective takes as reference previous studies on the complexity of educational systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31102_eng">Burns &#x0026; K&#x00F6;ster, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31102_eng">OECD, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-31102_eng">Snyder, 2013</xref>). In this perspective, outcomes cannot be explained via singular components of interventions but on the basis of interaction flows between subjects and educational institutions on a large scale. Educational systems are non-linear organic structures that evolve in multiple feedback layers of simultaneous interactions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-31102_eng">Sabelli, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>This approach combines knowledge from different disciplines. The field of political science approaches governance systems and power relations between central state bodies and local educational institutions. The field of didactics and curriculum allows us to conceptualize the structure of knowledge and teaching, their modes and possibilities of change based on external or internal influences of the actors. At the same time, sociology favors reflections on the distribution of learning and the social effects of educational policies and structures. Even a more epistemological, philosophical and anthropological gaze opens doors to think about the meanings of measurable improvement in tests and how to conceptualize ideas about the most valuable learning visions for a society and its individuals.</p>
<p>The analysis of these processes can only be deepened in a localized way. Our theoretical hypothesis is that systemic improvement takes on specific features in regional contexts such as Latin America, with a broad shared tradition of ways of organizing education, capacities installed in the actors of the system and resources available in unequal societies with high levels of poverty. These conditions, beyond the enormous differences between countries, make it possible to situate the thresholds of public policy action in specific contexts.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31102_eng">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A <sc>grounded theory of systemic improvement of education</sc></bold></title>
<p>Following the pragmatic tradition of grounded theory (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31102_eng">Glaser, 1992</xref>), the postulates proposed here are based on multiple previous studies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31102_eng">Barrenechea, Beech &#x0026; Rivas, 2022</xref>). In particular, the most relevant has been the comparative study of 486 subnational educational systems in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Mexico and Peru (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31102_eng">Rivas &#x0026; Scasso, 2020</xref>). In that project we compared all educational indicators during the period 2004-19, identifying cases of improvement in each of the countries and ascertaining them from a consultation with experts. The selection of 12 cases of systemic improvement over time allowed us to study them in depth with interviews with key actors. This work was carried out by a team of 19 researchers from the six countries and led to the development of a grounded theory of systemic improvement for the Latin American context, which is presented in this article.</p>
<p>The theory proposes four major combined analytical axes:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>systemic governance</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>expansion of system actors&#x0027; capabilities</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>alignment of accountability</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>coherence in curriculum translation</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Systemic governance refers to state capabilities to manage an improvement process. An extensive literature on state capabilities allows us to situate the first theoretical axis in the field of political science. Mann&#x0027;s classic study points out the importance of the infrastructural power of the state, as a fabric of legitimacy that allows it to penetrate the beliefs and practices of society within a territory (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31102_eng">Mann, 1984</xref>). Unlike despotic power, infrastructural power involves relations of cooperation and trust between citizens and their government.</p>
<p>Studies on state capabilities highlight the need to prioritize among multiple demands, make efficient use of resources, coordinate conflicting objectives into a coherent whole and achieve institutional stability of policies, among other issues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-31102_eng">Weaver &#x0026; Rockman, 1993</xref>). In the educational field, some research has proposed a systematization of the dimensions that define the quality of governance of educational systems (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31102_eng">L&#x00F3;pez Rup&#x00E9;rez et al., 2020</xref>) and state capacities to coordinate educational policies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31102_eng">IIEP-UNESCO, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>The specific analysis of state capacities in Latin America has been a widely studied topic (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-31102_eng">Repetto, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31102_eng">Grassi &#x0026; Memoli, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-31102_eng">Soifer, 2012</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31102_eng">Kurtz, 2013</xref>). Recent work by the Inter-American Development Bank focuses on the concept of trust as the backbone of the quality and sustainability of public policies in the region (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31102_eng">Keefer &#x0026; Scartascini, 2022</xref>). This coincides with the approach of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31102_eng">Ehren &#x0026; Baxter (2021)</xref> and the studies of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31102_eng">Cerna (2014)</xref> on the importance of trust in the management of educational policies.</p>
