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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31083</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31083</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>&#x00BF;EN QU&#x00C9; SENTIDO, SI LO HUBIERA, ES LA TEOR&#x00CD;A EDUCATIVA &#x00AB;POL&#x00CD;TICA&#x00BB;? UNA PERSPECTIVA PRAGMATISTA</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>In Which Sense, If Any, Is Educational Theory &#x2018;Political&#x2019;? A Pragmatist Perspective</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2230-9538</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>WORTMANN</surname>
<given-names>Kai</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_esp"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_esp">
<institution content-type="original">University of Jena. Germany.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">University of Jena</institution>
<country country="DE">Germany</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_esp"><email>kai.wortmann@uni-tuebingen.de</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>20</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>30</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo aborda la cuesti&#x00F3;n de en qu&#x00E9; sentido, si lo hubiera, la teor&#x00ED;a educativa debe considerarse como &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;. Desde una perspectiva pragmatista, analiza tres significados del t&#x00E9;rmino: primero, lo pol&#x00ED;tico como una excepci&#x00F3;n, como la interrupci&#x00F3;n del orden existente de Ranci&#x00E8;re, y segundo, lo pol&#x00ED;tico como algo que de por s&#x00ED; viene dado, como en el concepto de iteraci&#x00F3;n de Derrida. En tercer lugar, el art&#x00ED;culo se orienta hacia el alegato de Rorty para la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la filosof&#x00ED;a como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural, esto es, como intervenci&#x00F3;n en el discurso p&#x00FA;blico en curso. Se ha argumentado que este tercer significado del t&#x00E9;rmino es m&#x00E1;s apropiado para interpretar lo pol&#x00ED;tico de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa, ya que es un t&#x00E9;rmino moderado de forma realista y permite analizar la eficacia pol&#x00ED;tica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa. Estas consideraciones se enmarcan tanto en una reflexi&#x00F3;n sobre la propia posibilidad de esbozar distinciones entre teor&#x00ED;a y pol&#x00ED;tica, como en una perspectiva sobre las posibles consecuencias derivadas de una interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural. Ante este panorama, el art&#x00ED;culo cuestiona por qu&#x00E9; apenas podemos ver alguna teor&#x00ED;a educativa relevante p&#x00FA;blicamente y ofrece propuestas para una &#x00AB;cr&#x00ED;tica amable&#x00BB;, una actitud cuidadosa hacia nuestras propias pr&#x00E1;cticas de investigaci&#x00F3;n, situaciones y grupos.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>This paper tackles the question of in which sense, if any, educational theory should be considered as &#x2018;political&#x2019;. From a pragmatist perspective it evaluates three meanings of the term: first, the political as an exception, such as Ranci&#x00E8;re&#x2019;s interruption of the existing order, and second, the political as something that is always already given, such as in Derrida&#x2019;s concept of iteration. Third, the paper turns towards Rorty&#x2019;s plea for understanding philosophy as cultural politics, i.e., as intervention into the ongoing public discourse. It is argued that this third meaning of the term is better suited for understanding the political of educational theory as it is realistically modest and enables to analyze the political effectiveness of educational theory. These considerations are framed by both a reflection on the very possibility of drawing distinctions between theory and politics as well as an outlook on possible consequences following from an understanding of educational theory as cultural politics. In the outlook, the paper asks why we can hardly see any publicly relevant educational theory and provides suggestions for a &#x201C;caring critique&#x201D;, a careful attitude towards our own researching practices, situations, and assemblies.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a educativa</kwd>
<kwd>lo pol&#x00ED;tico</kwd>
<kwd>metateor&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatismo</kwd>
<kwd>Richard Rorty</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Ranci&#x00E8;re</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Derrida</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educational theory</kwd>
<kwd>the political</kwd>
<kwd>metatheory</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatism</kwd>
<kwd>Richard Rorty</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Ranci&#x00E8;re</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Derrida</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<disp-quote>
<p>Tengo dudas sobre la relevancia de la filosof&#x00ED;a en la educaci&#x00F3;n, por la misma raz&#x00F3;n por la que tengo dudas sobre la relevancia de la filosof&#x00ED;a en la pol&#x00ED;tica. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31083_esp">Rorty, 1990</xref>, p. 41)</p>
</disp-quote>
<sec id="sec-1-31083_esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo analiza una doble inquietud: por un lado, hacia una interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como una reflexi&#x00F3;n puramente <italic>cient&#x00ED;fica y, por lo tanto, apol&#x00ED;tica</italic>, y por otro, hacia una interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica en s&#x00ED; misma</italic>, y que por ello corre el riesgo de presentar su propia pr&#x00E1;ctica de teorizaci&#x00F3;n como activismo pol&#x00ED;tico. En cambio, este art&#x00ED;culo persigue una actitud m&#x00E1;s realista hacia nuestras propias actividades te&#x00F3;ricas educativas ofreciendo diferencias entre teor&#x00ED;a educativa y pol&#x00ED;tica y describiendo las posibilidades de su relevancia pol&#x00ED;tica<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_esp"><sup>1</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Argumentar&#x00E9; que la relevancia pol&#x00ED;tica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa es solo una posibilidad y, por lo tanto, no un automatismo: no toda teor&#x00ED;a educativa es pol&#x00ED;tica &#x2014;incluso si afirma esto sobre s&#x00ED; misma y sin duda no <italic>por</italic> su mera reivindicaci&#x00F3;n. En esta l&#x00ED;nea, el art&#x00ED;culo aspira a cuestionar de un modo autorreflexivo <italic>la naturaleza de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa con respecto a su relevancia pol&#x00ED;tica</italic>. Por lo tanto, no aborda lo pol&#x00ED;tico <italic>en el &#x00E1;mbito de</italic> la teor&#x00ED;a educativa, sino que cuestiona <italic>la cualidad pol&#x00ED;tica de la propia teor&#x00ED;a educativa</italic>.</p>
