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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31096</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31096</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N Y LO P&#x00DA;BLICO EN LA PEDAGOG&#x00CD;A LIBERAL Y EN LA PEDAGOG&#x00CD;A CR&#x00CD;TICA<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_esp"><sup>1</sup></xref></article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>Education and The Public in Liberal Pedagogy and Critical Pedagogy</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2883-2207</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>FERN&#x00C1;NDEZ GONZ&#x00C1;LEZ</surname>
<given-names>Noelia</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_esp"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5396-2404</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>PRIETO EGIDO</surname>
<given-names>Miriam</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2_esp"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_esp">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_esp"><email>noelia.fernandezg@uam.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2_esp"><email>miriam.prieto@uam.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>81</fpage>
<lpage>97</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>En las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas, las comprensiones privatizadoras e individualizadoras de la educaci&#x00F3;n se han extendido con fuerza de la mano de discursos y pol&#x00ED;ticas neoliberales. En respuesta a ellas, la investigaci&#x00F3;n educativa viene explorando en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os los distintos sentidos de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; en relaci&#x00F3;n con la educaci&#x00F3;n que estas pol&#x00ED;ticas vendr&#x00ED;an a erosionar. Este trabajo pretende ofrecer un aporte dentro de este debate que indaga sobre la relaci&#x00F3;n entre la educaci&#x00F3;n y &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; a partir de un di&#x00E1;logo entre dos tradiciones, frecuentemente consideradas opuestas, en el campo de la Teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n: la propuesta liberal de la educaci&#x00F3;n como iniciaci&#x00F3;n formulada por Peters y la de la pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica latinoamericana desarrollada por Paulo Freire. Este trabajo se apoya en una revisi&#x00F3;n de los trabajos centrales que sintetizan ambas propuestas, rastreando las huellas de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, entendido como los prop&#x00F3;sitos educativos dirigidos hacia el bien com&#x00FA;n y tambi&#x00E9;n como los espacios compartidos de construcci&#x00F3;n del bien com&#x00FA;n. Esta revisi&#x00F3;n nos ha permitido identificar cuatro <italic>puntos de distancia-encuentro</italic> entre ambas propuestas, es decir, espacios argumentales que, dentro de lo alejado de sus postulados, comparten cierto suelo com&#x00FA;n en el que cristalizan huellas comunes de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;. En primer lugar, a trav&#x00E9;s de su atenci&#x00F3;n a las categor&#x00ED;as <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic>/<italic>cultura</italic>, ambos autores enmarcan la educaci&#x00F3;n en lenguajes p&#x00FA;blicos compartidos por la sociedad. En segundo lugar, identificamos un paralelismo en las nociones de <italic>di&#x00E1;logo/conversaci&#x00F3;n</italic> con esos lenguajes compartidos que ambas propuestas postulan como definitorias del proceso educativo. En tercer lugar, ambas propuestas entienden la <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> como una forma de participaci&#x00F3;n en los lenguajes comunes que se construyen. En cuarto y &#x00FA;ltimo lugar, con el fin de construir sujetos libres, comparten el rechazo a las pedagog&#x00ED;as espontane&#x00ED;stas que entienden la libertad educativa como un mero &#x201C;dejar hacer&#x201D; al educando/a.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>In recent decades, privatizing and individualizing understandings of education have extended due to neoliberal discourses and policies. In response to them, educational research has explored the different meanings of &#x0022;the public&#x0022; in relation to education that those neoliberal policies would erode. This paper aims to make a contribution to this debate by exploring the relationship between education and &#x0022;the public&#x0022; through a dialogue between two traditions, usually understood as incompatible, in the field of educational theory: the liberal theory of education as initiation formulated by Peters and that of Latin American critical pedagogy developed by Paulo Freire. This paper is based on a review of the central works that synthesize both approaches, tracing the marks of &#x0022;the public&#x0022;, understood both as the educational aims oriented towards the common good as well as the shared spaces in which the common good is built. This review has allowed us to identify four <italic>points of distance-encounter</italic> between both proposals, i.e., argumentative spaces that, within the distance between their postulates, share certain common ground where the traces of &#x0022;the public&#x0022; crystallize. First, through their attention to the categories <italic>tradition</italic>/<italic>culture</italic>, both authors frame education in public languages shared by society. Second, we identify a parallelism in the notions of <italic>dialogue</italic>/<italic>conversation</italic> with those shared languages that both theories postulate as defining the educational process. Thirdly, both approaches understand <italic>the critique</italic> as a form of participation in those common languages that are constructed. Fourthly and finally, to build free subjects, they share the rejection of spontaneist pedagogies that understand educational freedom as a mere &#x0022;letting the learner do&#x0022;.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>libertad</kwd>
<kwd>pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico</kwd>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica</kwd>
<kwd>liberalismo</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educational theory</kwd>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>freedom</kwd>
<kwd>critical thinking</kwd>
<kwd>critical theory</kwd>
<kwd>liberalism</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>programa de innovaci&#x00F3;n e investigaci&#x00F3;n Horizonte 2020 de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea bajo el acuerdo de financiaci&#x00F3;n Marie Sk&#x0142;odowska-Curie</institution>
<institution>Convocatoria 2019 &#x00AB;Proyectos de I+D+i&#x00BB;</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>101027465</award-id>
<award-id>PID2019-104566RA-I00</award-id>
</award-group>
<funding-statement>Este art&#x00ED;culo se enmarca en los proyectos de investigaci&#x00F3;n <italic>EduCommon</italic> y <italic>LobbyingTeachers</italic>. El proyecto <italic>EduCommon</italic> ha recibido financiaci&#x00F3;n del programa de innovaci&#x00F3;n e investigaci&#x00F3;n Horizonte 2020 de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea bajo el acuerdo de financiaci&#x00F3;n Marie Sk&#x0142;odowska-Curie, n&#x00FA;m. 101027465, y del proyecto <italic>Lobbying Teachers. Fundamentos te&#x00F3;ricos, estructuras pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas sociales de las relaciones p&#x00FA;blico-privadas en materia de profesorado en Espa&#x00F1;a</italic> (PID2019-104566RA-I00), financiado por la Convocatoria 2019 &#x00AB;Proyectos de I+D+i&#x00BB;. Programa Estatal de I+D+i Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31096_esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Stanley Richard Peters y Paulo Freire son dos referentes de tradiciones consideradas enfrentadas dentro del campo educativo y, en lo que aqu&#x00ED; nos ocupa, dentro de la Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n; la educaci&#x00F3;n como iniciaci&#x00F3;n y la pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica. Mientras la contribuci&#x00F3;n de Peters se inscribe dentro del espectro del liberalismo &#x2014;en particular, dentro de lo que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31096_esp">Degenhardt (2010</xref>, p. 126) denomina &#x201C;liberalismo no-elitista&#x201D; por su preocupaci&#x00F3;n ante la desigualdad&#x2014;, Freire es un exponente de la tradici&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica en su versi&#x00F3;n latinoamericana, la Educaci&#x00F3;n Popular, marcada por el pensamiento marxista. El objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es exponer un conjunto de <italic>puntos de distancia-encuentro</italic> entre ambos pensadores que entendemos que redundan en un aspecto central para pensar las relaciones entre la educaci&#x00F3;n y la pol&#x00ED;tica: el papel nuclear que desempe&#x00F1;a el mundo p&#x00FA;blico en la educaci&#x00F3;n. Conscientes de que los dos autores aluden a esta relaci&#x00F3;n desde distintos sentidos de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, utilizamos la expresi&#x00F3;n &#x201C;puntos de distancia-encuentro&#x201D; para referimos a argumentos en torno a la educaci&#x00F3;n que, formulados desde posiciones ideol&#x00F3;gicas y preocupaciones opuestas (de distancia), al mismo tiempo comparten cierto suelo com&#x00FA;n en torno al car&#x00E1;cter relacional y social de la educaci&#x00F3;n (de encuentro). En un contexto de auge de concepciones privatizadoras e individualizadoras, por un lado, y de cuestionamiento y necesidad de redefinici&#x00F3;n del car&#x00E1;cter p&#x00FA;blico de la educaci&#x00F3;n, por otro, consideramos que las concepciones educativas de estos autores pueden servir para guiar el debate necesario para reelaborar la condici&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica de la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>En el tr&#x00E1;nsito de un modelo de Estado de bienestar a un modelo de Estado neoliberal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31096_esp">Fraser y Jaeggi, 2019</xref>), se han expandido las pol&#x00ED;ticas de privatizaci&#x00F3;n educativa con la introducci&#x00F3;n en la escuela p&#x00FA;blica-estatal de modelos de gesti&#x00F3;n procedentes del &#x00E1;mbito empresarial y de formas de financiaci&#x00F3;n y de provisi&#x00F3;n basadas en la participaci&#x00F3;n de agentes privados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31096_esp">Ball y Youdell, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31096_esp">Rizvi, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31096_esp">Verger <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). A esto hay que a&#x00F1;adir una creciente comprensi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n como proceso de autocapitalizaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31096_esp">Rizvi y Lingard, 2013</xref>), lo que adem&#x00E1;s es consistente con el auge de l&#x00F3;gicas de individualizaci&#x00F3;n promovidas por corrientes educativas que sit&#x00FA;an la finalidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n en el desarrollo de un individuo atomizado, solipsista, centrado en s&#x00ED; mismo y separado de todo contexto &#x2014;social, pol&#x00ED;tico, econ&#x00F3;mico&#x2014; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31096_esp">Prieto, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31096_esp">Cabanas e Illouz, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31096_esp">D&#x00ED;ez-Guti&#x00E9;rrez y Bernab&#x00E9; Mart&#x00ED;nez, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31096_esp">Ecclestone y Hayes, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>A rebufo del auge de estudios centrados en estas dos din&#x00E1;micas, la investigaci&#x00F3;n tambi&#x00E9;n ha explorado qu&#x00E9; significa ese &#x201C;p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; que la privatizaci&#x00F3;n vendr&#x00ED;a a amenazar (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31096_esp">Clarke <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31096_esp">Higgins y Abowizt, 2011</xref>). Una primera idea clara es que &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, lejos de ser un t&#x00E9;rmino un&#x00ED;voco, es un constructo discursivo que se moviliza estrat&#x00E9;gicamente al servicio de los diversos proyectos pol&#x00ED;ticos e ideol&#x00F3;gicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31096_esp">Clarke <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>, p. 5). En el marco del liberalismo, <italic>lo p&#x00FA;blico</italic> se configura como la esfera estatal en oposici&#x00F3;n al mercado, que ser&#x00ED;a &#x201C;lo privado&#x201D;: los exhaustivos estudios de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31096_esp">Foucault (2007)</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31096_esp">Polanyi (2019)</xref> revelan c&#x00F3;mo esta dicotom&#x00ED;a es la base de la construcci&#x00F3;n del Estado moderno liberal. En el paso del capitalismo gestionado por el Estado en torno al modelo del estado de bienestar al capitalismo neoliberal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31096_esp">Fraser y Jaeggi, 2019</xref>), la frontera entre lo p&#x00FA;blico-estatal y lo privado-mercantil se diluye a trav&#x00E9;s de diversas pol&#x00ED;ticas de privatizaci&#x00F3;n y mercantilizaci&#x00F3;n de servicios sociales estatales, que se introducen tambi&#x00E9;n ampliamente en el campo educativo (y han sido extensamente estudiadas en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas).</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del liberalismo y del Estado moderno, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31096_esp">Castoriadis (1996)</xref>, te&#x00F3;rico autonomista, propone una tr&#x00ED;ada transhist&#x00F3;rica de tres esferas: la p&#x00FA;blica, que es la del poder expl&#x00ED;cito y donde se desarrolla la pol&#x00ED;tica (democr&#x00E1;tica o no); la privada, que ser&#x00ED;a la del hogar; y la p&#x00FA;blico-privada, que incluye espacios como el mercado o la escuela, donde interseccionan las otras dos. A estas tres esferas, a&#x00F1;ade la categor&#x00ED;a de &#x201C;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x201D;, que designa las relaciones de poder que atraviesan a las sociedades en todas sus esferas. Desde esta idea de &#x201C;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x201D; se comprende, por ejemplo, el grito feminista de que &#x201C;lo personal es pol&#x00ED;tico&#x201D;, con el que se pretend&#x00ED;a trasladar a la esfera de lo p&#x00FA;blico el debate sobre la situaci&#x00F3;n de la mujer. &#x201C;Lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x201D; es foco de atenci&#x00F3;n dentro de las teor&#x00ED;as radicales de la democracia, interesadas por desvelar las exclusiones sociales que configuran todo orden social y modelan los l&#x00ED;mites de la esfera p&#x00FA;blica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31096_esp">Mouffe, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31096_esp">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>Para completar este breve repaso sobre algunos sentidos de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, cabe mencionar el trabajo de diversos/as estudiosos/as neomarxistas que, en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas, han buscado superar la dicotom&#x00ED;a liberal de lo p&#x00FA;blico-estatal <italic>versus</italic> lo privado-mercantil desde el presupuesto de que existe una alianza hist&#x00F3;rica entre el Estado y el capital que, en la etapa neoliberal, contin&#x00FA;a mercantilizando m&#x00E1;s &#x00E1;reas de la vida. Desde <italic>lo com&#x00FA;n</italic> exploran f&#x00F3;rmulas democr&#x00E1;ticas de base que escapan tanto a la l&#x00F3;gica mercantil como a la l&#x00F3;gica estatal (para una revisi&#x00F3;n global, v&#x00E9;ase <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31096_esp">P&#x00E9;rez Fern&#x00E1;ndez y Zamora Garc&#x00ED;a, 2023</xref>). Desde un prisma af&#x00ED;n, algunas iniciativas de educaci&#x00F3;n popular se autodefinen como &#x201C;p&#x00FA;blicas no estatales&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31096_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Gonz&#x00E1;lez, s/f</xref>).</p>