<p>Our previously cited research has allowed us to elaborate a conceptualization of state capacities in the governance of education systems that managed to improve in Latin America. Based on the empirical evidence collected, we highlight the following characteristics of state capacities that influence the improvement of subnational education systems in the region:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(1)</label> <p>to make education a political priority and shield it from short-term partisan battles</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(2)</label> <p>understanding the culture of the education system, listening to its voices and respecting teachers</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(3)</label> <p>having serious, reflective and flexible leadership to generate agreements and legitimacy in actions</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(4)</label> <p>to develop professional teams in policy management</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(5)</label> <p>generate articulations with different actors within and outside the educational system.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>These characteristics are combined with an incremental approach to public policy, which seems especially relevant in the political and social instability of Latin America. Unlike studies that concentrate their focus on policy prescriptions to be implemented beyond contexts, such as the well-known McKinsey Report (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31102_eng">Mourshed et al., 2010</xref>), what we found in our previous research is that improvement is constructed in a dynamic and flexible manner. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-31102_eng">Oszlak (1980)</xref> pointed out, the attempt at excessive planning does not provide the necessary doses of realism of the unstable territories of actors in Latin America. Unlike ex ante approaches, the incremental tradition points to the importance of intermediate steps or &#x0022;snowball&#x0022; effects of policies that make their way through gaining legitimacy and continuity.</p>
<p>This is found in problem-solving iterations approaches (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31102_eng">Andrews et al., 2017</xref>): it&#x00B4;s more important to achieve step-wise progress and build confidence in the ability to solve issues relevant to system actors than to follow universal policy prescriptions. Thanks to these feedback loops, more trust is generated in the different spheres of government and a flexible path is built with a focus on improvement through different doors to enter the educational system. This approach builds what we have called in previous studies, an &#x0022;education governance platform,&#x0022; without which it is not possible to effectively implement the complex policies that alter learning outcomes on a large scale (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31102_eng">Rivas &#x0026; Scasso, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Systemic governance generates combined effects in the symbolic and material dimensions of the space and time of educational systems. In the symbolic field, it entrenches a series of priorities, motivations and shared visions in the actors of the system. In terms of temporal sequence, it generates guarantees of policy continuity and sustainability.</p>
<p>The second axis, referring to the capacities of the system&#x0027;s actors, defines the conditions for the dynamics of improvement processes. Educational practices have the characteristic of being highly decentralized and interpersonal: they operate at the micro level of classrooms mediated by the personal intervention of thousands of individual teachers. Improvement cannot be forced or digitized from outside: participation, and involvement of individual and collective actors are necessary.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31102_eng">Burns &#x0026; Koster (2016)</xref> develop an approach to the capabilities of an educational system at four levels: individual, institutional (at the school level), systemic and societal. The individual level is defined from the possibilities that the subjects of the system have to develop new ideas in the local context from existing knowledge. This expands from the institutional level where school management is key to generate learning environments and constant reflection.</p>
<p>This axis may involve the generation, expansion and liberation of capacities within the educational system, three different processes that can be combined with each other. What is relevant in this axis is the construction of a growing dynamic of learning, reflection and power of agency on the part of educators. Without this dynamic approach, improvement processes can happen in one first stage (perhaps more instrumental and technocratic) but not be sustained over time. Moving in this direction implies the construction of a certain ecosystem where learning processes are valued and effectively communicated at the local level so that they are not dispersed and, in this way, avoid dependence on policies that intervene from the top down in hierarchical terms.</p>