<p>Evidentemente, aqu&#x00ED; &#x00AB;teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x00BB; no se refiere a un sistema cerrado de proposiciones, sino que debe entenderse como pr&#x00E1;ctica: precisamente como aquello que hacemos los te&#x00F3;ricos educativos. En la medida en que esto incluye pr&#x00E1;cticas muy diversas como escritura, lectura, exposici&#x00F3;n, discurso, ense&#x00F1;anza y muchas otras, &#x00AB;teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x00BB; en singular es un t&#x00E9;rmino problem&#x00E1;tico. Sin embargo, si asumimos que estas pr&#x00E1;cticas no se realizan completamente desconectadas unas de otras, podr&#x00ED;amos hablar de teor&#x00ED;a educativa como la organizaci&#x00F3;n de pr&#x00E1;cticas en paquetes o constelaciones de pr&#x00E1;cticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31083_esp">Schatzki, 2002</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31083_esp">2012</xref>). En este sentido, este art&#x00ED;culo pretende considerar la teor&#x00ED;a como <italic>actividad</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31083_esp">Karcher y R&#x00F6;del, 2021</xref>)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2_esp"><sup>2</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Para responder a la cuesti&#x00F3;n planteada en el t&#x00ED;tulo sin que la respuesta sea que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa simplemente <italic>no es</italic> pol&#x00ED;tica, o que es <italic>en s&#x00ED; misma</italic> pol&#x00ED;tica, este art&#x00ED;culo ofrece una descripci&#x00F3;n alternativa de la relaci&#x00F3;n entre teor&#x00ED;a educativa y pol&#x00ED;tica. La raz&#x00F3;n de la demanda de conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa no como siempre pol&#x00ED;tica es que de otro modo los te&#x00F3;ricos educativos quiz&#x00E1;s podr&#x00ED;amos acabar siendo m&#x00E1;s bien te&#x00F3;ricos de lo pol&#x00ED;tico. La raz&#x00F3;n de la demanda de conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa no como nunca pol&#x00ED;tica es que de otro modo renunciar&#x00ED;amos a grandes logros hist&#x00F3;ricos de nuestra disciplina (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-31083_esp">Tr&#x00F6;hler, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>La pregunta de en qu&#x00E9; sentido nuestra actividad de investigaci&#x00F3;n es pol&#x00ED;tica se convierte en a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s apremiante si consideramos, como escribe Oelkers, que educaci&#x00F3;n es &#x00AB;&#x0022;la&#x0022; disciplina politizada por excelencia. Participa en debates sociales, adopta una posici&#x00F3;n, y queda por lo tanto atrapada en dualismos pol&#x00ED;ticos, por lo que debe decidir d&#x00F3;nde estar y d&#x00F3;nde no quiere estar&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31083_esp">Oelkers, 2015</xref>, p. 37). A causa de este car&#x00E1;cter pol&#x00ED;tico de la educaci&#x00F3;n, &#x00AB;se requiere una estrategia para ejercer influencia en <italic>la esfera p&#x00FA;blica, para determinar el lenguaje</italic> y no dejar que investigadores del cerebro o filosof&#x00ED;a de medios obtengan lo mejor de ella&#x00BB; (ibid., p. 43, &#x00E9;nfasis a&#x00F1;adido).</p>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo plantea la cuesti&#x00F3;n de qu&#x00E9; debe entenderse como &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; si se usa como descripci&#x00F3;n de la actividad de realizaci&#x00F3;n de teor&#x00ED;a educativa. Contin&#x00FA;a la cuesti&#x00F3;n con dos distinciones. La primera distinci&#x00F3;n (3) es entre &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB;, que se ha convertido en algo com&#x00FA;n en teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica. Aqu&#x00ED;, el art&#x00ED;culo se centra en las ideas de Jacques Ranci&#x00E8;re y Jacques Derrida. La segunda es la distinci&#x00F3;n que hace Richard Rorty entre &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica cultural&#x00BB; (4). En ambas partes presento en primer lugar la distinci&#x00F3;n y, a continuaci&#x00F3;n, examino qu&#x00E9; puede significar lo que llamamos teor&#x00ED;a educativa pol&#x00ED;tica en este sentido. Sin embargo, comienzo con reflexiones preliminares sobre la naturaleza de estas distinciones (2). Por &#x00FA;ltimo, ofrezco una perspectiva sobre las posibles consecuencias derivadas de interpretar la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural (5).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31083_esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>T<sc>eor&#x00ED;a y pol&#x00ED;tica</sc>: <sc>sobre la naturaleza de las distinciones peligrosas</sc></bold></title>
<p>Introducir una clara distinci&#x00F3;n entre teor&#x00ED;a y pol&#x00ED;tica que implica teor&#x00ED;a que no siempre es tambi&#x00E9;n pol&#x00ED;tica no parece estar en boga en este momento. Por lo tanto, comenzar&#x00E9; con una cita de Karl Mannheim, que en su influyente libro <italic>Ideolog&#x00ED;a y Utop&#x00ED;a</italic> en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31083_esp">1929</xref> escribi&#x00F3;:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>La discusi&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica posee un car&#x00E1;cter fundamentalmente distinto de la discusi&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica. Se esfuerza no solo en tener raz&#x00F3;n, sino en demoler los cimientos de la existencia intelectual y social de su adversario. Por lo tanto, la discusi&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica penetra m&#x00E1;s profundamente en los fundamentos existenciales del pensamiento que la discusi&#x00F3;n que solo piensa en t&#x00E9;rminos de unos cuantos &#x00AB;puntos de vista&#x00BB; seleccionados y considera &#x00FA;nicamente &#x00AB;lo te&#x00F3;rico&#x00BB; de un argumento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31083_esp">Mannheim, 1929/1972</xref>, p. 34).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>A simple vista, la jerarquizaci&#x00F3;n de Mannheim parece irritante. Uno puede pensar que el discurso acad&#x00E9;mico es m&#x00E1;s fundamental y profundo que el simple discurso pol&#x00ED;tico, pero Mannheim concibe la relaci&#x00F3;n al contrario: mientras el discurso pol&#x00ED;tico tiene como objetivo el &#x00AB;fundamento existencial&#x00BB; e incluso los &#x00AB;cimientos de la existencia&#x00BB; del adversario, el discurso acad&#x00E9;mico &#x00AB;solo&#x00BB; se centra en la superficie de la teor&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s, la distinci&#x00F3;n de Mannheim es sorprendente en su rigor, ya que se trata de una diferencia &#x00AB;fundamental&#x00BB;. Las diferencias fundamentales &#x2014;como argumentaci&#x00F3;n fundamentalista en general&#x2014; nos son ajenas hoy en d&#x00ED;a. El &#x00AB;antifundacionalismo&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-31083_esp">Rorty, 2009</xref>) o &#x0022;posfundacionalismo&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31083_esp">Marchart, 2013</xref>) ha conseguido un amplio consenso en las ciencias sociales y culturales<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3_esp"><sup>3</sup></xref>. El t&#x00E9;rmino &#x00AB;posfundacionalismo&#x00BB; expresa, por un lado, que el rechazo a cualquier fundamento puede convertirse f&#x00E1;cilmente en fundamentalista, a la vez que, por otro lado, dif&#x00ED;cilmente puede prescindirse de estos fundamentos en el sentido de actividades fundacionales. Por ejemplo, cuando Butler habla de &#x00AB;fundamentos contingentes&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31083_esp">Butler, 1992</xref>) en este sentido, bien podr&#x00ED;a vincularse con el concepto de ideolog&#x00ED;a de Mannheim. Solo porque, como Mannheim ha puesto de relieve, todo conocimiento y pensamiento, y por lo tanto tambi&#x00E9;n el propio, est&#x00E1; condicionado necesariamente por el modo de entender la vida y la socializaci&#x00F3;n, sigue proporcion&#x00E1;ndose esta justificaci&#x00F3;n y fundamento; lo que sucede es que la demanda de justificaci&#x00F3;n &#x00FA;ltima de estas operaciones se ha vuelto insostenible.</p>