<p>Con estos breves apuntes sobre el amplio debate en torno a &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, observamos que la expresi&#x00F3;n &#x201C;educaci&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica&#x201D; m&#x00E1;s que describir, anuncia un debate de car&#x00E1;cter pol&#x00ED;tico e ideol&#x00F3;gico que vincula la educaci&#x00F3;n con otras nociones igualmente contenciosas, como &#x201C;democracia&#x201D;, &#x201C;igualdad&#x201D;, &#x201C;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x201D; o &#x201C;lo com&#x00FA;n&#x201D;. Ante la diversidad de rutas de indagaci&#x00F3;n sobre lo p&#x00FA;blico de la educaci&#x00F3;n, este trabajo explora una de ellas entre las varias que Clarke y sus colegas (2021) enumeran: las caracter&#x00ED;sticas de la educaci&#x00F3;n y si estas la configuran como un bien individual o social (p. 5). As&#x00ED;, el objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es exponer c&#x00F3;mo &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, cristaliza en ambos autores, Peters y Freire, como un eje que define la educaci&#x00F3;n. Para elaborar este di&#x00E1;logo partimos del an&#x00E1;lisis de algunos trabajos centrales de ambos pensadores en los que hemos identificado cuatro puntos de distancia-encuentro en torno a las siguientes categor&#x00ED;as: (1) tradici&#x00F3;n/cultura; (2) conversaci&#x00F3;n/di&#x00E1;logo; (3) libertad y (4) cr&#x00ED;tica. Los distintos anclajes te&#x00F3;rico-pol&#x00ED;ticos y contextuales de ambos pensadores se plasman en lenguajes tambi&#x00E9;n muy diferentes, por lo que este trabajo de di&#x00E1;logo entre ambos es al mismo tiempo un esfuerzo de traducci&#x00F3;n mutua que rastrea las huellas de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31096_esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ducaci&#x00F3;n</sc>, <sc>tradici&#x00F3;n</sc>/<sc>cultura</sc>; <sc>conversaci&#x00F3;n</sc>/<sc>di&#x00E1;logo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Convenimos con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31096_esp">Freire (1975)</xref> que &#x201C;toda pr&#x00E1;ctica educacional implica una postura te&#x00F3;rica por parte del educador. Y esta postura te&#x00F3;rica implica &#x2014;a veces m&#x00E1;s, a veces menos impl&#x00ED;citamente&#x2014;, una interpretaci&#x00F3;n del mundo y del hombre&#x201D; (p. 10). En este orden de cosas, y como ya avanz&#x00E1;bamos previamente, las posturas te&#x00F3;ricas de Peters y Freire son muy diferentes.</p>
<p>Fil&#x00F3;sofo ingl&#x00E9;s y profesor de universidad especializado en filosof&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n, Peters se propuso revitalizar la formaci&#x00F3;n docente en un momento en el que &#x00E9;sta adquir&#x00ED;a el rango de estudios universitarios en Reino Unido (d&#x00E9;cadas de 1960 y 1970). Su prop&#x00F3;sito era elevar el contenido intelectual, no s&#x00F3;lo de la formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado, sino tambi&#x00E9;n en las escuelas, de forma que se consolidara el conocimiento pedag&#x00F3;gico como conocimiento cient&#x00ED;fico. Para ello, consider&#x00F3; necesario elevar el nivel de an&#x00E1;lisis filos&#x00F3;fico de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Como consecuencia de su influencia, disciplinas como la filosof&#x00ED;a, la historia y la sociolog&#x00ED;a adquirieron predominancia en la formaci&#x00F3;n docente en aquellos a&#x00F1;os. La centralidad de la dimensi&#x00F3;n intelectual en la conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n que Peters elabora se debe a este prop&#x00F3;sito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31096_esp">Walks, 2013</xref>). Peters es enmarcado en lo que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31096_esp">Degenhart (2010)</xref> denomina liberalismo <italic>no-elitista</italic> (p. 126), una corriente iniciada en los sesenta del siglo pasado en Reino Unido y que ten&#x00ED;a como finalidad hacer accesible a todos/as las formas de pensamiento caracter&#x00ED;sticas de las diversas &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento. Desde esta perspectiva, entiende la educaci&#x00F3;n en continuidad con la <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica</italic>, desde donde postula que la educaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;implica que algo valioso es o ha sido intencionalmente transmitido de una manera moralmente aceptable&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_esp">1966</xref>, p. 25), e identifica ese algo valioso en el &#x201C;mundo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_esp">1977b</xref>) en el que los/as nuevas generaciones deben ser iniciadas.</p>
<p>En un contexto muy diferente, el pedagogo brasile&#x00F1;o Paulo Freire, tambi&#x00E9;n profesor de universidad especializado en filosof&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n, adquiri&#x00F3; reconocimiento internacional por sus trabajos como educador popular a finales de los cincuenta del siglo XX en programas de alfabetizaci&#x00F3;n para campesinos/as adultos/as. Como militante de izquierdas pr&#x00F3;ximo a la filosof&#x00ED;a de la liberaci&#x00F3;n, se comprometi&#x00F3; con las luchas revolucionarias de la regi&#x00F3;n, por lo que su trabajo como educador camina unido a su compromiso pol&#x00ED;tico. As&#x00ED;, su posici&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica est&#x00E1; marcada por la cr&#x00ED;tica del capitalismo de base marxista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31096_esp">Torres, 1980</xref>) y decolonial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31096_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Mouj&#x00E1;n, 2018</xref>), desde donde elabora un aporte crucial a la tradici&#x00F3;n latinoamericana de la Educaci&#x00F3;n Popular, que considera al pueblo &#x2014;&#x201C;los pobres&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_esp">Freire, 2015</xref>) o &#x201C;los oprimidos&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">Freire, 2005</xref>)&#x2014; como el sujeto pedag&#x00F3;gico protagonista. Desde este prisma, la educaci&#x00F3;n constituye un trabajo pol&#x00ED;tico emancipatorio: &#x201C;un proceso de organizaci&#x00F3;n y lucha de los educandos para transformar las condiciones de injusticia que los mantienen en su condici&#x00F3;n de oprimidos y excluidos&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31096_esp">Torres Carrillo, 2016</xref>, p. 10). El enfoque marxista imprime en Freire una comprensi&#x00F3;n conflictiva de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;: el orden social est&#x00E1; atravesado por los distintos tipos de conflicto social &#x2014;de clase, de g&#x00E9;nero y colonial-racista&#x2014; que traen causa en el capitalismo.</p>
<p>Desgranemos la comprensi&#x00F3;n de Peters sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n. Identifica <italic>lo valioso</italic> a transmitir por la educaci&#x00F3;n en el <italic>mundo p&#x00FA;blico</italic>, un mundo representado por el lenguaje, estructurado por las normas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_esp">1977b</xref>), que precede al sujeto que se educa y que, por lo tanto, es compartido con los dem&#x00E1;s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31096_esp">Martin, 2010</xref>). Como vemos, es clara la dimensi&#x00F3;n social de <italic>lo valioso</italic> para Peters. Este <italic>mundo p&#x00FA;blico</italic> debe leerse en sinton&#x00ED;a con la idea de <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic>, entendida tambi&#x00E9;n como un lenguaje, una forma constitutiva de entender el mundo y, de este modo tambi&#x00E9;n, una herramienta al servicio de prop&#x00F3;sitos, creencias y sentimientos &#x2014;ya que el lenguaje no es un instrumento de expresi&#x00F3;n del mundo, sino un ejercicio de construcci&#x00F3;n&#x2014; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_esp">Peters, 1966</xref>). En este orden de cosas, la iniciaci&#x00F3;n en las formas de pensamiento de una tradici&#x00F3;n que la educaci&#x00F3;n desarrolla es una condici&#x00F3;n que hace al ser humano libre al habilitarle para dar cuenta de sus propias decisiones tanto a nivel individual como en el espacio p&#x00FA;blico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31096_esp">Peters, 1977a</xref>). Dicho de otra manera, la educaci&#x00F3;n es una condici&#x00F3;n para participar en libertad en <italic>lo p&#x00FA;blico.</italic> Sin embargo, no todos los componentes de la tradici&#x00F3;n o del mundo p&#x00FA;blico son valiosos, sino solo aquellos que atienden a los rasgos inherentes del ser humano y que son los que caracterizan a la persona educada (aqu&#x00ED; reside el peso de lo intelectual en Peters). Son los rasgos que involucran actividades de car&#x00E1;cter cognitivo superior y que exigen el dominio de un cuerpo de conocimientos y una comprensi&#x00F3;n de los principios sobre los que se asientan esos conocimientos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_esp">Peters, 1977b</xref>). Implica tambi&#x00E9;n integridad del car&#x00E1;cter y pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico. En s&#x00ED;ntesis, la educaci&#x00F3;n desarrolla las capacidades de racionalidad que nos hacen eminentemente humanos; y que residen en <italic>lo valioso</italic> de la tradici&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>En Freire, igualmente, la educaci&#x00F3;n es lo que hace al ser humano plenamente humano. Sin embargo, frente a la tradici&#x00F3;n y la <italic>racionalidad</italic>, Freire identifica en la <italic>cultura</italic> y la <italic>historicidad</italic> los elementos en los que el ser humano realiza su vocaci&#x00F3;n de humanizaci&#x00F3;n. En primer lugar, entiende que la humanizaci&#x00F3;n del ser humano reside en su capacidad de <italic>existir</italic>, que va m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de <italic>vivir</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_esp">Freire, 2015</xref>). La <italic>existencia</italic> es la capacidad de trascender la inmanencia de lo biol&#x00F3;gico y esto es lo que distingue al ser humano de los dem&#x00E1;s animales: &#x201C;conseguimos hacer de nuestra existencia algo m&#x00E1;s que meramente vivir (&#x2026;) nos pusimos de pie, liberamos las manos y la liberaci&#x00F3;n de las manos es en gran parte responsables de lo que somos&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31096_esp">Freire, 2003</xref>, p. 20). La <italic>historicidad</italic> y la <italic>cultura</italic> son los soportes de la <italic>existencia</italic>. La capacidad del lenguaje es el signo principal de cultura y es en la producci&#x00F3;n y creaci&#x00F3;n cultural, y no en la reproducci&#x00F3;n-adaptaci&#x00F3;n, donde se realiza como sujeto cultural. En segundo lugar, el ser humano se constituye como sujeto hist&#x00F3;rico porque, siendo inacabado y temporal, es consciente de ello, lo que lo distingue tambi&#x00E9;n del resto de animales y alimenta su voluntad de &#x201C;ser m&#x00E1;s&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_esp">Freire, 2015</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">2005</xref>). Los pueblos colonizados y las masas despose&#x00ED;das, que constituyen el sujeto pedag&#x00F3;gico de Freire, han sido despojados, no s&#x00F3;lo del sustento material de sus vidas biol&#x00F3;gicas, sino tambi&#x00E9;n de la cultura y la capacidad hist&#x00F3;rica que hacen a la humanizaci&#x00F3;n del ser humano. Por eso, la <italic>verdadera educaci&#x00F3;n</italic> debe desarrollar ambos elementos, permitiendo que realice su vocaci&#x00F3;n de humanizaci&#x00F3;n e intervenga en el flujo de la Historia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">Freire, 2005</xref>).</p>
<p>En lo expuesto hasta aqu&#x00ED; identificamos el primer punto de distancia-encuentro. Con distintas expresiones &#x2014;el mundo p&#x00FA;blico en Peters y el orden social capitalista en Freire&#x2014;, lo que es signo de la distancia en sus posicionamientos y motivaciones, ambos comienzan sus reflexiones enmarcando la educaci&#x00F3;n en la sociedad. A partir de este enmarque, derivan <italic>lo valioso</italic> de la educaci&#x00F3;n de sus respectivos posicionamientos ante la sociedad. En Peters lo valioso del mundo p&#x00FA;blico y de la tradici&#x00F3;n se dirime en la dimensi&#x00F3;n racional e intelectual del ser humano; en Freire lo valioso de la educaci&#x00F3;n reside en su potencial para la transformaci&#x00F3;n social a partir de su cr&#x00ED;tica del capitalismo. As&#x00ED;, identificamos la distancia en las motivaciones que cada uno imprime a la educaci&#x00F3;n: con el foco en la dimensi&#x00F3;n cultural e hist&#x00F3;rica del ser humano, Freire orienta el fin de la educaci&#x00F3;n hacia la transformaci&#x00F3;n social al entender ambas nociones atravesadas por el conflicto social; mientras, Peters se mueve en un razonamiento m&#x00E1;s conservador por el que la educaci&#x00F3;n transmite la tradici&#x00F3;n, confiriendo un lugar central al legado y el conocimiento que las sociedades van construyendo. A pesar de esta distancia, el suelo com&#x00FA;n de sus reflexiones es la dimensi&#x00F3;n social de las ambas categor&#x00ED;as&#x00B8; <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic> y <italic>cultura</italic>, con las que designan lenguajes compartidos por la sociedad, lenguajes p&#x00FA;blicos por tanto, a partir de los cuales definen el contenido de la educaci&#x00F3;n, ya sea mediante transmisi&#x00F3;n (en Peters) o mediante problematizaci&#x00F3;n (en Freire).</p>