<p>In Latin America we find diverse contexts of interaction of educational actors. In some educational systems, such as Colombia, there is a strong tradition of autonomy of schools and teachers, while in other cases, such as Mexico, there are more rigid and structured centralized pedagogical regulation mechanisms (such as textbooks produced by the State and delivered to all students in the country). Beyond certain shared characteristics in the region, this dimension varies widely both in initial teacher training circuits and in school regulation and control practices.</p>
<p>The third axis refers to accountability processes that express the alignment and control of education systems. Accountability indicates the existence of a set of shared, clearly defined, communicable and achievable objectives that are regularly monitored and produce a certain systemic consistency between the practices, motivations and expectations of educational actors and institutions.</p>
<p>Accountability depends on the creation of a data dashboard that indicates achievements at the level of educational institutions. In all the studied cases of systemic improvement, this systemic and detailed information base appears as a necessary condition for action planning and for the shared allocation of responsibilities. This is what we called in previous studies the &#x0022;multifocal approach&#x0022; to improvement: a constant information flow mechanism that informs the achievements of each school on multiple indicators to define an improvement plan, external assistance and/or incentives to push the various actors towards shared goals.</p>
<p>Previous studies have particularly focused on accountability schemes as the core of systemic improvement. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31102_eng">Pritchett (2015)</xref> developed a theoretical model on systemic coherence. Coherence is built when there is a balance between autonomy, capabilities, and accountability. This process relates to clear information flows that define purposes. These purposes should be coherent at the scale of the whole system, demarcating a shared direction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31102_eng">Pritchett, 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>Our theoretical hypothesis here is that accountability processes in Latin America are inseparable from systemic governance: they need solid, reliable and enduring governance institutions to settle on actors in a way that is neither excessively rigid nor stifling. The cases of systemic improvement we have previously studied show the importance of accountability systems: in Cear&#x00E1;, Pernambuco (Brazilian states) and Puebla (Mexican state) we found aligned systems of objectives, incentives and constant measurement. However, these systems were accompanied by large doses of trust in government institutions and processes of constant support to schools with more adverse conditions. These are not systems of exclusionary competition but combine &#x0022;positive pressure&#x0022; for results with preventive support mechanisms based on collaboration and coordination between schools.</p>
<p>The fourth axis opens the black box of improvement processes and refers to the structure of school knowledge translation. In the words of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31102_eng">Basil Bersntein (2000)</xref> we refer to the processes of pedagogical recontextualization that condense the systemic organization and management of the curriculum.</p>
<p>Curriculum governance refers to studies on the pedagogical flow that travels from policies to classrooms. The pioneering work of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31102_eng">Cohen &#x0026; Spillane (1992)</xref> pointed out the importance of combining consistency, specificity and clarity with levels of curriculum prescription, hierarchization and sequencing. Perhaps the most emblematic study of this current theory is the book &#x0022;Why Schools Matter&#x0022;, which studied the flow of curriculum policy in the 54 countries participating in the TIMMS test. There it was highlighted that the countries with the best results have a curriculum structure with more focus, clarity, articulation and rigor (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-31102_eng">Schimdt et al., 2001</xref>).</p>
<p>The hypothesis behind this fourth axis of the theory is that systemic improvement cannot occur without understanding the internal dynamics of school knowledge management. In some cases of small subnational educational systems, improvement processes can occur relatively independently of the curricular governance structure. But in these cases, improvement will always be limited by a non-controllable external factor that can be enhanced by the agencies that have the greatest capacity for curricular regulation (in many countries these attributions are in national hands, while local governments have limited curricular powers).</p>
<p>The capacity for curricular and pedagogical adaptation requires a combination of technical knowledge, dialogue with multiple stakeholders and continuity over time. These three factors are scarce in Latin America. Perhaps this is one of the reasons why it is so difficult to find systemic improvement processes in the region. Previous studies in the region have highlighted the low level of clarity, focus and rigor in curricular instruments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-31102_eng">Valverde, 2009</xref>). A comparative research on the educational systems of Cuba, Chile and Brazil highlighted how Cuba achieved better educational results based on a strong integration between the curriculum, teacher training and teaching materials (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31102_eng">Carnoy, 2007</xref>).</p>