<p>Razones y distinciones deben por lo tanto ser convincentes sin recurrir a fundamentos concluyentes. La afirmaci&#x00F3;n ofensiva de esta contingencia de una propia teorizaci&#x00F3;n tambi&#x00E9;n me parece necesaria en t&#x00E9;rminos pol&#x00ED;ticos-democr&#x00E1;ticos. Despu&#x00E9;s de todo, la democracia podr&#x00ED;a ser definida como un intento de institucionalizar la falta de fundamentaci&#x00F3;n de sus propias instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas. Esta autorreflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica ya forma parte del pragmatismo experimental de John Dewey: en contraste con posiciones liberales como las de John Stuart Mill o Hannah Arendt, que trazaron la distinci&#x00F3;n entre lo p&#x00FA;blico y lo privado te&#x00F3;ricamente o incluso ontol&#x00F3;gicamente, Dewey destaca que esta &#x00AB;l&#x00ED;nea de demarcaci&#x00F3;n [&#x2026;] debe descubrirse experimentalmente&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31083_esp">Dewey, 1927/2016</xref>, p. 107). Para Dewey, esta demarcaci&#x00F3;n solo ser&#x00ED;a posible en base a propiedades claramente determinables de estado e individuo. Sin embargo, en la medida en que estas est&#x00E1;n siempre en proceso de desarrollo, eluden una diferenciaci&#x00F3;n puramente anal&#x00ED;tica o incluso la determinaci&#x00F3;n de relaciones. Para Dewey, la negociaci&#x00F3;n de la frontera p&#x00FA;blico-pol&#x00ED;tica se deja, por lo tanto, de un modo autorreflexivo, a los procesos pol&#x00ED;tico-experimentales, que siempre tienen que ser colectivos-p&#x00FA;blicos.</p>
<p>En este sentido experimentalista, quisiera validar la verosimilitud de la raz&#x00F3;n por la que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa no deber&#x00ED;a interpretarse como actividad pol&#x00ED;tica por s&#x00ED; misma. Al hacerlo, coincido con aquellos que no identifican una diferencia fundamental, es decir, esencialmente fundamentada, entre teor&#x00ED;a y pol&#x00ED;tica; sin embargo, desear&#x00ED;a argumentar las ventajas que podr&#x00ED;a aportar el hecho de destacar tal diferencia, especialmente en t&#x00E9;rminos pol&#x00ED;ticos, y por qu&#x00E9; formular la diferencia podr&#x00ED;a ocasionar problemas.</p>
<p>Las diferenciaciones y problematizaciones propuestas m&#x00E1;s adelante pueden entenderse como un recurso que toma en cuenta la naturaleza pol&#x00E9;mica de la legitimaci&#x00F3;n social y la constituci&#x00F3;n antag&#x00F3;nica de lo social. Sin embargo, esto no significa que lo presupone ontol&#x00F3;gicamente &#x2014;como, por ejemplo, hace Mouffe recurriendo a Heidegger&#x2014; y lo toma como incuestionable punto de partida, ya que de otro modo ser&#x00ED;a autocontradictorio.</p>
<p>Quisiera aclarar este posicionamiento con respecto a la conexi&#x00F3;n entre experimentalismo entendido en t&#x00E9;rminos pragm&#x00E1;ticos y antagonismo entendido en teor&#x00ED;a de la hegemon&#x00ED;a mediante dos citas de Mouffe y Brecht. Cuando Mouffe escribe: &#x00AB;La sociedad est&#x00E1; permeada por la contingencia y <italic>cualquier</italic> orden es de naturaleza hegem&#x00F3;nica, es decir, es siempre la expresi&#x00F3;n de relaciones de poder&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31083_esp">Mouffe, 2013</xref>, p. XI, &#x00E9;nfasis a&#x00F1;adido), entonces la naturaleza contingente de <italic>la propia</italic> concepci&#x00F3;n de hegemon&#x00ED;a parece precisamente no ser considerada. En este sentido, Mouffe y Laclau tambi&#x00E9;n atestiguaron &#x00AB;una esencializaci&#x00F3;n problem&#x00E1;tica de una ontolog&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica concebida como conflictiva&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31083_esp">Martinsen, 2019</xref>). Si uno sigue ahora a Mannheim de nuevo, que interpreta el &#x00AB;conflicto pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; como una &#x00AB;forma racionalizada de la lucha por la predominancia social&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31083_esp">Mannheim, 1929/1972</xref>, p. 35), podr&#x00ED;a reconocer que dicha esencializaci&#x00F3;n como es asumida por Mouffe y Laclau no es necesariamente problem&#x00E1;tica para una <italic>teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> &#x2014;en la medida en que podr&#x00ED;a interesarse solo por lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x2014;, sino <italic>pedag&#x00F3;gica,</italic> en la medida en que uno no est&#x00E1; preparado para dejar que se funda completamente en una teor&#x00ED;a sobre lo pol&#x00ED;tico.</p>
<p>Al contrario que Mouffe, Brecht no presupone pensamiento pol&#x00ED;tico, pero lo contrasta con el tipo de pensamiento que debe eludirse cuando escribe que &#x00AB;para evitar una argumentaci&#x00F3;n pura, [&#x2026;] uno debe tener presente en todo momento que siempre est&#x00E1; pensando en un estado de lucha&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31083_esp">Brecht, 1967</xref>, pp. 176-177). A este respecto, este ensayo presupone que la autodescripci&#x00F3;n del pensamiento como &#x00AB;<italic>siempre</italic> en lucha&#x00BB; en el sentido de un hecho inevitable &#x2014;o incluso, como con Mouffe, precondici&#x00F3;n&#x2014; podr&#x00ED;a no <italic>conducir a la propia lucha.</italic> Para poder representar esta posici&#x00F3;n sin entrar en una autocontradicci&#x00F3;n, debo presuponer un m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de la lucha a partir de la cual esta consideraci&#x00F3;n de idoneidad puede realizarse &#x2014;que, sin embargo, no es necesariamente la &#x00AB;argumentaci&#x00F3;n pura&#x00BB; de Brecht, pero que puede interpretarse muy bien como siempre situada y reconocida socialmente&#x2014;, ya que &#x00AB;uno [&#x2026;] vive en la compa&#x00F1;&#x00ED;a y dependencia de otros perceptores y consejeros&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31083_esp">Brecht, 1967</xref>, p. 177). Sin esta precondici&#x00F3;n de la posibilidad de ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de la lucha hegem&#x00F3;nica, las siguientes consideraciones no ser&#x00E1;n convincentes.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31083_esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>P<sc>rimera distinci&#x00F3;n</sc>: <sc>pol&#x00ED;tica y lo pol&#x00ED;tico</sc></bold></title>
<sec id="sec-4-31083_esp">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title><italic>La distinci&#x00F3;n</italic></title>
<p>La primera distinci&#x00F3;n que quisiera debatir en t&#x00E9;rminos que sean de utilidad para responder a la pregunta de en qu&#x00E9; sentido, si lo hay, la teor&#x00ED;a educativa puede ser considerada como pol&#x00ED;tica es la que hay entre &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB;. Esta distinci&#x00F3;n, com&#x00FA;n en teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica y tambi&#x00E9;n usada en teor&#x00ED;a educativa<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4_esp"><sup>4</sup></xref>, distingue <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> (<italic>la politique, die Politik</italic>) como acci&#x00F3;n dentro de instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas de <italic>lo pol&#x00ED;tico</italic> (<italic>le politique, das Politische</italic>) como ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de estas instituciones o interrumpirlas, desafiarlas y transformarlas. Mientras el terreno de la pol&#x00ED;tica puede definirse con relativa precisi&#x00F3;n &#x2014;por ejemplo, diplomacia, trabajo de partido o sindicatos&#x2014; la especificidad de lo pol&#x00ED;tico es concebida de un modo altamente contradictorio por diferentes autores.</p>