<p>Peters emplea el t&#x00E9;rmino &#x201C;transmisi&#x00F3;n&#x201D; para definir el acto educativo. Justamente, esta idea de educaci&#x00F3;n como <italic>transmisi&#x00F3;n</italic> es objeto de cr&#x00ED;tica por Freire en <italic>Pedagog&#x00ED;a del oprimido</italic> (1970/2005). Desde la expresi&#x00F3;n &#x201C;educaci&#x00F3;n bancaria&#x201D;, critica la l&#x00F3;gica de transmisi&#x00F3;n que observa en la escuela, y que define como &#x201C;depositar hechos, informaciones semi-muertas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31096_esp">Freire, 1971</xref>, p. 24) en los/as educandos/as con el objetivo de &#x201C;mistificar la realidad&#x201D; (p. 24) para <italic>adaptarlos/as</italic> a este orden de dominaci&#x00F3;n. De esta manera, entiende que la educaci&#x00F3;n se constituye en una herramienta de reproducci&#x00F3;n del orden de desigualdad capitalista. Este modelo bancario se apoya en una relaci&#x00F3;n jer&#x00E1;rquica y autoritaria entre educador/a-educando/a que Freire identifica como una relaci&#x00F3;n de opresor-oprimido al interior de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa (m&#x00E1;s adelante veremos la dial&#x00E9;ctica hegeliana desde la que piensa esta relaci&#x00F3;n opresor-oprimido). Este modelo bancario deshumaniza al educando/a, que es pensado/a como una vasija vac&#x00ED;a, a la que por lo tanto no se le atribuye voz. Frente a ello, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">Freire (2005)</xref> propone un modelo educativo dial&#x00F3;gico basado en la <italic>problematizaci&#x00F3;n</italic>. En este car&#x00E1;cter dial&#x00F3;gico se dirime el respeto al educando y educanda. La idea crucial es que el/la docente no puede reproducir al interior de la relaci&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica la l&#x00F3;gica opresora, por lo que debe convocar la palabra del alumnado mediante una relaci&#x00F3;n de igualdad, escucha y comunicaci&#x00F3;n. De este modo, la cultura de las clases populares y de los pueblos silenciados entra en el acto de conocimiento que es para Freire la &#x201C;verdadera educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">Freire, 2005</xref>). Dentro de este modelo dial&#x00F3;gico, <italic>problematizar</italic> constituye un ejercicio de reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica dirigido a cuestionar el sentido com&#x00FA;n, la cultura dominante; es un cuestionamiento de lo que se presenta como dado e incuestionable.</p>
<p>La propuesta liberal de Peters, si bien se articula en torno a la transmisi&#x00F3;n de formas de pensamiento existentes en el seno de una disciplina, entiende que la educaci&#x00F3;n no es en ning&#x00FA;n caso mera reproducci&#x00F3;n. La iniciaci&#x00F3;n no implica una repetici&#x00F3;n mec&#x00E1;nica y adoctrinadora de la tradici&#x00F3;n, sino la recepci&#x00F3;n de los conocimientos y habilidades necesarios para participar en un campo de conocimiento, tambi&#x00E9;n mediante el an&#x00E1;lisis cr&#x00ED;tico del conocimiento existente y legitimado, lo que separa la iniciaci&#x00F3;n del adoctrinamiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31096_esp">McDonough, 2011</xref>). La educaci&#x00F3;n desarrolla la racionalidad humana, transmite cuerpos de conocimientos y, rasgo esencial de la iniciaci&#x00F3;n, permite el acceso a sus principios subyacentes. En la medida en que la educaci&#x00F3;n responde a estos prop&#x00F3;sitos, introduce al/la educando/a en la vida reflexiva, lo que permite que construya sus propias razones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31096_esp">Warnick, 2010</xref>) avanzando hacia el pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico, donde la l&#x00F3;gica de transmisi&#x00F3;n se torna en una l&#x00F3;gica de conversaci&#x00F3;n. A este respecto, las reflexiones de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31096_esp">Oakeshott (1991)</xref> completan la visi&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n como iniciaci&#x00F3;n con la de conversaci&#x00F3;n. Las personas que ya han sido iniciadas pueden participar de la conversaci&#x00F3;n de la tradici&#x00F3;n y, por lo tanto, de la pol&#x00ED;tica, de <italic>lo p&#x00FA;blico</italic>.</p>
<p>Veamos el segundo punto de distancia-encuentro. El tipo de sujeto pedag&#x00F3;gico que tienen en mente los aleja en sus reflexiones: Freire ancla su noci&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n a un sujeto pedag&#x00F3;gico colectivo, el de los oprimidos/as, lo que es consistente con su posicionamiento; Peters, por su parte, construye su concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n a partir de la consideraci&#x00F3;n individual del sujeto, como es propio desde miradas liberales. A pesar de esta distancia, ambos dirigen los fines de la educaci&#x00F3;n hacia la participaci&#x00F3;n en la vida p&#x00FA;blica mediante la conversaci&#x00F3;n y el di&#x00E1;logo, expresiones en las que identificamos un paralelismo. En Freire, la educaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00F3;gica tiene como objetivo habilitar a los colectivos oprimidos como sujetos hist&#x00F3;ricos y por ello insiste en que la educaci&#x00F3;n es pol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31096_esp">Freire e &#x00CD;llich, 1975</xref>, p. 6; Freire en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31096_esp">Torres, 1985</xref>, p. 118; Freire en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_esp">Freire y Shor, 2014</xref>, p. 78). En Peters, la gram&#x00E1;tica individualista no borra sin embargo lo socialde la educaci&#x00F3;n, que reside en su atenci&#x00F3;n a la tradici&#x00F3;n y el mundo p&#x00FA;blico, entendidos como lenguajes compartidos con los dem&#x00E1;s. La idea de educaci&#x00F3;n como conversaci&#x00F3;n con la tradici&#x00F3;n completa el car&#x00E1;cter p&#x00FA;blico de la educaci&#x00F3;n como iniciaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31096_esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ducaci&#x00F3;n</sc>, <sc>libertad</sc>, <sc>cr&#x00ED;tica</sc></bold></title>
<p>Desde sus respectivos posicionamientos te&#x00F3;rico-pol&#x00ED;ticos, ambos pensadores prestan atenci&#x00F3;n a las nociones de <italic>libertad</italic> y <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic>. Peters arranca en lo que se conoce como <italic>libertad negativa</italic>, propia del liberalismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31096_esp">Berlin, 1988</xref>), desde donde postula un equilibrio entre el pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico y la transmisi&#x00F3;n de conocimientos en el curso del desarrollo educativo. Por su parte, Freire se apoya en el <italic>existencialismo</italic> para establecer una relaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00E9;ctica entre <italic>libertad</italic> y <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> en t&#x00E9;rminos de <italic>liberaci&#x00F3;n</italic>, aproxim&#x00E1;ndose as&#x00ED; hacia una comprensi&#x00F3;n de libertad positiva. Como veremos, para ambos, la cr&#x00ED;tica apunta al cuestionamiento del lenguaje p&#x00FA;blico (<italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic>/<italic>cultura</italic>) y conecta con una idea de libertad que trasciende la dimensi&#x00F3;n individual.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31096_esp">Peters (1984)</xref> desarrolla sus argumentos en torno a la libertad a partir de tres distinciones que considera especialmente &#x00FA;tiles para aplicar a las relaciones escolares. Comencemos por dos de ellas, estrechamente vinculadas: la idea de un sujeto elector y la de autonom&#x00ED;a. En primer lugar, identifica la libertad en la capacidad de elegir los propios cursos de acci&#x00F3;n, lo que exige una pluralidad de opciones, ya que sin opciones entiende que asistir&#x00ED;amos a sombr&#x00ED;os escenarios, que son justamente contra los que el liberalismo configura los derechos del individuo. Obs&#x00E9;rvese que esta comprensi&#x00F3;n negativa de libertad arranca en una gram&#x00E1;tica individualista, propia del liberalismo, que define la libertad como ausencia de restricciones, permitiendo la libre acci&#x00F3;n individual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31096_esp">Berlin, 1988</xref>). Esta libertad negativa reside en el individuo y, entiende Peters, se apoya en el supuesto de un ser humano con capacidad <italic>racional</italic> para escoger, por lo que enumera una serie de patolog&#x00ED;as mentales como ejemplos en los que el individuo no puede escoger en libertad al estar su racionalidad inhibida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31096_esp">1984</xref>, pp. 154-155). Con ello, sit&#x00FA;a de nuevo la racionalidad humana en el centro de sus argumentos.</p>
<p>Este foco en la racionalidad conduce a la segunda dimensi&#x00F3;n: la <italic>autonom&#x00ED;a</italic>, que a su vez conduce a la necesidad de pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico. La autonom&#x00ED;a &#x201C;sugiere una evaluaci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de las creencias y las pr&#x00E1;cticas y el desarrollo de independencia de criterio como resultado&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_esp">Peters, 1977b</xref>, p. 80). Se traduce, por tanto, en <italic>no seguir las normas</italic> en caso de no estar de acuerdo con ellas; lo que exige un criterio propio para justificar tal desacuerdo. De tal manera que la libertad para escoger solo es libertad en la medida en que el individuo pueda enmarcar sus acciones en un c&#x00F3;digo de conducta, es decir, en la medida en que puede dar razones de sus elecciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31096_esp">Cuypers, 2010</xref>). De este modo, <italic>elecci&#x00F3;n</italic> y <italic>autonom&#x00ED;a</italic> constituyen dos caras de la misma moneda.</p>
<p>Estrechamente vinculado a este sujeto elector y a la autonom&#x00ED;a en la que se dirime su libertad, Peters presta atenci&#x00F3;n al pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico. Para &#x00E9;l, la educaci&#x00F3;n es una combinaci&#x00F3;n equilibrada de conocimientos y pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico. Dentro de esta combinaci&#x00F3;n, la autonom&#x00ED;a se sit&#x00FA;a en un punto intermedio entre la reproducci&#x00F3;n acr&#x00ED;tica del conocimiento y el desarrollo de tesis originales. De esta manera, la educaci&#x00F3;n se aleja de la repetici&#x00F3;n mec&#x00E1;nica y del adoctrinamiento: se aleja de la funci&#x00F3;n de reproducci&#x00F3;n que en esos mismos a&#x00F1;os algunas teor&#x00ED;as cr&#x00ED;ticas atribuyen a la escuela (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31096_esp">Baudelot y Establet, 1987</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31096_esp">Bourdieu y Passeron, 1977</xref>). Pero, puntualiza Peters, no se puede someter todo a una cr&#x00ED;tica constante; en primer lugar, porque en el marco de la educaci&#x00F3;n, la cr&#x00ED;tica se sit&#x00FA;a en un momento posterior a la adquisici&#x00F3;n de conocimiento; y, en segundo lugar, porque el ejemplo, la instrucci&#x00F3;n y la influencia &#x2014;que no necesariamente suponen caer en el dogma&#x2014; son, en la perspectiva de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_esp">Peters (1977b</xref>) definitorios de la educaci&#x00F3;n, especialmente, en las primeras etapas de la vida humana, donde las personas aprenden por imitaci&#x00F3;n e identificaci&#x00F3;n con las figuras de autoridad.</p>
<p>En l&#x00ED;nea con ello, metodol&#x00F3;gicamente Peters aboga por el m&#x00E9;todo socr&#x00E1;tico como la v&#x00ED;a para desarrollar el pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico en el contexto escolar. En esta metodolog&#x00ED;a, el/la maestro/a presenta el conocimiento mediante preguntas y respuestas, lo que obliga al alumnado a explicar y argumentar su pensamiento. El/la educador/a debe guiar, mediar y, ante todo, conocer las preguntas que abren la puerta al cuestionamiento y la reflexi&#x00F3;n para permitir que el/la educando/a llegue &#x201C;a cuestionar sus propias suposiciones, y a reformular una y otra vez lo que piensa o se propone hacer, hasta que da con algo a lo que no le es posible oponer objeci&#x00F3;n alguna&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31096_esp">Peters, 1969</xref>). As&#x00ED;, tanto <italic>libertad</italic> como <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> implican para Peters dar razones, y presentar estas razones ante los otros, esto es, hacerlas p&#x00FA;blicas, situarlas en el espacio p&#x00FA;blico, lo que permite su discusi&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Veamos ahora c&#x00F3;mo reflexiona Freire ambas nociones. Mientras Peters postula una relaci&#x00F3;n de <italic>equilibrio</italic> entre pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico y autonom&#x00ED;a como requisito del sujeto que elige en libertad, Freire establece una relaci&#x00F3;n <italic>dial&#x00E9;ctica</italic> entre <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> y <italic>libertad</italic>. Desde el existencialismo que informa su trabajo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31096_esp">Torres, 1980</xref>), entiende la <italic>existencia</italic> humana &#x2014;en los t&#x00E9;rminos descritos en la secci&#x00F3;n anterior&#x2014; como un camino de decisiones que exige compromiso hist&#x00F3;rico, lo que en cierto sentido es similar a la libertad como capacidad de escoger con responsabilidad de la que habla Peters. Pero, siendo una formulaci&#x00F3;n similar, Freire deposita sobre estas decisiones el peso de la historia, cuya construcci&#x00F3;n quedar&#x00E1; as&#x00ED; en manos de los hombres y de las mujeres. En este elemento hist&#x00F3;rico cristaliza lo p&#x00FA;blico de la educaci&#x00F3;n, al orientar sus fines hacia la transformaci&#x00F3;n del orden social. Desde este prisma, la libertad comienza a construirse cuando el ser humano &#x201C;llega a ser existencia social percibida, cuando su conciencia logra captar las determinantes hist&#x00F3;ricas de su accionar&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31096_esp">Torres, 1980</xref>, p. 9) o, dicho m&#x00E1;s llanamente, cuando el/la educando/a &#x201C;comprenda su posici&#x00F3;n dentro de su contexto&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_esp">Freire, 2015</xref>, p. 55), entendido este contexto en clave marxista. De este modo, <italic>libertad</italic> y <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> se construyen en relaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00E9;ctica en t&#x00E9;rminos de liberaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31096_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Mouj&#x00E1;n, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Metodol&#x00F3;gicamente, este camino de la cr&#x00ED;tica debe ajustarse al modelo dial&#x00F3;gico y de problematizaci&#x00F3;n, lo que significa reflexionar sobre &#x201C;la profundidad en la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de los problemas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_esp">Freire, 2015</xref>). Dicho de otra manera, el modelo dial&#x00F3;gico se gu&#x00ED;a por un ejercicio de problematizaci&#x00F3;n, donde problematizar significa &#x201C;ejercer un an&#x00E1;lisis cr&#x00ED;tico sobre la realidad-problema&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">Freire, 2005</xref>, p. 220): repensar el orden social como realidad-problema y no como mera realidad naturalizada. Esta comprensi&#x00F3;n problematizadora de la realidad permite, por ejemplo, superar la idea meritocr&#x00E1;tica de que la pobreza es fruto de la pereza de las clases populares:</p>