<p>The cases we have found in our own research on subnational education systems in Latin America confirm these hypotheses. The cases of Cear&#x00E1; and Pernambuco in Brazil, C&#x00F3;rdoba in Argentina and Puebla in Mexico had an outstanding capacity for curriculum management, with strong technical competencies and coordinated devices that produce materials and guides in dialogue with teachers and schools (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31102_eng">Rivas, 2021</xref>). These are examples of the use of curricular and pedagogical policy channels to work together to achieve better results.</p>
<p>Again, this axis is strengthened by the development of the previous analytical axes. For example, curricular policies are also combined with the legitimacy of government institutions. Previous comparative studies indicate that countries with better results in standardized assessments have a reliable curricular governance system that offers teachers content that they can interpret, understand and apply, with constant feedback and calibration processes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-31102_eng">Schimdt &#x0026; Prawat, 2006</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31102_eng">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>M<sc>ethodological strategies</sc></bold></title>
<p>The theoretical framework for the analysis of the improvement of educational systems in Latin America has a direct empirical derivation. This section presents some methodological strategies to apply the theoretical framework in future studies.</p>
<sec id="sec-6-31102_eng">
<label>5.1.</label>
<title><italic>Multiplying sources of data on improvement processes and analyzing the intertemporal validity of each source</italic></title>
<p>The first methodological strategy takes up one of the central obstacles of studies on the improvement of educational systems: the fragile methodological validity of the intertemporal comparison of standardized assessments and other educational indicators.</p>
<p>There are different methodological strategies to face this obstacle. The first involves methodological analysis of the intertemporal validity of standardized assessments. An analysis of the methodological documents of the tests is a first step, but often in Latin America the tests do not explicitly define these technical aspects and it is necessary to conduct interviews with the official specialized agents to better understand the possible biases and methodological problems of the tests. Unfortunately, standardized tests are instruments with a high margin of error and can end up generating studies on cases of improvement that in reality only crystallize some methodological flaw in the application of the tests.</p>
<p>A second complementary strategy is to multiply the sources of data to measure processes of improvement. We recommend comparing different standardized assessments: national and international tests (most Latin American countries have their own evaluations and participate in international tests). Another way of multiplying sources is to appeal to a broader vision of the data ecosystem that countries have: data on access to education, students&#x00B4; trajectories, educational equity, among others. In this way, it is possible to select cases of improvement in various indicators that are consistent over time, avoiding large jumps from one year to the next in standardized assessments that may be the result of statistical problems rather than real improvements.</p>
<p>Other more sophisticated quantitative strategies is to compare different variables associated with the tests and in particular the value-added effect between different test editions, controlling for other factors such as the social context of the students (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31102_eng">Carnoy et al. 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>Finally, another way to escape the pitfalls of standardized assessments is to broaden the perspective on what systemic improvement means. For example, interviews can be conducted with experts in the education systems analyzed to find possible improvement processes that are not captured in the evaluations, or system actors can be consulted on educational aspects that are not evaluated in a standardized manner.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-31102_eng">
<label>5.2.</label>
<title><italic>Comparison of cases using multiple quantitative and qualitative variables</italic></title>
<p>In order to generate hypotheses on the processes of systemic improvement, it&#x00B4;s key to use the comparative method of description, interpretation, juxtaposition and simultaneous comparison (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31102_eng">Beraday, 1964</xref>). An individual case that achieves improvements in its own test has notable limitations that can be overcome by the comparative method analyzing multiple cases that participate in international or subnational comparative tests. Many of the singular explanations can be falsified by comparing similar cases.</p>
<p>Quantitative strategies can be useful if comparable data exist to measure associated factors over time in a set of cases. This allows multiple regression analysis to isolate variables.</p>
<p>The study of macro-structural factors that affect educational outcomes is a necessary complementary strategy to avoid the possible biases of the available databases. For example, it is key to study differences in standardized test scores in different learning areas and years assessed to confront different types of educational policies implemented.</p>