<p>A pesar de toda la heterogeneidad en las determinaciones de lo pol&#x00ED;tico, pueden identificarse dos tendencias, que Martinsen resume en &#x00AB;todo es pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB;, por un lado, y la &#x00AB;&#x0022;supresi&#x00F3;n&#x0022; de lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB;, por otro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31083_esp">Martinsen, 2019</xref>, pp. 586-587). Podr&#x00ED;a decirse que la primera tendencia concibe lo pol&#x00ED;tico como algo determinado en s&#x00ED; mismo y precedente, en realidad <italic>quasi prima philosophia</italic>, ya que un momento iterativo es inherente en cada acto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31083_esp">Derrida, 1982a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31083_esp">1982b</xref>)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5_esp"><sup>5</sup></xref>. Al contrario, la segunda tendencia concibe lo pol&#x00ED;tico como una excepci&#x00F3;n y por lo tanto concretamente como una desviaci&#x00F3;n, negaci&#x00F3;n o &#x00AB;interrupci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31083_esp">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 1999</xref>, p. 11) de lo determinado. Wolin, por ejemplo, afirma que &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico es epis&#x00F3;dico, excepcional&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-31083_esp">Wolin, 1994</xref>, p. 11) y Lacoue-Labarthe y Nancy hablan de la &#x00AB;retirada de lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31083_esp">Lacoue-Labarthe, y Nancy, 1981</xref>, p. 18).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31083_esp">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title><italic>&#x00BF;En qu&#x00E9; sentido debe considerarse la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;?</italic></title>
<p>En sentido estricto, la distinci&#x00F3;n entre pol&#x00ED;tica y lo pol&#x00ED;tico tiene dos vertientes. Si relacionamos estas distinciones con la naturaleza de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa, parece claro que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa dif&#x00ED;cilmente puede concebirse como parte de la &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;.</p>
<p>Pero &#x00BF;en qu&#x00E9; medida es parte de &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; o al menos puede ser interpretada como &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; en este sentido? M&#x00E1;s adelante, argumento que <italic>ambos conceptos de lo pol&#x00ED;tico son problem&#x00E1;ticos para la autointerpretaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa</italic>. Al hacerlo, no deseo sostener que no es posible usar los t&#x00E9;rminos fecundamente, sino que quisiera plantear que cuando los usamos de este modo, al menos deben considerarse los problemas subsiguientes y tratarse cuando se trata de una interpretaci&#x00F3;n propia.</p>
<p>Debemos considerar primero el caso en que lo pol&#x00ED;tico se concibe como una excepci&#x00F3;n, tal como la interrupci&#x00F3;n del orden existente de Ranci&#x00E8;re<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6_esp"><sup>6</sup></xref>. Para Ranci&#x00E8;re, esta interrupci&#x00F3;n puede producirse cuando, en nombre de la igualdad, la &#x00AB;parte de aquellos que no tienen parte&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31083_esp">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 1999</xref>, p. 11) es exigida, esto es, la consideraci&#x00F3;n de lo pol&#x00ED;tico de aquellos sujetos a los que, de acuerdo con la polic&#x00ED;a, es decir, el orden dominante, se les ha negado la igualdad y por lo tanto la capacidad de expresarse. Esta interrupci&#x00F3;n dif&#x00ED;cilmente puede acreditarse en muchas actividades de teor&#x00ED;a educativa, ya que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa necesariamente se produce sobre todo de acuerdo con el orden policial, y es practicada por sujetos que, como norma, pueden ser encuadrados en una posici&#x00F3;n pr&#x00E1;cticamente privilegiada como portavoces en este orden. La teor&#x00ED;a educativa &#x2014;por lo menos en su forma acad&#x00E9;mica, por ejemplo, como hacemos en esta publicaci&#x00F3;n&#x2014; podr&#x00ED;a en este sentido <italic>dar fe de</italic> eventos pol&#x00ED;ticos e introducirlos en el discurso acad&#x00E9;mico, pero dif&#x00ED;cilmente podr&#x00ED;a <italic>ser</italic> pol&#x00ED;tica en s&#x00ED; misma<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7_esp"><sup>7</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>La teor&#x00ED;a educativa que da fe de lo pol&#x00ED;tico podr&#x00ED;a aprender del propio Ranci&#x00E8;re, quien repetidamente influy&#x00F3; en las concepciones sociales de literatura, arte y cinematograf&#x00ED;a, y tambi&#x00E9;n pedagog&#x00ED;a y pol&#x00ED;tica, en muy diversas intervenciones (p. ej., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31083_esp">Ranci&#x00E8;re 1989</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31083_esp">1991</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31083_esp">1994</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31083_esp">1999</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31083_esp">2011</xref>). Sin embargo, esta forma de teor&#x00ED;a educativa primero tendr&#x00ED;a que estar acompa&#x00F1;ada por un reajuste radical de su forma (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31083_esp">Grabau y Rieger-Ladich, 2019</xref>). En segundo lugar, la aplicaci&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica de esta interpretaci&#x00F3;n propia podr&#x00ED;a requerir que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa se aleje de su demarcaci&#x00F3;n hacia lo emp&#x00ED;rico, como hace el mismo Ranci&#x00E8;re de modo impresionante. En este sentido, se podr&#x00ED;a hablar tambi&#x00E9;n de una <italic>filosof&#x00ED;a emp&#x00ED;rica de la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic>, siguiendo a Dewey y Latour (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31083_esp">Dewey 1938/1997</xref>, p. 25; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31083_esp">Latour 1997</xref>, p. 52, v&#x00E9;ase tambi&#x00E9;n <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-31083_esp">Schildermans, Vlieghe y Wortmann i.p.</xref>). Hablando positivamente, podr&#x00ED;a decirse por lo tanto que una teor&#x00ED;a educativa que se interprete a s&#x00ED; misma como testimonio de una interrupci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica est&#x00E1; todav&#x00ED;a en gran parte por venir y podr&#x00ED;a por lo tanto ofrecer un elevado potencial para estimular un mayor desarrollo de las pr&#x00E1;cticas de teor&#x00ED;a educativa. Sin embargo, esta autointerpretaci&#x00F3;n debe distinguirse de la que se interpreta a s&#x00ED; misma como pol&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>Volvamos ahora a la segunda interpretaci&#x00F3;n de lo pol&#x00ED;tico como algo que viene dado de por s&#x00ED;. Ante todo, puede afirmarse que con esta suposici&#x00F3;n, las valiosas posibilidades de diferenciaci&#x00F3;n posiblemente se pierden. En este sentido, Bedorf afirma, &#x00AB;si todo es pol&#x00ED;tico, no es nada, y hablar de lo pol&#x00ED;tico pierde su poder discriminatorio&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_esp">Bedorf, 2010</xref>, p. 33)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8_esp"><sup>8</sup></xref>. Si, por ejemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31083_esp">Horkheimer (1937/1982)</xref> fue capaz de basarse en el contraste entre un mero an&#x00E1;lisis de condiciones existentes y su superaci&#x00F3;n para hacer su famosa comparaci&#x00F3;n de teor&#x00ED;a tradicional y cr&#x00ED;tica, es decir, distinguir entre diferentes modos de comportarse o no comportarse respecto al orden pol&#x00ED;tico existente<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9_esp"><sup>9</sup></xref>, una teor&#x00ED;a educativa pol&#x00ED;tica en este sentido habr&#x00ED;a retrocedido al hecho de que la superaci&#x00F3;n &#x2014;o al menos un potencial de superaci&#x00F3;n&#x2014; est&#x00E1; siempre de por s&#x00ED; en la propia teor&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>Esto me parece problem&#x00E1;tico en al menos dos sentidos. El primero ya ha sido apuntado en: si contemplamos cada declaraci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica educativa, cada texto producido, como una implicaci&#x00F3;n en la &#x00AB;lucha de clases&#x00BB; de la sociedad civil (Gramsci), nos arriesgamos a perder de vista la cuesti&#x00F3;n de la relevancia pol&#x00ED;tica real. Distinguir entre textos que tienen un alto poder inspirativo y otros que son raramente le&#x00ED;dos o de dif&#x00ED;cil lectura ser&#x00ED;a pr&#x00E1;cticamente imposible &#x2013; ambos ser&#x00ED;an <italic>igualmente</italic> pol&#x00ED;ticos. Butler plantea un problema estructuralmente similar respecto a la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de iterabilidad de Derrida: mientras en la interpretaci&#x00F3;n que hace Butler de Bourdieu &#x00AB;no tiene en cuenta el modo en que los actos performativos pueden romper con contextos existentes&#x00BB;, Derrida &#x00AB;parece instalar la ruptura como una caracter&#x00ED;stica estructuralmente <italic>necesaria</italic> de <italic>cada</italic> declaraci&#x00F3;n [&#x2026;] paralizando por consiguiente el an&#x00E1;lisis social de <italic>declaraci&#x00F3;n convincente</italic>&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_esp">Butler, 1997</xref>, p. 150, &#x00E9;nfasis a&#x00F1;adido).