<disp-quote>
    <p>La alfabetizaci&#x00F3;n en un &#x00E1;rea de miseria, por ejemplo, s&#x00F3;lo adquiere sentido en la dimensi&#x00F3;n humana si, con ella, se realiza una especie de psicoan&#x00E1;lisis hist&#x00F3;rico-pol&#x00ED;tico-social del que vaya resultando la extraversi&#x00F3;n de la culpa indebida. Esto corresponde a la &#x201C;expulsi&#x00F3;n&#x201D; del opresor de &#x201C;dentro&#x201D; del oprimido, en cuanto sombra invasora, sombra que, expulsada por el oprimido, debe ser sustituida por su autonom&#x00ED;a y responsabilidad. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31096_esp">Freire, 1997</xref>, p. 81)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Freire insiste en que pasar de oprimido a opresor no constituye un camino de liberaci&#x00F3;n, ya que en ese tr&#x00E1;nsito se sigue reproduciendo la l&#x00F3;gica opresor-oprimido. &#x00C9;l piensa la liberaci&#x00F3;n desde la dial&#x00E9;ctica hegeliana del amo y el esclavo, donde el amo-opresor, aunque est&#x00E1; en un lugar de superioridad, tampoco es libre, ya que su posici&#x00F3;n y su conciencia dependen de la opresi&#x00F3;n sobre el esclavo, a quien en un gesto de deshumanizaci&#x00F3;n se le niega la condici&#x00F3;n de sujeto-hist&#x00F3;rico. La liberaci&#x00F3;n implica la superaci&#x00F3;n de este orden y es una liberaci&#x00F3;n protagonizada por los oprimidos, pero en comuni&#x00F3;n con los opresores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_esp">Freire, 2005</xref>). Se trata, en definitiva, de una idea de liberaci&#x00F3;n en sinton&#x00ED;a con los postulados marxistas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31096_esp">Torres, 1980</xref>) y con la lectura del trabajo decolonial de Fanon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31096_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Mouj&#x00E1;n, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Identificamos un tercer punto de distancia-encuentro. Alejados en el fin que le atribuyen a la educaci&#x00F3;n, la cr&#x00ED;tica es definitoria de la propuesta freiriana en la medida en que este pedagogo es parte de la teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica en el campo educativo. A pesar de ello, vemos que Peters tambi&#x00E9;n otorga un papel central a la cr&#x00ED;tica. As&#x00ED;, identificamos un espacio de encuentro en el papel que le prestan a la cr&#x00ED;tica a trav&#x00E9;s de sus propuestas dial&#x00F3;gica (en Freire) y socr&#x00E1;tica (en Peters). Ambas f&#x00F3;rmulas metodol&#x00F3;gicas postulan una relaci&#x00F3;n de cuestionamiento entre educador/a y educando/a que viene a borrar cualquier posici&#x00F3;n dogm&#x00E1;tica, alentando as&#x00ED; la cr&#x00ED;tica. De la misma manera, la idea que Peters formula de que el pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico implica el reconocimiento de los principios subyacentes al conocimiento guarda parecido con la propuesta problematizadora de Freire. Para ambos, la cr&#x00ED;tica constituye un requisito para la participaci&#x00F3;n en lo p&#x00FA;blico. En Peters, se trata de compartir argumentos con los dem&#x00E1;s mediante el m&#x00E9;todo socr&#x00E1;tico; mientras que en Freire el di&#x00E1;logo problematizador habilita la voz de los/as oprimidos/as, hasta entonces silenciados hist&#x00F3;ricamente. De esta manera, conectamos su atenci&#x00F3;n a la cr&#x00ED;tica con el papel deseable que otorgan a la participaci&#x00F3;n en lo p&#x00FA;blico.</p>
<p>Para cerrar esta secci&#x00F3;n, profundizaremos en c&#x00F3;mo ambos pensadores conciben las relaciones educativas a trav&#x00E9;s de la noci&#x00F3;n de libertad. A pesar de la distancia en sus posturas, un punto com&#x00FA;n en ambos es su cr&#x00ED;tica a ciertas pedagog&#x00ED;as progresistas que entienden la libertad educativa como un <italic>dejar hacer</italic> a los/as educandos/as. Aqu&#x00ED;, la propuesta de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31096_esp">Neill (1979)</xref> es quiz&#x00E1;s el ejemplo paradigm&#x00E1;tico de libertad educativa entendida en estos t&#x00E9;rminos. Este debate se conoce en el terreno educativo como una discusi&#x00F3;n en torno a la &#x201C;directividad&#x201D;. La directividad se predica generalmente de las pedagog&#x00ED;as en las que el/la educador/a asume un rol directivo de tintes m&#x00E1;s tradicionales. En contraposici&#x00F3;n, las pedagog&#x00ED;as activas y espontane&#x00ED;stas ponen el foco en la &#x201C;espontaneidad&#x201D; de los y las ni&#x00F1;as como eje del proceso educativo. Se debate as&#x00ED; si la acci&#x00F3;n educativa debe ser m&#x00E1;s o menos directiva o, incluso, hay pedagogos que postulan la total ausencia de directividad, como Neill. Tanto Peters como Freire rechazan las posturas que conf&#x00ED;an en la &#x201C;espontaneidad&#x201D; de los/as ni&#x00F1;os/as. Veamos desde qu&#x00E9; argumentos lo hacen.</p>
<p>A trav&#x00E9;s de la tercera distinci&#x00F3;n en torno a la libertad &#x2014;ya hemos expuesto las otras dos: el sujeto elector y la autonom&#x00ED;a&#x2014;, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31096_esp">Peters (1984)</xref> considera la libertad como un principio social. De acuerdo con las teor&#x00ED;as pol&#x00ED;ticas liberales del contrato social, Peters parte del supuesto de un estado de naturaleza en el que, en ausencia de cualquier tipo de restricci&#x00F3;n impuesta por la ley o la costumbre, imperar&#x00E1; la ley del m&#x00E1;s fuerte, lo que se traduce en restricciones injustificadas hacia los m&#x00E1;s d&#x00E9;biles. Desde este supuesto, identifica la &#x201C;paradoja de la libertad&#x201D;: es necesario introducir mediante la ley y la costumbre &#x2014;que son parte del orden civil por contraposici&#x00F3;n al estado de naturaleza&#x2014;determinadas restricciones niveladoras entre las personas. En sus palabras, &#x201C;la libertad solo prevalecer&#x00E1; si hay un sistema general de regulaci&#x00F3;n que proteja estas esferas contra la interferencia de otros&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31096_esp">Peters, 1984</xref>, p. 151). Estas esferas a proteger son los derechos individuales de todos/as. Extrapolando estos argumentos a las relaciones educativas, Peters entiende que esta paradoja se da particularmente en los contextos escolares y por ello defiende la necesidad de establecer l&#x00ED;mites de conducta en las aulas, con el objetivo de evitar que sean &#x201C;los traviesos o grupos de compa&#x00F1;eros&#x201D; quienes impongan sus restricciones a los/as dem&#x00E1;s estudiantes. As&#x00ED;, subraya la importancia de la autoridad educativa para imponer ciertas normas niveladoras.</p>
<p>En este orden de cosas, recordemos que Peters aboga, junto con el m&#x00E9;todo socr&#x00E1;tico, por f&#x00F3;rmulas como la educaci&#x00F3;n mediante el ejemplo y la instrucci&#x00F3;n, que implican din&#x00E1;micas de sujeci&#x00F3;n del/la aprendiz al educador. Esto pudiera parecer una contradicci&#x00F3;n entre el objetivo educativo de llegar a pensar por uno/a mismo/a y la sujeci&#x00F3;n a los/as otros/as que est&#x00E1; involucrada en tales f&#x00F3;rmulas. Sin embargo, esta aparente contradicci&#x00F3;n, que es una manera en que se despliega la paradoja de la libertad en la educaci&#x00F3;n, simplemente hace evidente la condici&#x00F3;n social y la naturaleza intersubjetiva tanto del ser humano como del aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31096_esp">Martin, 2010</xref>): nos hacemos conscientes de nosotros y nosotras mismas a trav&#x00E9;s de la relaci&#x00F3;n con los dem&#x00E1;s y de la participaci&#x00F3;n en el lenguaje p&#x00FA;blico. De esta manera, las preguntas que conciernen al ejercicio de la autonom&#x00ED;a, la toma de decisiones sobre los cursos de acci&#x00F3;n a seguir y las razones que damos de nuestras elecciones, son en realidad preguntas p&#x00FA;blicas cuya respuesta requiere la deliberaci&#x00F3;n compartida con otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_esp">Peters, 1977b</xref>). A pesar de que Peters parte de una noci&#x00F3;n liberal del ser humano y de que sit&#x00FA;a al individuo como objetivo &#x00FA;ltimo del proceso educativo, otorga a los dem&#x00E1;s un papel destacado en el proceso de iniciaci&#x00F3;n, tanto en la figura del educador/a, como en la forma del mundo p&#x00FA;blico que tiene como objeto la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31096_esp">English, 2010</xref>). As&#x00ED;, en este sentido, la autoridad docente debe servir para orientar el proceso educativo hacia lo valioso de la tradici&#x00F3;n, contrarrestando otras posibles influencias por fuera del espacio educativo.</p>
<p>Veamos ahora c&#x00F3;mo Freire aborda esta cuesti&#x00F3;n. En primer lugar, el brasile&#x00F1;o impugna las premisas del debate en torno a la &#x201C;directividad&#x201D; (en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_esp">Freire y Shor, 2014</xref>): en la medida en que la educaci&#x00F3;n nunca es neutral &#x2014;porque se orienta, o bien, hacia la reproducci&#x00F3;n-adaptaci&#x00F3;n, o bien, hacia la transformaci&#x00F3;n social&#x2014; siempre queda marcada por unos fines de los que el/la educador/a debe hacerse cargo. As&#x00ED;, no existe la posibilidad de pedagog&#x00ED;as no directivas. En segundo lugar, si bien la educaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00F3;gica debe convocar la palabra del educando o educanda, esto no implica una postura espontane&#x00ED;sta, no solo porque tal postura sea imposible para Freire, como acabamos de se&#x00F1;alar, sino porque adem&#x00E1;s, el espontane&#x00ED;smo constituye para &#x00E9;l un <italic>laissez faire</italic> educativo en el que los/as educandos/as quedan abandonados/as:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Por una parte, no puedo ser autoritario y, por otra, no puedo caer en el laissez faire. Debo ser radicalmente democr&#x00E1;tico, responsable y directivo. No directivo de los estudiantes, sino directivo del proceso en el que los estudiantes est&#x00E1;n conmigo. En tanto que dirigentes del proceso, el profesor liberador no est&#x00E1; haciendo nada a los estudiantes, sino con los estudiantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_esp">Freire y Shor, 2014</xref>, p. 79).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>As&#x00ED;, consciente de las relaciones de dominaci&#x00F3;n-alienaci&#x00F3;n que justamente la educaci&#x00F3;n liberadora se propone desvelar, el/la educador/a no puede mantenerse neutral, sino que en su compromiso cr&#x00ED;tico le imprime conscientemente una determinada direcci&#x00F3;n al di&#x00E1;logo, sin caer nunca en el autoritarismo de la educaci&#x00F3;n bancaria. En este sentido, Freire insiste en que una educaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00F3;gica debe arrancar en el sentido com&#x00FA;n del educando/a para convocar as&#x00ED; su voz. En sus propias palabras, el punto de partida radica en &#x201C;el sentido com&#x00FA;n de los estudiantes y no en el rigor del educador&#x201D; (Freire en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31096_esp">Torres, 1985</xref>, p. 121). Pero, partir de su sentido com&#x00FA;n, justamente es &#x201C;partir&#x201D; porque implica no quedarse en ese sentido com&#x00FA;n. Aqu&#x00ED; juega un papel clave, el/la educador/a que gu&#x00ED;a el trayecto. Por todo ello, Freire entiende que la relaci&#x00F3;n entre educador/a-educando/a no es una relaci&#x00F3;n entre iguales, porque &#x201C;en el momento en que el profesor empieza el di&#x00E1;logo, &#x00E9;l sabe mucho, primero, en t&#x00E9;rminos de conocimiento y, despu&#x00E9;s, en t&#x00E9;rminos del horizonte al que quiere llegar&#x201D; (Freire en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_esp">Freire y Shor, 2014</xref>, p. 166). Pero, siendo as&#x00ED;, debe articularse como una relaci&#x00F3;n democr&#x00E1;tica y no autoritaria (p. 150).</p>
<p>Llegamos as&#x00ED; al cuarto punto de distancia-encuentro. Ambos autores arrancan su reflexi&#x00F3;n en concepciones muy diferentes de libertad: una idea individualista de libertad negativa en Peters, y una noci&#x00F3;n de libertad como liberaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00E9;ctica opresor-oprimido en el caso de Peters. A pesar de esta distancia, ambos convergen en su rechazo al espontane&#x00ED;smo de las pedagog&#x00ED;as denominadas no directivas. As&#x00ED;, coinciden en que la libertad en las relaciones educativas no debe traducirse en un &#x201C;dejar hacer libremente al educando/a&#x201D;. Entienden que verlo as&#x00ED;, lejos de orientar la educaci&#x00F3;n hacia la libertad, constituye una dejaci&#x00F3;n de su tarea por parte del educador/a. Por eso, Peters habla de la necesidad de una autoridad niveladora y Freire hace un llamado a los/las educadores/as a hacerse cargo de su posici&#x00F3;n en la relaci&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica &#x2014;que no es en igualdad con los/as educandos/as&#x2014;. En s&#x00ED;ntesis, tanto Freire como Peters entienden que para orientar la educaci&#x00F3;n hacia la libertad, es preciso manejar una noci&#x00F3;n de este concepto m&#x00E1;s compleja que la de &#x201C;dejar hacer&#x201D;, lo que en las relaciones educativas interpela especialmente a la tarea de los/as educadores/as: deben saber guiar el proceso de problematizaci&#x00F3;n (en Freire) o socr&#x00E1;tico (en Peters).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31096_esp">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ncuentros inesperados</sc></bold></title>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n como iniciaci&#x00F3;n sit&#x00FA;a en un plano central de la educaci&#x00F3;n la tradici&#x00F3;n y el desarrollo intelectual. La pedagog&#x00ED;a liberadora, por su parte, resalta la justicia social y la liberaci&#x00F3;n de los grupos sociales oprimidos. Esto supone, a menudo, una cr&#x00ED;tica a la tradici&#x00F3;n, lo que revela que existe una tensi&#x00F3;n sustancial entre ambas teor&#x00ED;as. A pesar de esta tensi&#x00F3;n, este art&#x00ED;culo no es el primero que pone en relaci&#x00F3;n ambas concepciones de la educaci&#x00F3;n (ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31096_esp">Beckett, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31096_esp">Endres, 2002</xref>). En este caso, sin embargo, la alusi&#x00F3;n a ambas teor&#x00ED;as no tiene como objetivo abogar por la elecci&#x00F3;n entre una u otra, tampoco por la necesidad de integrar ambas. El an&#x00E1;lisis del pensamiento de Peters y Freire que ha ocupado las p&#x00E1;ginas precedentes se sit&#x00FA;a en la necesidad de recuperar el debate p&#x00FA;blico en torno a la educaci&#x00F3;n as&#x00ED; como de repensar el car&#x00E1;cter p&#x00FA;blico de la educaci&#x00F3;n, en un contexto de auge de concepciones privatizadoras e individualizadoras de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Ante los m&#x00FA;ltiples sentidos que se le atribuye, en este trabajo hemos entendido &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; como los prop&#x00F3;sitos educativos orientados hacia un bien social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31096_esp">Clarke <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>) y como el espacio de construcci&#x00F3;n de sentidos compartidos sobre el bien com&#x00FA;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31096_esp">Higgins y Abowitz, 2011</xref>). Desde esta comprensi&#x00F3;n, hemos rastreado en los trabajos de ambos autores las huellas de lo p&#x00FA;blico. Para ello, y a la luz de sus postulados, proponemos como conceptos clave sobre los que puede pivotar la discusi&#x00F3;n sobre el car&#x00E1;cter p&#x00FA;blico de la educaci&#x00F3;n las categor&#x00ED;as que hemos identificado como centrales en su pensamiento: <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic>/<italic>cultura</italic>; <italic>conversaci&#x00F3;n</italic>/<italic>di&#x00E1;logo</italic>; <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> y <italic>libertad</italic>. En estas categor&#x00ED;as identificamos cuatro espacios ambivalentes, de distancia y a la vez de encuentro, entre ambas propuestas. Son puntos de distancia porque a trav&#x00E9;s de ellas ambos autores elaboran reflexiones muy diferentes en atenci&#x00F3;n a sus respectivos posicionamientos te&#x00F3;rico-pol&#x00ED;ticos; sin embargo, comparten cierto suelo com&#x00FA;n en el que cristaliza esa dimensi&#x00F3;n social que vincula la educaci&#x00F3;n a <italic>lo p&#x00FA;blico</italic>. El hecho de que cada autor conciba estos conceptos desde posiciones diferentes, e incluso enfrentadas, no resta, a nuestro juicio, legitimidad a la discusi&#x00F3;n y el pensamiento compartidos; muy al contrario, avala el car&#x00E1;cter plural que toda discusi&#x00F3;n que se pretenda p&#x00FA;blica no puede sino adquirir, as&#x00ED; como da cuenta de la complejidad de la tarea, si bien no exime de abordarla.</p>