<p>The falsification principle requires comparing multiple variables with different types of available data. If the improvement process was concentrated in reading but not in mathematics, are there possible hypotheses of differential policy interventions? If the improvement was greater in primary than in secondary education, was it because there were differences in policies, subsystem governance, or factors exogenous to education that affected one age group more than the other? If the improvement was over a period of time and then stopped, were there specific policies that were discontinued? If the improvement was in one edition of the test, what is the time frame of the effects of the policies, considering that students begin their schooling long before they are assessed and carry those learnings longitudinally?</p>
<p>To investigate these major questions, it is important to map educational policies in their historical context. Document analysis and interviews with key actors are the best known methodologies for this task of reconstructing policy trajectories (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31102_eng">Gale, 2001</xref>). It&#x00B4;s key to construct a systematic map of interventions over a period of time that should go back to the moment when the students participating in the first edition of the tests being compared began their educational journey up to the final year of those same tests. The sequencing of the socio-economic context and of each of the relevant policy strategies will make it possible to construct different scenarios and contrast hypotheses that often appear a priori and that do not survive the systematic comparison of variables in time and space.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-31102_eng">
<label>5.3.</label>
<title><italic>Analyzing the reception of educational policies and the culture of the system</italic></title>
<p>Policy mapping and macro-structural variables are vital but limited tools for understanding the complexity of education systems. Even questionnaires complementary to tests, which provide relevant information on the actors and institutions of the system, have obvious methodological limitations. That is why it&#x00B4;s so important to implement a third methodological strategy to grasp the complexity of an educational system. Conducting interviews with teachers, students and actors of the educational community is a key step, but it requires a lot of resources and time in order to achieve representative samples. It should be noted here that even if they do not correspond to a representative sample, these interviews can be important to take the temperature of the system and to learn from the testimonies some visions that allow for the sophistication or nuance of macro-political arguments.</p>
<p>Conducting interviews or focus groups with school principals can be a valuable strategy to capture the representations of the actors in the system on a more limited scale. A further step, always desirable but very costly to practice, is the observation or filming of classes or the ethnographic work of participant observation of the daily life of educational institutions. This approach makes it possible to analyze the practices in their natural environment, unmediated by the representations of the testimonies of the actors interviewed.</p>
<p>The analysis of the interior of the educational system favors the reconstruction of the paths, translations and reinterpretations of educational policies. This makes it possible to review often na&#x00EF;ve or incomplete hypotheses about the effects of policies on educational outcomes. In turn, the vision of the actors in the system (including students) is a recommendable way to analyze what improvement means beyond measurements. Many interviews and observations can escape the prison of quantitative data to interpret how an educational system generates multiple effects and learning that cannot be captured by standardized systems.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-31102_eng">
<label>5.4.</label>
<title><italic>Curriculum flow analysis</italic></title>
<p>A methodological strategy complementary to the previous ones is the study of the flow of curriculum policy. This strategy makes it possible to open the black box of translations of the structure of school knowledge. Some international studies have analyzed the impact of the prescribed curriculum, textbooks and teacher planning on the results of standardized assessments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-31102_eng">Schmidt et al., 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-31102_eng">Westbury &#x0026; Hsu, 1996</xref>). These lines of research have not generally been applied in Latin America and much remains to be known about the processes of curriculum translation, its evolution over time and the comparison of contexts and countries.</p>
<p>The central purpose of this strategy is to compare models of curriculum organization, prescription, coherence and extension in order to understand how they affect learning processes.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-31102_eng" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscussion</sc></bold></title>
<p>The four analytical axes of systemic improvement are pieces that fit together in a jigsaw puzzle. They cannot be viewed in isolation. It is in combination that they generate what we might call the &#x0022;combustion&#x0022; necessary for continuous sustainable improvement. This does not imply that systems improve only when these four axes are present, since some may be more developed than others and may be tuned in different ways in each context to the existing traditions of that educational system.</p>