</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s, concebir la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como algo pol&#x00ED;tico en s&#x00ED; misma parece peligroso, ya que las expectativas de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa creadas desde este punto de vista son demasiado altas, casi nunca pueden alcanzarse, o como mucho solo en casos excepcionales. Esto se debe a que es casi imposible demostrar que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa ha contribuido a un progreso pol&#x00ED;tico concreto, sin importar si se define como reforma o revoluci&#x00F3;n<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10_esp"><sup>10</sup></xref>. Por lo tanto, el punto de vista de que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa es por s&#x00ED; misma algo pol&#x00ED;tico corre el riesgo de provocar decepciones tanto en la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como en la pol&#x00ED;tica, lo que puede llevar a apartarse o hasta un excesivo distanciamiento y aislamiento de ambas.</p>
<p>Aunque lo pol&#x00ED;tico es concebido te&#x00F3;ricamente en detalle y est&#x00E1; vinculado a la evidencia emp&#x00ED;rica, en mi opini&#x00F3;n muchos te&#x00F3;ricos deval&#x00FA;an impl&#x00ED;citamente la pura pol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31083_esp">J&#x00F6;rke, 2006</xref>). Esta devaluaci&#x00F3;n es expresada, por ejemplo, por Hebekus y V&#x00F6;lker limitando la pol&#x00ED;tica al &#x00AB;ejercicio de poder t&#x00E9;cnico, gubernamental&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31083_esp">Hebekus y V&#x00F6;lker, 2012</xref>, p. 15) o Bedorf reconstruyendo la pol&#x00ED;tica como consistente en un &#x00AB;orden de lo emp&#x00ED;rico que est&#x00E1; <italic>atrapado</italic> en lo viable&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_esp">Bedorf, 2010</xref>, p. 14, &#x00E9;nfasis a&#x00F1;adido), mientras lo pol&#x00ED;tico se asigna a la venerable tarea de su propio &#x00AB;<italic>redimensionamiento</italic>&#x00BB; (ib&#x00ED;d., &#x00E9;nfasis en original)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11_esp"><sup>11</sup></xref>. Arendt, por ejemplo, entiende lo pol&#x00ED;tico como una norma para la pol&#x00ED;tica, Ranci&#x00E8;re entiende lo pol&#x00ED;tico (en terminolog&#x00ED;a de Ranci&#x00E8;re: pol&#x00ED;tica) posicionado como una interrupci&#x00F3;n del orden pol&#x00ED;tico (en Ranci&#x00E8;re: polic&#x00ED;a), o Lefort y Nancy &#x2014;cada uno de diferente manera&#x2014; entienden lo pol&#x00ED;tico presupuesto como base necesaria de la pol&#x00ED;tica, de modo que hay espacio para suponer que la <italic>teorizaci&#x00F3;n de lo pol&#x00ED;tico</italic> est&#x00E1; impl&#x00ED;citamente priorizada sobre la <italic>actuaci&#x00F3;n en pol&#x00ED;tica</italic>.</p>
<p>En esta secci&#x00F3;n, partiendo de la distinci&#x00F3;n entre &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB;, he intentado mostrar que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa, en primer lugar, no es algo pol&#x00ED;tico en el sentido de pertenecer a la pol&#x00ED;tica. En segundo lugar, al menos en su estado actual, que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa dif&#x00ED;cilmente puede ser entendida como algo pol&#x00ED;tico en el sentido de interrupci&#x00F3;n o suspensi&#x00F3;n del orden existente, y en tercer lugar, que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa concebida como algo pol&#x00ED;tico en s&#x00ED; misma implica varios problemas consecuentes, tanto pol&#x00ED;ticos como educativos. A este respecto, la distinci&#x00F3;n entre pol&#x00ED;tica y lo pol&#x00ED;tico podr&#x00ED;a ser de alguna ayuda al describir el car&#x00E1;cter pol&#x00ED;tico de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa. As&#x00ED; pues, a continuaci&#x00F3;n, se considerar&#x00E1; otra distinci&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-31083_esp">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>egunda distinci&#x00F3;n</sc>: <sc>pol&#x00ED;tica frente a pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</sc></bold></title>
<sec id="sec-7-31083_esp">
<label>4.1.</label>
<title><italic>La distinci&#x00F3;n</italic></title>
<p>Como una segunda posibilidad, propongo la distinci&#x00F3;n que hace Richard Rorty entre <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> y <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</italic>. Su concepto de &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; es similar al ya presentado en la primera distinci&#x00F3;n, que describe la pol&#x00ED;tica como la acci&#x00F3;n dentro de instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas existentes. En tanto que Rorty promueve decididamente pol&#x00ED;tica izquierdista, entiende los actos pol&#x00ED;ticos como una acci&#x00F3;n comunitaria para proteger a los miembros m&#x00E1;s d&#x00E9;biles de la sociedad frente a los m&#x00E1;s fuertes<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12_esp"><sup>12</sup></xref>. Contempla la redistribuci&#x00F3;n de riqueza en forma de, por ejemplo, pol&#x00ED;tica fiscal, salarios m&#x00ED;nimos elevados, as&#x00ED; como los derechos de trabajadores y mujeres como herramienta preferida. Esto requiere iniciativas legislativas, lo que a su vez requiere mayor&#x00ED;as en parlamentos. Por lo tanto, para Rorty la pol&#x00ED;tica es principalmente una cuesti&#x00F3;n de estrategia sobre c&#x00F3;mo tratar de alcanzar la hegemon&#x00ED;a, que en una democracia representativa se expresa especialmente en el acto de votar. En consecuencia, para Rorty, los h&#x00E9;roes de la pol&#x00ED;tica son los colectivos que se levantan por sus intereses contra poderosos y ricos: movimientos de trabajadores y sindicatos, el movimiento por los derechos civiles, feministas o partidos de izquierdas.</p>