<p>El primer punto de encuentro identificado es el enmarque social desde el que conceptualizan la educaci&#x00F3;n. Desde expresiones diferentes &#x2014;el <italic>mundo p&#x00FA;blico</italic> y la <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic> en Peters, y el orden social capitalista y la <italic>cultura</italic> en Freire&#x2014;, ambos autores desarrollan su posicionamiento ante la sociedad, a partir del cual derivan <italic>lo valioso</italic> de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Identificamos as&#x00ED; un claro paralelismo entre <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic> y <italic>cultura</italic>, ya que ambas apuntan a lenguajes p&#x00FA;blicos compartidos a partir de los cuales se dirime el contenido de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Hemos identificado un segundo punto de encuentro en el paralelismo entre las nociones de <italic>di&#x00E1;logo</italic>, crucial en Freire, y de <italic>conversaci&#x00F3;n</italic>, que completa la propuesta de Peters. Si bien el sujeto pedag&#x00F3;gico es diferente en cada propuesta, mediante el <italic>di&#x00E1;logo</italic>/<italic>conversaci&#x00F3;n</italic> el educando/a entra a participar del lenguaje p&#x00FA;blico compartido, ya sea este pensado como <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic> o como <italic>cultura</italic>. La atenci&#x00F3;n a la <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> en ambos autores constituye el tercer punto de distancia-encuentro. Es un punto de distancia porque la cr&#x00ED;tica tiene una centralidad distinta en cada autor: la pedagog&#x00ED;a freireana es parte de la tradici&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica, lo que implica un cuestionamiento del orden social capitalista; no as&#x00ED; Peters, que se inscribe dentro del espectro del liberalismo. A pesar de la distancia, ambos consideran la <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> un momento crucial del acto educativo, definitorio de los m&#x00E9;todos que proponen: el m&#x00E9;todo dial&#x00F3;gico (Freire) y socr&#x00E1;tico (Peters). Finalmente, en la categor&#x00ED;a de libertad identificamos el cuarto punto. Desde su postura liberal, Peters arranca en una comprensi&#x00F3;n negativa de libertad; mientras que Freire establece una relaci&#x00F3;n dial&#x00E9;ctica con la cr&#x00ED;tica en t&#x00E9;rminos de liberaci&#x00F3;n. A pesar de las diferencias, ambos convergen en su comprensi&#x00F3;n de la libertad educativa como una noci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s compleja que un mero &#x201C;dejar hacer&#x201D; al educando o educanda. Desde un rechazo compartido a las teor&#x00ED;as espontane&#x00ED;stas y no directivas, entienden que la construcci&#x00F3;n de sujetos libres a trav&#x00E9;s de la educaci&#x00F3;n exige del educador y de la educadora un papel activo, ya sea como autoridad niveladora (Peters) o mediante un compromiso consciente con su posicionamiento pol&#x00ED;tico (Freire).</p>
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<fn id="fn1_esp" fn-type="financial-disclosure"><label>1.</label> <p>Este art&#x00ED;culo se enmarca en los proyectos de investigaci&#x00F3;n <italic>EduCommon</italic> y <italic>LobbyingTeachers</italic>. El proyecto <italic>EduCommon</italic> ha recibido financiaci&#x00F3;n del programa de innovaci&#x00F3;n e investigaci&#x00F3;n Horizonte 2020 de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea bajo el acuerdo de financiaci&#x00F3;n Marie Sk&#x0142;odowska-Curie, n&#x00FA;m. 101027465, y del proyecto <italic>Lobbying Teachers. Fundamentos te&#x00F3;ricos, estructuras pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas sociales de las relaciones p&#x00FA;blico-privadas en materia de profesorado en Espa&#x00F1;a</italic> (PID2019-104566RA-I00), financiado por la Convocatoria 2019 &#x00AB;Proyectos de I+D+i&#x00BB;. Programa Estatal de I+D+i Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31096</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31096</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>EDUCATION AND THE PUBLIC IN LIBERAL PEDAGOGY AND CRITICAL PEDAGOGY<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_eng"><sup>1</sup></xref></article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n y lo p&#x00FA;blico en la Pedagog&#x00ED;a liberal y en la Pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2883-2207</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>FERN&#x00C1;NDEZ GONZ&#x00C1;LEZ</surname>
<given-names>Noelia</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_eng"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5396-2404</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>PRIETO EGIDO</surname>
<given-names>Miriam</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2_eng"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_eng">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_eng"><email>noelia.fernandezg@uam.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2_eng"><email>miriam.prieto@uam.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>81</fpage>
<lpage>97</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>01</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>08</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>In recent decades, privatizing and individualizing understandings of education have surged due to neoliberal discourses and policies. In response to them, educational research has explored the different meanings of &#x0022;the public&#x0022; in relation to education that those neoliberal policies would erode. This paper aims to contribute to this debate by exploring the relationship between education and &#x0022;the public&#x0022; through a dialogue between two traditions, usually understood as incompatible, in the field of educational theory: the liberal theory of education as initiation formulated by Peters and that of Latin American critical pedagogy developed by Paulo Freire. This paper is based on a review of the central works that synthesize both approaches, tracing the marks of &#x0022;the public&#x0022;, understood both as the educational aims oriented towards the common good as well as the shared spaces where the common good is built. This review has allowed us to identify four <italic>points of distance-encounter</italic> between both proposals, i.e., argumentative spaces that, within the distance between their postulates, share certain common ground where the traces of &#x0022;the public&#x0022; crystallize. First, through their attention to the categories <italic>tradition</italic>/<italic>culture</italic>, both authors frame education in public languages shared by society. Second, we identify a parallelism in the notions of <italic>dialogue</italic>/<italic>conversation</italic> with those shared languages that both theories postulate as defining the educational process. Thirdly, both approaches understand <italic>the critique</italic> as a form of participation in those common languages that are constructed. Fourthly and finally, to build free subjects, they share the rejection of spontaneist pedagogies that understand educational freedom as a mere &#x0022;letting the learner do&#x0022;.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>En las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas, las comprensiones privatizadoras e individualizadoras de la educaci&#x00F3;n se han extendido con fuerza de la mano de discursos y pol&#x00ED;ticas neoliberales. En respuesta a ellas, la investigaci&#x00F3;n educativa viene explorando en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os los distintos sentidos de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; en relaci&#x00F3;n con la educaci&#x00F3;n que estas pol&#x00ED;ticas vendr&#x00ED;an a erosionar. Este trabajo pretende ofrecer un aporte dentro de este debate que indaga sobre la relaci&#x00F3;n entre la educaci&#x00F3;n y &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D; a partir de un di&#x00E1;logo entre dos tradiciones, frecuentemente consideradas opuestas, en el campo de la Teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n: la propuesta liberal de la educaci&#x00F3;n como iniciaci&#x00F3;n formulada por Peters y la de la pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica latinoamericana desarrollada por Paulo Freire. Este trabajo se apoya en una revisi&#x00F3;n de los trabajos centrales que sintetizan ambas propuestas, rastreando las huellas de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;, entendido como los prop&#x00F3;sitos educativos dirigidos hacia el bien com&#x00FA;n y tambi&#x00E9;n como los espacios compartidos de construcci&#x00F3;n del bien com&#x00FA;n. Esta revisi&#x00F3;n nos ha permitido identificar cuatro <italic>puntos de distancia-encuentro</italic> entre ambas propuestas, es decir, espacios argumentales que, dentro de lo alejado de sus postulados, comparten cierto suelo com&#x00FA;n en el que cristalizan huellas comunes de &#x201C;lo p&#x00FA;blico&#x201D;. En primer lugar, a trav&#x00E9;s de su atenci&#x00F3;n a las categor&#x00ED;as <italic>tradici&#x00F3;n</italic>/<italic>cultura</italic>, ambos autores enmarcan la educaci&#x00F3;n en lenguajes p&#x00FA;blicos compartidos por la sociedad. En segundo lugar, identificamos un paralelismo en las nociones de <italic>di&#x00E1;logo/conversaci&#x00F3;n</italic> con esos lenguajes compartidos que ambas propuestas postulan como definitorias del proceso educativo. En tercer lugar, ambas propuestas entienden la <italic>cr&#x00ED;tica</italic> como una forma de participaci&#x00F3;n en los lenguajes comunes que se construyen. En cuarto y &#x00FA;ltimo lugar, con el fin de construir sujetos libres, comparten el rechazo a las pedagog&#x00ED;as espontane&#x00ED;stas que entienden la libertad educativa como un mero &#x201C;dejar hacer&#x201D; al educando/a.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educational theory</kwd>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>freedom</kwd>
<kwd>critical thinking</kwd>
<kwd>critical theory</kwd>
<kwd>liberalism</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>libertad</kwd>
<kwd>pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico</kwd>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica</kwd>
<kwd>liberalismo</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>European Union&#x2019;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sk&#x0142;odowska-Curie</institution>
<institution>Call for Projects 2019 &#x00AB;Proyectos de I+D+i&#x00BB;</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>101027465</award-id>
<award-id>PID2019-104566RA-I00</award-id>
</award-group>
<funding-statement>This article is part of the research projects <italic>EduCommon</italic> and <italic>LobbyingTeachers. EduCommon</italic> project has received funding from the European Union&#x2019;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sk&#x0142;odowska-Curie grant agreement No. 101027465. The project <italic>Lobbying Teachers. Fundamentos te&#x00F3;ricos, estructuras pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas sociales de las relaciones p&#x00FA;blico-privadas en materia de profesorado en Espa&#x00F1;a</italic> (PID2019-104566RA-I00), has received funding from the Call for Projects 2019 &#x00AB;Proyectos de I+D+i&#x00BB;. Programa Estatal de I+D+i Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31096_eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>In the field of the Theory of Education, Stanley Richard Peters and Paulo Freire are proponents of traditions widely considered as clashing: education as initiation and critical pedagogy. While Peters&#x0027;s contribution falls within the spectrum of liberalism-particularly in what <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31096_eng">Degenhardt (2010</xref>, p. 126) calls &#x0022;non-elitist&#x0022; because of its concern about inequality, Freire is a proponent of the Latin American version of the critical tradition, Popular Education, marked by Marxist thought. The purpose of this article is to lay out a set of <italic>points of distance-encounter</italic> between the two writers that reflect a key aspect for thinking about the relationship between education and politics: the core role of the public world in education. Aware that the two authors allude to that relationship from different meanings of &#x0022;the public&#x0022;, we use the expression &#x0022;distance-encounter points&#x0022; to refer to arguments on education that are formulated from opposing ideological positions and concerns (the distance) but nevertheless share some common ground in terms of the relational and social nature of education (the encounter). In a context of increasingly privatizing and individualizing conceptions on one hand and of questioning and the need to redefine the public nature of education on the other, these two authors&#x0027; conceptions of education may help guide the badly needed debate to redevelop the public condition of education.</p>