<p>The proposed theoretical framework is intended to provide a framework for the development of empirical studies. It comes from and returns to research in comparative systems. Grounded theory is built on the basis of previous research that allows the development of categories based on concrete evidence and a framework that can pass through the verification of multiple cases of improvement.</p>
<p>It is a theoretical model that relies especially on the previous studies compiled by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31102_eng">Ehren &#x0026; Baxter (2021)</xref>. These scholars developed an analytical framework of systemic reforms based on three backbones: trust, accountability and capabilities. These three dimensions are complemented in our theoretical framework by a fourth one, referring to the process of curriculum translation, which gives more emphasis to the ways in which macro policies are linked to local practices with a focus on the system&#x0027;s curriculum coherence and alignment.</p>
<p>In turn, our theory seeks a specific design for the Latin American context. Based on the study of improvement cases in the region and the adaptation of the categories to the particularities of the context, this article favors a comparative view of educational systems based on the juxtaposition of similarity and proximity factors. Can this same theoretical framework be useful for analyzing systemic improvement in other contexts? Of course, but starting from the conception of grounded theory, based on multiple previous empirical studies, it is more appropriate to present the theoretical proposal adjusted to the context from which it starts.</p>
<p>The dialogue of this theoretical model with some relevant antecedents in the field of educational policy is inevitable. There is a central anchor in the study of systemic improvement which is the well-known McKinsey Report (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31102_eng">Mourshed et al., 2010</xref>). Our previous studies find many similarities with some of the central findings of this report. We see the flow that occurs between centralized regulation for low development contexts and the extension of local capabilities to achieve consolidate improvement processes. However, our approach differs in a central axis, which is the reading of contexts and the analysis of governance modalities.</p>
<p>Unlike the universal recipes proposed by the McKinsey Report, our theory argues that improvement is possible under conditions of flexibility and with incremental approaches. It&#x00B4;s not so decisive what policies are implemented but how the system is governed: it&#x00B4;s more important to achieve concrete progress, generate trust, build legitimacy and open doors than to apply a specific textbook recipe. Latin American education systems are fragile and uncertain: what generates improvement processes is dynamic, contextualized and strongly supported by the resolution of concrete problems experienced by the system&#x0027;s actors. This more territorial, situated and incremental logic is combined with the other axes analyzed: capacity building; the clear definition of objectives and the coherence of accountability; and the systemic alignment of curricular frameworks that feed pedagogical practices.</p>
<p>Finally, it is worth noting the blind spot of our theory. One of the axes that explain the low theoretical and empirical density of the academic debate on the improvement of educational systems in Latin America is the meaning acquired by standardized measurements of quality. Reduced to biased cut-offs on the purposes of education, tests are an iron cage for education systems. When they are strong markers of the way forward -through high-stake assessments- they have the risk of reducing non-assessed areas and teaching to the test.</p>
<p>Can our theory be capable of escaping the magnetism of the measurable? There are two ways to answer this question. The first is empirical and requires studies that analyze whether standardized tests correlate well with non-measurable learning. We know little in this area, but it is possible to advance from research in measuring in broader ways and in analyzing that which is not measured with other methodological strategies.</p>
<p>The second answer is anchored in the political positioning of our theoretical proposal. It is not necessary to fall into a &#x0022;black-white&#x0022; polarization. Standardized tests may well have or generate biases, but they also have a value in themselves. It&#x00B4;s enough to look at the most basic: whether students can read and understand a text is a central component of their right to education and this can indeed be measured. This pragmatic attitude, as we have defined it, does not fall into the technocratic view of assessments as mirrors of education systems. It is precisely the theoretical layer that allows us to conceptualize the complexity of what is measured and, above all, how the practices of an entire system are modified so that its results change.</p>
<p>Moving away from simplistic analytical biases that propose linear hypotheses to explain the results is a necessary step to review what systemic improvement is and what it means. We hope to contribute to this search with a theory that is both applicable and open to other visions of what are the goals of educational systems in diverse contexts and in a changing and uncertain world.</p>
</sec>
</body>
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