<p>En cambio, Rorty se refiere con <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</italic> a la influencia sobre el modo en que hablamos &#x2014;y, por tanto, tambi&#x00E9;n c&#x00F3;mo nos percibimos, a los dem&#x00E1;s seres humanos y a nuestro entorno. Rorty desarrolla esta interpretaci&#x00F3;n en su libro <italic>Filosof&#x00ED;a como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_esp">Rorty, 2007</xref>), que difiere claramente de sus primeros escritos a este respecto. En sus primeros escritos, Rorty us&#x00F3; &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica cultural&#x00BB; como sin&#x00F3;nimo de &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica identitaria&#x00BB;, lo que rechaz&#x00F3; cr&#x00ED;ticamente porque dividi&#x00F3; a la izquierda americana e hizo que coaliciones necesarias, como las de los movimientos por los derechos civiles de los afroamericanos y sindicatos, fueran m&#x00E1;s dif&#x00ED;ciles (v&#x00E9;ase <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-31083_esp">Rorty, 1999</xref> para este primer tratamiento, as&#x00ED; como para las diferencias con el ulterior <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-31083_esp">Wortmann 2022c</xref>). En <italic>Filosof&#x00ED;a como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</italic>, por otro lado, escribe: &#x00AB;El t&#x00E9;rmino &#x201C;pol&#x00ED;tica cultural&#x201D; incluye, entre otras cosas, argumentos sobre qu&#x00E9; palabras utilizar&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_esp">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. 3), para &#x00AB;sugerir cambios en el uso de palabras&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;poner nuevas palabras en circulaci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; para &#x00AB;ampliar nuestro repertorio de autodescripciones individuales y culturales&#x00BB; (ibid., p. 124). Adem&#x00E1;s, tambi&#x00E9;n recoge los &#x00AB;proyectos radicales y negativos que implican erradicar &#x00E1;reas enteras&#x00BB; (ibid., p. 15), tal como su propio proyecto de hacer que hablar de &#x00AB;la verdad&#x00BB; parezca menos atractivo<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn13_esp"><sup>13</sup></xref>. H&#x00E9;roes de la pol&#x00ED;tica cultural han trabajado para hacer que ciertos t&#x00E9;rminos sean comunes o para dejar una huella perdurable en su significado, como para Rorty, por ejemplo, Freud y Dewey o, a&#x00F1;adir&#x00ED;a, Butler<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn14_esp"><sup>14</sup></xref>.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-31083_esp">
<label>4.2.</label>
<title><italic>&#x00BF;En qu&#x00E9; sentido debe considerarse la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;?</italic></title>
<p>Para Rorty, queda claro que la posibilidad que tiene la filosof&#x00ED;a de contribuir a la pol&#x00ED;tica es marginal, mientras que puede y debe luchar para convertirse en pol&#x00ED;tica cultural. Siguiendo a Rorty, pondr&#x00E9; en paralelo esta convicci&#x00F3;n con la opini&#x00F3;n de que la <italic>teor&#x00ED;a educativa no es pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> en sentido estricto &#x2014;como parte de la pol&#x00ED;tica&#x2014; sino que <italic>puede ser interpretada como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</italic>.</p>
<p>En un texto breve con el revelador t&#x00ED;tulo &#x00AB;Los peligros de la sobrefilosofizaci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB;, que responde a intentos de te&#x00F3;ricos educativos para usar la filosof&#x00ED;a de Rorty para cuestiones educativas, Rorty escribe expl&#x00ED;citamente &#x00AB;Tengo dudas sobre la relevancia de la filosof&#x00ED;a en la educaci&#x00F3;n, por la misma raz&#x00F3;n por la que tengo dudas sobre la relevancia de la filosof&#x00ED;a en la pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31083_esp">Rorty, 1990</xref>, p. 41). La filosof&#x00ED;a no puede hacer las propuestas concretas que son necesarias en pedagog&#x00ED;a, por ejemplo, &#x00AB;un buen nuevo modo de establecer ex&#x00E1;menes de acceso a la universidad o de otorgar licenciaturas a profesores&#x00BB; (ibid.) o &#x00AB;experimentos pr&#x00E1;cticos con did&#x00E1;ctica colaborativa, estudios interdisciplinares, integraci&#x00F3;n de recientes estudios sobre raza y g&#x00E9;nero en el curr&#x00ED;culo&#x00BB; (ibid., p. 44, para un resumen del pensamiento de Rorty en teor&#x00ED;a educativa, v&#x00E9;ase <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-31083_esp">Wortmann, 2022b</xref>).</p>
<p>La relevancia p&#x00FA;blica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa no puede servir, por lo tanto, para justificar pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas. En respuesta a una pregunta en una entrevista sobre su postura acerca del m&#x00E9;todo educativo de trabajo en grupos peque&#x00F1;os, Rorty replic&#x00F3; que teor&#x00ED;a y pr&#x00E1;ctica</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>van adelante y atr&#x00E1;s, pero en un caso concreto como este me parece que solo se puede ver si un experimento pedag&#x00F3;gico tiene &#x00E9;xito; si no lo tiene, puede que la teor&#x00ED;a quede intacta o puede que no, pero lo que hay que hacer es averiguar si realmente funciona (Rorty en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31083_esp">Olson, 1989</xref>, p. 4).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p><italic>Demasiada</italic> filosof&#x00ED;a podr&#x00ED;a incluso obstaculizar reformas concretas y experimentos en educaci&#x00F3;n, especialmente si estos son reemplazados por debates te&#x00F3;ricos. Estudiosos que solo se involucran en batallas te&#x00F3;ricas elitistas &#x00AB;se [&#x2026;] separan innecesariamente de la gente a quienes intentan ayudar, los compa&#x00F1;eros-ciudadanos con los que comparten un pa&#x00ED;s y una tradici&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31083_esp">Rorty, 1990</xref>, p. 44)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn15_esp"><sup>15</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>La propuesta de conceptualizar la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural permite la <italic>distinci&#x00F3;n</italic> respecto a pol&#x00ED;tica. O, para decirlo con mayor claridad: <italic>la distinci&#x00F3;n entre pol&#x00ED;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica cultural puede llevar a la idea de lo que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa puede hacer y lo que no</italic>. Las concepciones de ambas distinciones &#x2014;entre pol&#x00ED;tica y lo pol&#x00ED;tico y entre pol&#x00ED;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica cultural&#x2014; est&#x00E1;n de acuerdo en lo que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa <italic>no puede hacer</italic>: participar en pol&#x00ED;tica. Sin embargo, lo que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa puede hacer puede ser plasmado especialmente bien por el concepto de pol&#x00ED;tica cultural de Rorty: hacer intervenciones discursivas, &#x00AB;contribuir al di&#x00E1;logo que mantiene la humanidad&#x00BB; que &#x00AB;ha engendrado nuevas pr&#x00E1;cticas sociales y cambios en los vocabularios utilizados en la deliberaci&#x00F3;n moral y pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_esp">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. ix). Resumiendo, la teor&#x00ED;a educativa tiene el potencial de iniciar un cambio pol&#x00ED;tico-cultural.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-31083_esp">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a teor&#x00ED;a educativa como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</sc></bold></title>
<p>Rorty sostiene que &#x00AB;la pol&#x00ED;tica cultural debe reemplazar a la ontolog&#x00ED;a, y tambi&#x00E9;n que si debe o no debe ser <italic>en s&#x00ED; misma</italic> una cuesti&#x00F3;n de pol&#x00ED;tica cultural&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_esp">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. 5). Si la teor&#x00ED;a educativa fuese interpretada como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural, podr&#x00ED;a por lo tanto no tratar sobre &#x00AB;averiguar c&#x00F3;mo es &#x2018;realmente&#x2019; cualquier cosa, sino de ayudarnos a madurar &#x2014;a hacernos m&#x00E1;s felices, libres y flexibles&#x00BB; (ibid., p. 124).</p>