<p>In the shift from a welfare state model to a neoliberal state model (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31096_eng">Fraser &#x0026; Jaeggi, 2019</xref>), the politics and policies of privatizing education have expanded with the introduction of models of management from the business world and ways of funding and provision based on the participation of private sector agents (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31096_eng">Ball &#x0026; Youdell, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31096_eng">Rizvi, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31096_eng">Verger et al., 2016</xref>). Added to this is an increasingly common understanding of education as a process of self-capitalization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31096_eng">Rizvi &#x0026; Lingard, 2013</xref>), which also consists of the surge of logics of individualization fostered by educational currents that place the aim of education at the development of atomized individuals centered on themselves and separate from any social, political, or economic context (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31096_eng">Cabanas &#x0026; Illouz, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31096_eng">D&#x00ED;ez-Guti&#x00E9;rrez &#x0026; Bernab&#x00E9; Mart&#x00ED;nez, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31096_eng">Ecclestone &#x0026; Hayes, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31096_eng">Prieto, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>In the wake of a surge in studies aimed at these two dynamics, research has also explored what is meant by that &#x0022;public&#x0022; that privatization is claimed to be threatening (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31096_eng">Clarke et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31096_eng">Higgins &#x0026; Abowizt, 2011</xref>). One clear idea at the forefront is that, far from having a single accepted definition, &#x0022;public&#x0022; is a discourse construct &#x201C;strategically mobilized in the service of various political and ideological projects&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31096_eng">Clarke et al., 2021</xref>, p. 5). In the framework of liberalism, public is configured as the state sphere in contrast to the market, which would be &#x0022;private&#x0022;: thorough studies by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31096_eng">Foucault (2007)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31096_eng">Polanyi (2019)</xref> reveal that this dichotomy is the basis for the construction of the modern liberal state. In the switch from a welfare state-managed capitalism to neoliberal capitalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31096_eng">Fraser &#x0026; Jaeggi, 2019</xref>), the boundary between public-state and private-mercantile becomes blurred because of a wide range of policies of privatization and mercantilization of state social services, which also broadly enter the field of education (and have been extensively studied in recent decades).</p>
<p>Beyond liberalism and the modern State, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31096_eng">Castoriadis (1996)</xref>, a theoretical autonomist, proposes a trans-historical triad of three spheres: the public, which is the sphere of explicit power and were politics are done (democratic or not); the private, which is the sphere of home; and the public-private, which includes spaces such as the marketplace and schools, where the other two intersect. He adds one more sphere to these other three: &#x0022;the political&#x0022;, which denotes the power relationships that run through societies in all their spheres. This idea of &#x0022;the political&#x0022; sheds light, for example on the feminist outcry that &#x0022;the personal is political&#x0022;, aimed at moving the situation of women into the public sphere. &#x0022;The political&#x0022; takes the limelight in radical theories of democracy interested in revealing the social exclusions that make up every social order and model the limits of the public sphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31096_eng">Mouffe, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31096_eng">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>To complete this brief review of some meanings of what is &#x0022;public&#x0022;, mention must be made of the works of a number of different neo-Marxist scholars who have been seeking to overcome the liberal dichotomy between the public-state versus the private-mercantile from the suggestion that there is a historical alliance between the State and the capital that, in the neoliberal stage, keeps mercantilizing more areas of life. From the common, they explore underlying democratic formulas that defy mercantile and state logic alike (for an overview, see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31096_eng">P&#x00E9;rez Fern&#x00E1;ndez &#x0026; Zamora Garc&#x00ED;a, 2023</xref>). Similarly, some initiatives in popular education define themselves as being &#x0022;non-state public&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31096_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Gonz&#x00E1;lez, s/f</xref>).</p>
<p>These brief notes amid the broader debate on &#x0022;the public&#x0022; show that the expression &#x0022;public education&#x0022;, rather than describing, announces a political and ideological debate that links education to other equally contentious notions such as &#x0022;democracy&#x0022;, &#x0022;equality&#x0022;, &#x0022;politics&#x0022;, and &#x0022;commonality&#x0022;. Faced with the diversity of paths for exploring the public in education, this article explores one of the many listed by Clarke (2021) and his colleagues: &#x201C;the <italic>purposes</italic> of education and whether it is conceived as a societal or an individual good&#x201D; (p. 5). Therefore, the purpose of this article is to lay out how &#x0022;the public&#x0022; takes form in both authors, Peters and Freire, as a dimension that defines education. This dialog starts with an analysis of some of the key works by the two authors, noting four points of distance-encounter around the four following categories: (1) tradition/culture; (2) conversation/dialog; (3) freedom and (4) critique. The two authors&#x0027; theoretical-political and contextual anchors are expressed in very different languages, which makes the present work of dialog between them also an endeavor of mutual translation to uncover the designs of what is &#x0022;public&#x0022;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31096_eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ducation, tradition</sc> / <sc>culture</sc>: <sc>conversation</sc> / <sc>dialog</sc></bold></title>
<p>As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31096_eng">Freire (1970)</xref> rightly stated, &#x0022;all educational practice implies a theoretical stance on the educator&#x0027;s part. This stance in turn implies &#x2014;sometimes more, sometimes less explicitly&#x2014; an interpretation of man and the world&#x201D; (pp. 5-6). Along these lines, as mentioned above, Peters and Freire hold very different theoretical stances.</p>
<p>An English philosopher and university professor specialized in the Philosophy of Education, Peters set about revitalizing teacher training just as it was becoming a university-level degree program in the UK (in the 1960s and 1970s). His goal was to raise the intellectual content not only of teacher training but also at schools so as to consolidate pedagogical knowledge as scientific knowledge. To achieve that, he thought it necessary to raise the level of philosophical analysis of education. As a result of his influence, disciplines such as philosophy, history, and sociology gained prominence in teacher training in those years. The centrality of the intellectual dimension in Peters&#x0027; conceptualization of education stems from that aim (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31096_eng">Walks, 2013</xref>). Peters falls within what <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31096_eng">Degenhart (2010)</xref> calls non-elitist liberalism (p. 126), a current begun in the 1960s in the UK aimed at giving everyone access to the characteristic ways of thinking in the different areas of knowledge. From this perspective, he understands education to be a continuation with the public tradition, from which he postulates that education &#x0022;implies that something worthwhile is being or has been intentionally transmitted in a morally acceptable manner&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31096_eng">1966</xref>, p. 25) and identifies that worthwhile something in the &#x0022;public world&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_eng">1977b</xref>) into which the new generations must be initiated.</p>
<p>In a very different context, the Brazilian pedagogue Paulo Freire, also a university professor specialized in the Philosophy of Education, gained international recognition for his work as a popular educator in the late 1950s in literacy programs for adult rural farmers. As a militant leftist with leanings toward liberation philosophy, he was committed to revolutionary struggles in the region, which joined his work as a teacher to his political commitment. Thus, his theoretical stance is underscored by Marxist (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31096_eng">Torres, 1980</xref>) and decolonial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31096_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Mouj&#x00E1;n, 2018</xref>) criticism of capitalism. From there he draws up a crucial contribution to the Latin American tradition of Popular Education, which considers the people --&#x0022;the poor&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_eng">Freire, 2015</xref>) or &#x0022;the oppressed&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">Freire, 2005</xref>)--as the main pedagogical subject. Through this prism, education constitutes an emancipatory political work: &#x0022;a process of the learners&#x0027; organization and struggle to transform the conditions of injustice that keep them oppressed and excluded&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31096_eng">Torres Carrillo, 2016</xref>, p. 10). The Marxist approach imbues Freire with a conflictual understanding of what is &#x0022;public&#x0022;: the social order is riddle with different types of social conflict--class, gender, racist-colonial--that originate in capitalism.</p>
<p>Peters has a different understanding of education. He identifies the worthwhile for education to transmit in the public world, a world represented by language, structured by norms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_eng">1977b</xref>), that precedes the subject being taught and therefore is shared with everyone else (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31096_eng">Martin, 2010</xref>). To Peters, the worthwhile has a clear social dimension. This public world should be read in keeping with the idea of tradition, also understood as a language, a constitutive way of making sense of the world, and thus also a tool for resolutions, beliefs, and feelings--since language is not a instrument for expressing the world but an exercise of construction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31096_eng">Peters, 1966</xref>). In this way, the initiation in the ways of thinking of a tradition that education develops is a condition that sets human beings free by enabling them to undertake their own decisions both as individuals and in the public space (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31096_eng">Peters, 1977a</xref>). In other words, education is a condition for participating freely in the public sphere. Nevertheless, not all components of tradition or the public world are worthwhile, only the ones that attend to inherently human traits and are the one that characterize the learner (here lies the weight of the intellectual in Peters). These traits involve activities of a higher cognitive nature and demand mastery of a body of knowledge and a grasp of the principles on which such knowledge is built (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_eng">Peters, 1977b</xref>). It also implies integrity of character and critical thinking. In synthesis, education develops the capabilities of rationality that make us imminently human, and reside in <italic>the worthwhile</italic> of tradition.</p>
<p>In Freire, similarly, education is what makes humans fully human. However, in the face of tradition and rationality, Freire turns to culture and historicity for elements in which humans realize their vocation of humanization. Firstly, he understands that humanization of human beings lies in their capability to <italic>exist</italic>, which goes beyond their ability to <italic>live</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_eng">Freire, 2015</xref>). Existence is the ability to transcend the immanence of the biological, and this is what distinguishes human beings from all the other animals: &#x0022;we manage to make our existence something more than merely living (&#x2026;) we stood up, we freed our hands and our freed hands are largely responsible for who we are&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31096_eng">Freire, 2003</xref>, p. 20). <italic>Historicity</italic> and <italic>culture</italic> are the supports of <italic>existence</italic>. The capability of language is the main sign of culture, and it is in cultural production and creation, and not in reproduction-adaptation, where humans become cultural subjects. Secondly, humans are constituted as historical subjects because, being unfinished and temporal, they are aware of it, which also distinguishes them from other animals and feeds their will to &#x0022;be more&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_eng">Freire, 2015</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">2005</xref>). Colonized peoples and the dispossessed masses that make up Freire&#x0027;s pedagogical subject have been stripped not only of the material sustenance of their biological life, but also of the culture and historical capability that humanize human beings. Therefore, <italic>true education</italic> should develop both elements, allowing them to undertake their vocation of humanization and intervene in the flow of History (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">Freire, 2005</xref>).</p>
<p>Here, then, is the first point of distance-encounter. With different expressions--the public world in Peters and the capitalist social order in Freire, a sign of the distance in their stances and motivations, both begin their reflections by framing education in society. On the basis of that framework, they derive the worthwhile of education from their respective stances toward society. In Peters, the worthwhile of the public world and tradition becomes the rational and intellectual dimension of human beings; in Freire, the worthwhile of education lies in its potential for social transformation based on its critique of capitalism. Here then is the distance in the motivations each of them impresses on education: with the focus on the cultural and historical dimension of human beings, Freire turns the purpose of education toward social transformation by understanding that both notions as riddled with social strife. In contrast, Peters operates on a more conservative reasoning by which education transmits tradition, conferring a central role on the legacy and knowledge that societies go about constructing. Despite this distance, the common ground in their reflections is the social dimension of both categories, <italic>tradition</italic> and <italic>culture</italic>, with which they designate languages shared by society, therefore public languages, used to define the content of education, whether by transmission (in Peters) or by questioning (in Freire).</p>
<p>Peters uses the term &#x0022;transmission&#x0022; to define the educational act. Indeed, this idea of education as transmission was an object of criticism by Freire in <italic>Pedagogy of the Oppressed</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31096_eng">1970</xref>/<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">2005</xref>). Coining the expression &#x0022;the banking model of education&#x0022;, he criticizes the logic of transmission he sees at school, and defines it as &#x0022;depositing facts, semi-dead information&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31096_eng">Freire, 1971</xref>, p. 24) in learners for the purpose of &#x0022;mystifying reality&#x0022; (p. 24) to <italic>adapt them</italic> to this order of domination. In this way, he understands education as being a tool for reproducing the capitalist order of inequality. This banking model is grounded on a hierarchical authoritative relationship between teacher and learner that Freire identifies as that of oppressor- oppressed inside the educational relationship (in a Hegelian dialectic explored later in this article). This banking model dehumanizes learners, who are deemed empty vessels that therefore are given no voice. In contrast, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">Freire (2005)</xref> proposes a dialogic learning model based on <italic>problem-posing</italic>. In this dialogic nature, respect for the learner is ensured. The crucial idea is that the teacher cannot reproduce the oppressing logic inside the pedagogical relationship, thereby having to call on the learner&#x0027;s word through a relationship of equality, listening, and communication. Thus, the culture of the popular classes of the silenced peoples enters into the act of knowledge, which for Freire is &#x0022;true education&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">Freire, 2005</xref>). Within this dialogic model, problem-posing constitutes an exercise in critical reflection aimed at questioning the common sense, the dominant culture; it is a questioning of what is presented as given and unquestionable.</p>
<p>Although Peters&#x2019; liberal proposal is articulated around the transmission of existing ways of thinking at the core of a discipline, it understands education as never being mere reproduction. Initiation does not mean rote repetition and indoctrination of tradition, but rather, reception of knowledge and skills needed to participate in a field of knowledge, also through critical analysis of the existing legitimated knowledge, which separates initiation from indoctrination (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31096_eng">McDonough, 2011</xref>). Education develops human rationality, transmits bodies of knowledge and, as an essential feature of initiation, allows access to its underlying principles. To the extent that education addresses these purposes, it introduces the learners to reflective life, allowing them to construct their own reasons (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31096_eng">Warnick, 2010</xref>), moving towards critical thinking, where the logic of transmission becomes a logic of conversation. In this regard, the reflections of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31096_eng">Oakeshott (1991)</xref> complete the view of education as initiation with that of conversation. People already initiated can take part in the conversation on tradition, and therefore, on politics and <italic>the public</italic>.</p>
<p>The second point of distance-meeting is as follows. The type of pedagogical subject they have in mind pushes them apart in their reflections: Freire anchors his notion of education to a collective pedagogical subject: the oppressed, which is consistent with his stance; Peters, however, constructs his concept of education out of an individual consideration of the subject, which is a common liberal approach. Despite this distance, both turn the purposes of education toward participation in public life by conversation and dialog, expressions that show a degree of parallelism. In Freire, dialogic education has the objective of enabling oppressed groups as historical subjects and therefore he insists that education is political (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31096_eng">Freire &#x0026; Illich, 1975</xref>, p. 6; Freire in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31096_eng">Torres, 1985</xref>, p. 118; Freire in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31096_eng">Freire &#x0026; Shor, 2014</xref>, p. 46). In Peters, his individualistic grammar does not, however, erase the social aspect of education, which lies in its attention to tradition and the public world, understood as languages shared with others. The idea of education as a conversation with tradition completes the public character of education as initiation.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31096_eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ducation</sc>, <sc>freedom</sc>, <sc>critique</sc></bold></title>
<p>From their respective theoretical-political positions, both authors take interest in the notions of <italic>freedom</italic> and <italic>critique.</italic> Peters starts with what is known as <italic>negative freedom</italic>, typical of liberalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31096_eng">Berlin, 1988</xref>), from which he postulates a balance between critical thinking and the transmission of knowledge in the course of learning. For his part, Freire relies on existentialism to establish a dialectic relationship between <italic>freedom</italic> and <italic>critique</italic> in terms of <italic>liberation</italic>, thereby approaching an understanding of positive freedom. For both, criticism points toward questioning the public language (<italic>tradition/culture</italic>) and connects with an idea of freedom that transcends the individual dimension.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31096_eng">Peters (1984)</xref> develops his arguments about freedom on the basis of three distinctions he deems particularly useful to apply to school relationships. The first two of them are closely connected: the idea of an elector subject and the idea of autonomy. In the first place, he identifies freedom in the ability to choose one&#x2019;s own courses of action, which requires a plurality of choices or options, since having no options would mean murky scenarios that liberalism&#x0027;s individual rights are meant to deter. It is worth noting that this negative understanding of freedom starts from an individualist grammar, typical in liberalism, that defines freedom as the absence of restrictions, thereby allowing free individual action (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31096_eng">Berlin, 1988</xref>). This negative freedom resides in the individual and, as Peters sees it, is based on the assumption of a human being with the <italic>rational</italic> capacity to choose. He therefore lists a series of mental pathologies as examples in which the individual cannot choose freely because his rationality is inhibited (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31096_eng">1984</xref>, pp. 154-155). This once again places human rationality at the center of his arguments.</p>
<p>This focus on rationality leads to the second dimension: <italic>autonomy</italic>, which in turn leads to the need for critical thinking. Autonomy &#x0022;suggests a critical appraisal of beliefs and practices and the development of independence of mind as a result&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_eng">Peters, 1977b</xref>, p. 80). It therefore becomes <italic>not following the rules</italic> if one does not agree with them; this requires having one&#x0027;s own criterion to justify such disagreement. Thus, the freedom to choose is only freedom to the extent that the individual can frame his actions in a code of conduct, that is, to the extent that he can state reasons for his choices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31096_eng">Cuypers, 2010</xref>). In this way, <italic>choice</italic> and <italic>autonomy</italic> are two sides of the same coin.</p>
<p>In close connection to this elector subject and to the autonomy in which his freedom is exercised, Peters takes note of critical thinking. To him, education is a balanced combination of knowledge and critical thinking. Within this combination, autonomy is situated at a point halfway between acritical reproduction of knowledge and the development of original theses. Thus, education moves away from mechanical repetition and indoctrination: it moves away from the reproduction function that some critical theorists from those years attribute to schools (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31096_eng">Baudelot &#x0026; Establet, 1987</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31096_eng">Bourdieu &#x0026; Passeron, 1977</xref>). However, Peters points out, not everything can be subject to constant criticism; firstly, because in the framework of education, criticism comes after acquisition of knowledge; and, secondly, because example, instruction, and influence -which do not necessarily imply falling into dogma- are, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_eng">Peters&#x0027; (1977b</xref>) view, defining features of education, especially in the early stages of human life, when people learn by imitation and identification with authority figures.</p>
<p>Accordingly, Peters advocates the Socratic method as the way to develop critical thinking in the school context. In this methodology, the teacher presents knowledge through questions and answers, which forces learners to explain and argue their thinking. The teacher must guide, mediate and, above all, know the right questions that open the door to questioning and reflection to allow learners to &#x0022;question their own assumptions, and to reformulate again and again what they think or propose to do, until they come up with something to which they can no longer object&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31096_eng">Peters, 1969</xref>). Thus, to Peters, both freedom and criticism involve giving reasons and presenting these reasons to others, i.e., making them public, putting them out in the public space, which lets them be discussed.</p>
<p>Freire, however, has a different way of reflecting on the two notions. While Peters postulates a relationship of <italic>balance</italic> between critical thinking and autonomy as a requirement of the subject who chooses in freedom, Freire establishes a <italic>dialectical</italic> relationship between <italic>critique</italic> and <italic>freedom</italic>. From the existentialism that informs his work (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31096_eng">Torres, 1980</xref>), he sees human <italic>existence</italic>--in the terms described in the section above--as a road full of decisions that requires historical commitment, which in some ways is not unlike seeing freedom as the ability to make responsible choices as Peters asserts. However, despite the similar formulation, Freire lades these decisions with the weight of history, whose construction is left to the hands of the people. This historical element crystallizes public part of education by turning its purposes toward transformation of the social order. From this point of view, freedom begins to be constructed when human beings &#x0022;become a perceived social existence, when their awareness manages to grasp the historical determinants of their actions&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31096_eng">Torres, 1980</xref>, p. 9) or, more simply put, when learners &#x0022;understand their position within their context&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_eng">Freire, 2015</xref>, p. 55), this context being understood in a Marxist perspective. Thus, <italic>freedom</italic> and <italic>critique</italic> are constructed in dialectical relation in terms of liberation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31096_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Mouj&#x00E1;n, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Methodologically, this path of criticism must fit in with the dialogic and problematization model, which means reflecting on &#x0022;the depth in the interpretation of problems&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31096_eng">Freire, 2015</xref>). In other words, the dialogic model is guided by an exercise of problematization, where problem-posing &#x0022;means critical analysis of a problematic reality&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">Freire, 2005</xref>, p. 168): rethinking the social order as a problem-reality and not as a mere naturalized reality. This problem-posing understanding of reality, for example, is what can allow overcoming the meritocratic idea that poverty is the result of lazy popular classes:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Literacy in an area of abject poverty, for example, only makes sense in the human dimension if, with it, a kind of historical-political-social psychoanalysis is carried out of the extroversion of the undeserved blame. This corresponds to &#x0022;expelling&#x0022; the oppressor &#x0022;inside&#x0022; the oppressed, as an invasive shadow that, once expelled by the oppressed, must be replaced with his autonomy and responsibility. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31096_eng">Freire, 1997</xref>, p. 81)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Freire insists that going from oppressed to oppressor does not constitute a path to liberation, since it only perpetuates the oppressor-oppressed logic. He considers liberation from the Hegelian dialectic of the master and the slave, where the master-oppressor, despite his superior position, is not free, either, since his position and conscience depend on oppressing the slave, to whom, in a gesture of dehumanization, he denies the condition of historical-subject. Liberation entails overcoming this order and is a liberation led by the oppressed, but in communion with the oppressors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31096_eng">Freire, 2005</xref>). This idea of liberation is in keeping with Marxist postulates (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31096_eng">Torres, 1980</xref>) and the reading of decolonial work by Fanon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31096_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Mouj&#x00E1;n, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Next comes the third point of distance-encounter. Though the two authors hold distant positions regarding the purpose they attribute to education, criticism is a defining point in both. Freire&#x0027;s pedagogical proposal is part of critical theory in the field of education. Peters also grants a key role to criticism. Here, then, is a space of encounter in the role they give to criticism through their dialogic (in Freire) and Socratic (in Peters) proposals. Both methodological formulas postulate a questioning role between teacher and learner that wipes away any dogmatic stance, thereby encouraging critical thinking. In this way, the idea Peters formulates of critical thinking involving recognition of the underlying principles of knowledge resembles Freire&#x0027;s problem-posing model. For both, criticism is a prerequisite for participating in the public sphere. In Peters, it is about sharing arguments with others through the Socratic method; whereas in Freire problem-posing dialog enables the voice of the oppressed, until then historically silenced. Thus, his attention to criticism can be connected to the desirable role they give to participation in the public sphere.</p>