<p>Desear&#x00ED;a proponer este cambio como un &#x00AB;giro ofensivo en la teorizaci&#x00F3;n [educativa]&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31083_esp">B&#x00FC;nger, 2021</xref>). Con los argumentos elaborados hasta ahora, un giro ofensivo de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa podr&#x00ED;a problematizarse en dos aspectos y ser solo respaldado totalmente en otro. Dicho &#x00AB;giro&#x00BB; ser&#x00ED;a delicado tanto si estableciera anal&#x00ED;ticamente que la formaci&#x00F3;n de teor&#x00ED;a <italic>es siempre de por s&#x00ED;</italic> ofensiva como si demandara normativamente que toda formaci&#x00F3;n de teor&#x00ED;a <italic>debe volverse</italic> ofensiva. Pero si un giro ofensivo en la teorizaci&#x00F3;n conduce a un giro en lo que hacemos &#x2014;teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x2014; hacia una mayor intervenci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tico-cultural, surgen dos preguntas. La primera es por qu&#x00E9; la teor&#x00ED;a educativa es rara vez de relevancia p&#x00FA;blica a pesar del continuo &#x00E9;nfasis sobre su propio car&#x00E1;cter pol&#x00ED;tico<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn16_esp"><sup>16</sup></xref>. La segunda pregunta se deduce de esta: se cuestionan las posibilidades y formas de llegar a ser relevante. Como conclusi&#x00F3;n, me gustar&#x00ED;a proponer dos &#x00AB;giros ofensivos&#x00BB; de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa: primero un giro contra s&#x00ED; misma &#x2014;y por lo tanto posiblemente contra nosotros mismos que hacemos teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x2014; y un segundo giro en la esfera p&#x00FA;blica.</p>
<p>Primero, entonces, la pregunta de por qu&#x00E9; en la actualidad apenas podemos ver alguna teor&#x00ED;a educativa relevante. Me gustar&#x00ED;a ofrecer una primera respuesta con la &#x00AB;bastante brutal, pero sin embargo esclarecedora&#x00BB; (Sonderegger en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31083_esp">Bembeza y Sonderegger, 2020</xref>, sin paginaci&#x00F3;n) &#x2014;dir&#x00ED;a: &#x00FA;til precisamente <italic>porque</italic> es brutal&#x2014; distinci&#x00F3;n entre &#x00AB;cr&#x00ED;tica existencial&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia&#x00BB; por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31083_esp">Kaloianov (2014)</xref>. Despu&#x00E9;s de esta distinci&#x00F3;n, una raz&#x00F3;n para la escasa relevancia p&#x00FA;blica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa podr&#x00ED;a ser que se ha alejado demasiado de la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial a la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia. Mientras la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia lucha por la precisi&#x00F3;n <italic>acad&#x00E9;mica</italic>, la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial se dirige a y contra los problemas <italic>cotidianos</italic> de los d&#x00E9;biles, marginales y oprimidos a partir de sus situaciones existenciales<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn17_esp"><sup>17</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED; que, cuando problematizo que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa ha descuidado la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial, no quiero pedir la diluci&#x00F3;n de las normas de calidad acad&#x00E9;micas y, sin duda, tampoco del antiintelectualismo. La raz&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s importante para esto es que opino que la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial y la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia son mutuamente dependientes. Si seguimos el concepto de pol&#x00ED;tica cultural de Rorty, queda claro que la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia no puede convertirse en superflua, pero sigue siendo necesaria para una cr&#x00ED;tica existencial sofisticada. Al contrario, la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia verdadera quiz&#x00E1;s acontece precisamente <italic>mediante</italic> la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial, si uno conecta la observaci&#x00F3;n de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31083_esp">Kaloianov (2014</xref>, pp. 68-70) de que la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial ha migrado desde la teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica dentro de la filosof&#x00ED;a a varios &#x00AB;estudios&#x00BB; (cultural, mujer, g&#x00E9;nero, <italic>queer</italic>, poscolonial, etc.), con la observaci&#x00F3;n de Butler de que en los &#x00FA;ltimos tiempos raramente se han producido innovaciones filos&#x00F3;ficas en filosof&#x00ED;a acad&#x00E9;mica, pero muchas en otras disciplinas con potente investigaci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31083_esp">Butler, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Que la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial y la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia sean mutuamente dependientes es incluso la causa por la que parece problem&#x00E1;tico si una de las dos formas de cr&#x00ED;tica es seguida desproporcionadamente m&#x00E1;s que la otra en teor&#x00ED;a educativa<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn18_esp"><sup>18</sup></xref>. En resumen, los potenciales pol&#x00ED;tico-culturales de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa no se alcanzan cuando solo o predominantemente se practica la cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia.</p>
<p>Una segunda respuesta a la pregunta de por qu&#x00E9; la teor&#x00ED;a educativa tiene escasa relevancia p&#x00FA;blica obedece a la suposici&#x00F3;n de que la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial tambi&#x00E9;n representa solo una parte de lo que es posible en teor&#x00ED;a educativa, siempre y cuando se mantenga cr&#x00ED;tica y, como tal, principalmente negativa: se dirige, correctamente y de manera importante, contra las condiciones (educativas) existentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-31083_esp">Wortmann, 2020</xref>)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn19_esp"><sup>19</sup></xref>. Mientras proporciona un sofisticado vocabulario para describir lo que es problem&#x00E1;tico o equivocado sobre ellas o lo que deber&#x00ED;a cambiarse<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn20_esp"><sup>20</sup></xref>, carece de un vocabulario igualmente complejo, matizado y te&#x00F3;ricamente sofisticado para describir qu&#x00E9; es bueno o correcto y que, por lo tanto, podr&#x00ED;a valer la pena continuar realizando. Practicar la teor&#x00ED;a educativa exclusiva o predominantemente como teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica no puede proporcionar este &#x00AB;conocimiento de orientaci&#x00F3;n e interpretaci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31083_esp">Reichenbach, 2017</xref>, p. 19), que el p&#x00FA;blico espera de ella, y de forma justificada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31083_esp">Hodgson, Vlieghe y Zamojski, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-31083_esp">Vlieghe y Zamojski, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-31083_esp">Wortmann, 2019</xref>). De este modo, veo el segundo problema de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa en su capacidad limitada para hablar positivamente sobre su contenido<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn21_esp"><sup>21</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Para estar seguro: la relevancia p&#x00FA;blica no puede fabricarse o producirse intencionadamente. Sin embargo, podemos &#x2014;y de hecho, como se argumenta aqu&#x00ED;, debemos&#x2014; luchar para desarrollar una relevancia p&#x00FA;blica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa. La relevancia pol&#x00ED;tica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa no puede conseguirse hablando sobre su propia relevancia pol&#x00ED;tica. Aunque el cambio cultural tiene lugar muy lentamente, se puede luchar por &#x00E9;l, seg&#x00FA;n Rorty, &#x00AB;velar por &#x00E9;l&#x00BB;:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Desde el punto de vista de la cultura que sugiero, el progreso intelectual y moral se consigue formulando reivindicaciones que parecen absurdas a una generaci&#x00F3;n y de sentido com&#x00FA;n a las siguientes. La funci&#x00F3;n de los intelectuales es efectuar este cambio explicando c&#x00F3;mo pueden las nuevas ideas, si se han probado, solucionar, o diluir, problemas creados por los que nos han precedido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_esp">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. 