<p>Lastly, to end this section, it should be pointed out that both authors conceive educational relationships through the notion of freedom. Despite the distance between their stances, a point both have in common is their criticism of certain progressive pedagogies that understand educational freedom as <italic>letting</italic> the learners do it. Here, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31096_eng">Neill&#x0027;s (1979)</xref> proposal is perhaps the paradigmatic example of educational freedom understood in these terms. In the field of education, this debate is known as a discussion around &#x0022;directivity&#x0022;. Directivity is generally a hallmark of pedagogies in which the teachers take on a more traditional role as leaders or directors. In contrast, active, spontaneist pedagogies highlight the children&#x0027;s &#x0022;spontaneity&#x0022; as core to the learning process. The debate is then whether the teaching activity should be more or less directed, or absent completely, as some pedagogies advocate. Both Peters and Freire reject stances that rely on the children&#x0027;s &#x0022;spontaneity&#x0022;. Some of their arguments for doing so are as follows.</p>
<p>Through the third distinction regarding freedom --the other two have been outlined above: the elector subject and autonomy-- <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31096_eng">Peters (1984)</xref> considers freedom as a social principle. In accordance with the liberal political theories of the social contract, Peters assumes a state of nature in which, in the absence of any type of restriction imposed by law or custom, the law of the strongest will prevail, which translates into unjustified restrictions on the weakest. From that assumption, he identifies the &#x0022;paradox of freedom&#x0022;: law and custom-- which are part of the civil order in contrast to the natural state--must be used to make certain levelling restrictions between people. In his words, &#x0022;Freedom will only prevail if there is a general regulatory system that protects these spheres from outside interference&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31096_eng">Peters, 1984</xref>, p. 151). These spheres to protect are everyone&#x0027;s individual rights. Extrapolating these arguments to educational relationships, Peters understands that this paradox arises especially in school contexts. Therefore, he defends the need to set limits to classroom behavior in order to prevent &#x0022;the mischievous or groups of classmates&#x0022; from being the ones to impose their restrictions on all the other students. Thus, he underscores the importance of teacher authority in imposing certain leveling rules.</p>
<p>In this line of thinking, Peters advocates, together with the Socratic method, formulas such as education by example and instruction, which imply dynamics of subjection of the learner to the teacher. This may seem to be a contradiction between the teaching objective of learning to think for oneself and the subjection to others that is involved in such formulas. However, this apparent contradiction, which is one way the paradox of freedom in education unfolds, simply underscores the social condition and intersubjective nature of both human beings and learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31096_eng">Martin, 2010</xref>): we become aware of ourselves through our relationship with others and participation in the public language. Thus, the questions concerning the exercise of autonomy, decision-making on courses of action to take and the reasons for our choices are in fact public questions whose answer requires shared deliberation with others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31096_eng">Peters, 1977b</xref>). Even though Peters starts from a liberal notion of human beings and situates the individual as the ultimate objective of the educational process, he grants other people a major role in the initiation process, both in the figure of the teacher and in the form of the public sphere that has education as an object (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31096_eng">English, 2010</xref>). Thus, the teacher&#x0027;s authority must help guide the educational process toward the worthwhile of tradition, offsetting other potential influences from beyond the educational space.</p>
<p>Freire, however has a different view of this matter. Firstly, he challenges the premises of the debate on &#x0022;directivity&#x0022; (in Freire &#x0026; Shor, 2014): to the extent that education is never neutral - because it is oriented either towards reproduction-adaptation or towards social transformation- it is always marked by goals it is the teacher&#x0027;s duty to reach. This makes non-directive pedagogies ultimately impossible. Secondly, although dialogic education should call upon the voice of the learner, it does not imply a spontaneist stance, not only because such a stance is impossible for Freire, as noted above, but also because spontaneism constitutes for him an educational <italic>laissez faire</italic> in which learners are abandoned:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>I cannot leave the students by themselves because I am trying to be a liberating educator. Laissez-faire! I cannot fall into laissez-faire. On the other hand, I cannot be authoritarian. I have to be radically democratic and responsible and directive. Not directive of the students, but directive of the process, in which the students are with me. As director of the process, the liberating teacher is not doing something to the students but with the <italic>students</italic>. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31096_eng">Freire &#x0026; Shor, 2014</xref>, p. 46)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Thus, aware of the domination-alienation relationships that liberating education is meant to uncover, teachers cannot remain neutral. Rather, in their critical commitment they consciously imprint a specific direction to dialog, never succumbing to the authoritarianism of the banking model of education. Therefore, Freire insists that a dialogic education must start off from the learners&#x0027; common sense in order invoke their voice. In his own words, the starting point lies in &#x0022;the common sense of the students rather than in the rigor of the educator&#x0022; (Freire in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31096_eng">Torres, 1985</xref>, p. 121). However, their common sense is indeed just a starting point, since it does not imply remaining at that common sense. This is where the teacher&#x0027;s role becomes key. Therefore, Freire understands that the relationship between teacher and learner is not one of peers, because &#x0022;at the moment the teacher begins the dialogue, he or she knows a great deal, first in terms of knowledge and second in terms of the horizon that she or he wants to get to&#x0022; (Freire in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31096_eng">Freire &#x0026; Shor, 2014</xref>, p. 103). Nevertheless, it should be articulated as a democratic relationship rather than authoritarian (p.107).</p>
<p>This leads to the fourth point of distance-encounter. Both authors commence their reflection on very different conceptions of freedom: an individualistic idea of negative freedom in Peters, and a notion of freedom as dialectic oppressor-oppressed liberation in the case of Freire. Despite this distance, both converge at their rejection of the spontaneism in so-called non-directive pedagogies. Thus, they coincide in that freedom in educational relationships ought not be interpreted as &#x0022;leaving it freely to the learner&#x0022;. They understand that not only does such a view fail to guide education toward freedom, it constitutes a dereliction of duty on the teacher&#x0027;s part. Thus, Peters, speaks of the need for a leveling authority and Freire calls on teachers to take charge of their position in the pedagogical relationship, which is not one of equals with the learners. To synthesize, both Freire and Peters find that to orient education toward freedom, a broader notion of that concept is needed than simply &#x0022;letting them do it&#x0022;, which in educational relationships especially questions the teachers&#x0027; task: they need to know how to guide the problem-posing (Freire) or Socratic (Peters) process.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31096_eng">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>U<sc>nexpected encounters</sc></bold></title>
<p>Education as initiation places tradition and intellectual development front and center in education. A pedagogy that liberates highlights social justice and the liberation of oppressed social groups. This often involves taking a critical look at tradition, which reveals a substantial tension between the two theories. Despite that tension, this article is not the first to relate both conceptions of education (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31096_eng">Beckett, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31096_eng">Endres, 2002</xref>). In this case, however, reference to both theories is not intended to advocate a choice between one or the other, nor the need to integrate them both. The analysis of Peters&#x0027; and Freire&#x0027;s philosophy that has occupied the preceding pages is based on the need to take back the public debate on education as well as to rethink the public nature of education, in a context of the rise of privatizing and individualizing conceptions of education. Given the multiple meanings attributed to it, this paper has taken &#x0022;the public&#x0022; to mean the educational purposes oriented towards a social good (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31096_eng">Clarke et al., 2021</xref>) and the space for the construction of shared meanings about the common good (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31096_eng">Higgins &#x0026; Abowitz, 2011</xref>). From this understanding, this paper has scoured the works of both authors for traces of what is public. In light of their postulates, the following key concepts are proposed here as pivotal for the discussion on the nature of the public nature of education: <italic>tradition/culture; conversation/dialog</italic>; <italic>critical thinking</italic> and <italic>freedom.</italic> In these categories, four ambivalent spaces have been identified between the two proposals: spaces that are at the same time ones of distance and of encounter. They are points of distance because through them both authors draw up very different reflections regarding their respective theoretical and political stances. However, they also share a certain amount of common ground that crystallizes that social dimension that binds education to the public. The fact that each author conceives of these notions from different, even contrary, positions does not, in our opinion, detract from the legitimacy of the shared discussion and ideas. Rather, it underscores the plural nature that any public discussion must take on, and accounts for the complexity of the task even if it fails to cover it completely.</p>
<p>The first point of encounter identified here is the social framework from which they conceptualize education. From different expressions, i.e., the <italic>public world</italic> and <italic>tradition</italic> in Peters, and the capitalist social order and <italic>culture</italic> in Freire, both authors develop their stance toward society and derive from it what they find <italic>worthwhile</italic> of education. A clear parallelism is found between tradition and culture, since both point to shared public languages from which to derive the content of education. The second point of encounter is found in the parallelism between notions of <italic>dialog</italic>, crucial in Freire, and of <italic>conversation</italic>, which completes the proposal by Peters. Although the pedagogical subject is different in each proposal, through <italic>dialog</italic> /<italic>conversation</italic> the learner participates in the shared public language, whether this is thought of as <italic>tradition</italic> or as <italic>culture</italic>. Both authors&#x0027; attention to the critical constitutes the third point of distance-encounter. It is a point of distance because critical thinking has a different key role in each author: Freire&#x0027;s pedagogy is part of the critical tradition, which entails questioning the capitalist social order, whereas Peters inscribes it within the spectrum of liberalism. Despite the distance, the two authors consider criticism to be a crucial moment in the educational act, definitive of the methods they propose: the dialogic method in Freire, and the Socratic method in Peters. Finally, the fourth point is found in the category of freedom. From his liberal stance, Peters starts out from a negative understanding of freedom. In contrast, Freire establishes a dialectic relationship with criticism in terms of liberation. Despite their differences, both authors converge on their understanding of educational freedom as a more complex notion than that of merely &#x0022;letting learners do it&#x0022;. In their shared rejection of spontaneist and non-directive theories, they understand that the construction of free subjects by means of education requires the teacher to take an active role, be it as a levelling authority (Peters) or a conscious commitment with a political stance (Freire).</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1_eng" fn-type="financial-disclosure"><label>1.</label> <p>This article is part of the research projects <italic>EduCommon</italic> and <italic>LobbyingTeachers. EduCommon</italic> project has received funding from the European Union&#x2019;s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under the Marie Sk&#x0142;odowska-Curie grant agreement No. 101027465. The project <italic>Lobbying Teachers. Fundamentos te&#x00F3;ricos, estructuras pol&#x00ED;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas sociales de las relaciones p&#x00FA;blico-privadas en materia de profesorado en Espa&#x00F1;a</italic> (PID2019-104566RA-I00), has received funding from the Call for Projects 2019 &#x00AB;Proyectos de I+D+i&#x00BB;. Programa Estatal de I+D+i Orientada a los Retos de la Sociedad.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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