85).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Tras esta interpretaci&#x00F3;n no t&#x00E9;cnica de &#x00AB;lograr el cambio&#x00BB;, creo que todo se reduce a lo que significa <italic>velar</italic> por &#x00E9;l. Por esto quisiera concluir, como una perspectiva, sobre lo que significar&#x00ED;a para la teor&#x00ED;a educativa si fuera descrita de manera modal como relevante p&#x00FA;blicamente. En este sentido, sugiero que la teor&#x00ED;a educativa podr&#x00ED;a estar cerca de una &#x00AB;cr&#x00ED;tica amable&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31083_esp">Laner, 2020</xref>), que es siempre tambi&#x00E9;n <italic>cuidadosa</italic>, sobre pr&#x00E1;cticas de investigaci&#x00F3;n, situaciones y grupos que requieren una actitud de &#x00AB;cuidado y precauci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31083_esp">Latour, 2004</xref>, p. 246), quiz&#x00E1; incluso &#x00AB;amor por el mundo&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31083_esp">Hodgson, Vlieghe y Zamojski, 2017</xref>, p. 18), por los objetos investigados y sus efectos pol&#x00ED;tico-culturales.</p>
<p>Los objetos de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa podr&#x00ED;an entonces ser abordados &#x00AB;como uno se acercar&#x00ED;a a un animal que se mantiene alejado, pausadamente y con precauci&#x00F3;n, y no con grandes y brutales conceptos y teor&#x00ED;as, para los que la pr&#x00E1;ctica ser&#x00ED;a solo un ejemplo&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-31083_esp">Schildermans, 2020</xref>, sin paginaci&#x00F3;n). Una posible expresi&#x00F3;n prudente en teor&#x00ED;a educativa podr&#x00ED;a encontrarse en una afirmaci&#x00F3;n de lo existente, con Whitehead &#x00AB;una realizaci&#x00F3;n de utilidad [&#x2026;]. Su expresi&#x00F3;n b&#x00E1;sica es: &#x00A1;<italic>Cuidado</italic>! &#x00A1;Esto es <italic>importante</italic>!&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-31083_esp">Whitehead, 1938/1968</xref>, p. 116, &#x00E9;nfasis a&#x00F1;adido). Whitehead nos pide cuidado en nuestras abstracciones: &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; efecto tienen? &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; tipo de pensamiento provocan? &#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo afectan a nuestra agrupaci&#x00F3;n de posibles autodescripciones? &#x00AB;S&#x00E9; cuidadoso, &#x00A1;este es un asunto de inter&#x00E9;s!&#x00BB; &#x2014;&#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo ser&#x00ED;a la teor&#x00ED;a educativa despu&#x00E9;s de esta apelaci&#x00F3;n?</p>
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<fn id="fn1_esp" fn-type="other"><label>1.</label> <p>Este art&#x00ED;culo es una versi&#x00F3;n profundamente revisada de mi contribuci&#x00F3;n en alem&#x00E1;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-31083_esp">Wortmann 2022a</xref>). Quiero agradecer a Anna-Lynn Ridderbusch, Christian Grabau, Hannah Klein, Jakob Himmelmann y Markus Rieger-Ladich sus comentarios sobre las primeras versiones de este art&#x00ED;culo. Todas las traducciones a ingl&#x00E9;s han sido hechas por el autor.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn2_esp" fn-type="other"><label>2.</label> <p>Valdr&#x00ED;a la pena examinar el grado en que <italic>determinadas</italic> pr&#x00E1;cticas de teor&#x00ED;a educativa eluden los modos de descripci&#x00F3;n propuestos en este texto, o si los actores se resisten a ellas en sus actividades situadas a nivel local. En la medida en que este art&#x00ED;culo plantea una elevada generalizaci&#x00F3;n de la &#x00AB;teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x00BB;, por un lado, en sentido estricto, uno no puede esperar ser capaz de realizar afirmaciones precisas para todo el paquete de pr&#x00E1;cticas de &#x00AB;teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x00BB;. Pero, por otro lado, con el fin de ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de un &#x00AB;situacionismo autosuficiente&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-31083_esp">Schmidt y Volbers, 2011</xref>, p. 26), en el que hay un peligro de huir de generalizaciones, el texto pretende ofrecer descripciones adecuadas al menos para una gran parte de lo que hacemos cuando decimos que hacemos &#x00AB;teor&#x00ED;a educativa&#x00BB;. En este sentido, no ser&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s apropiado hablar de teor&#x00ED;as educativas en plural, ya que se correr&#x00ED;a el riesgo de referirse a sistemas te&#x00F3;ricos en lugar de centrarse en los aspectos pr&#x00E1;cticos de la teorizaci&#x00F3;n educativa.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn3_esp" fn-type="other"><label>3.</label> <p>Una excepci&#x00F3;n sorprendente aqu&#x00ED; podr&#x00ED;a ser la econom&#x00ED;a.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn4_esp" fn-type="other"><label>4.</label> <p>Buchstein se&#x00F1;ala la distinci&#x00F3;n que se presenta de modo obsesivo en teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31083_esp">Buchstein, 2020</xref>, sin paginaci&#x00F3;n). A mi entender, sin embargo, esta distinci&#x00F3;n rara vez ha sido aplicada expl&#x00ED;citamente dentro de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa, es decir, en el sentido de la pregunta de que en qu&#x00E9; medida la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como actividad es o debe ser pol&#x00ED;tica o algo pol&#x00ED;tico en s&#x00ED; misma. Por ejemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-31083_esp">Sattler y Schlu&#x00DF; (2009)</xref> o <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31083_esp">Rieger-Ladich (2013)</xref> abordan la distinci&#x00F3;n entre pol&#x00ED;tica y lo pol&#x00ED;tico exclusivamente con respecto a la educaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica del educando y de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a, respectivamente. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31083_esp">L&#x00FC;tke-Harmann (2016)</xref> examina el (la ausencia de) car&#x00E1;cter pol&#x00ED;tico de determinados conceptos te&#x00F3;ricos pedag&#x00F3;gicos sociales desde una perspectiva te&#x00F3;rica-diferencia. Sch&#x00E4;fer analiza la inmensidad de la pedagog&#x00ED;a con el fin de establecer, desde una perspectiva orientada hacia Laclau y Mouffe, que la &#x00AB;dominancia de los planteamientos te&#x00F3;ricos pedag&#x00F3;gicos [&#x2026;] no puede explicarse por el nivel de reflexi&#x00F3;n o la plausibilidad de sus explicaciones, sino como un efecto de controversias en las que tales teor&#x00ED;as (sin embargo) desempe&#x00F1;an una funci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31083_esp">Sch&#x00E4;fer, 2009</xref>, p. 391). No obstante, como se mostrar&#x00E1; m&#x00E1;s adelante, esto ya presupone el car&#x00E1;cter pol&#x00ED;tico de la pedagog&#x00ED;a, cuya extensi&#x00F3;n se analizar&#x00E1; aqu&#x00ED;, como algo que se da por sentado en todas partes. Desde esta perspectiva, por supuesto, como he tratado de mostrar con referencia a Mouffe, el objeto de este texto ser&#x00ED;a por lo tanto incomprensible.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn5_esp" fn-type="other"><label>5.</label> <p>Consecuentemente, Derrida afirma que &#x00AB;la actividad filos&#x00F3;fica no <italic>requiere</italic> pr&#x00E1;ctica pol&#x00ED;tica, sino que es, en todos los sentidos, una pr&#x00E1;ctica pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; (citado en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31083_esp">Hebekus, y V&#x00F6;lker, 2012</xref>, p. 13, v&#x00E9;ase tambi&#x00E9;n <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_esp">Butler, 1997</xref>, cap&#x00ED;tulo 4). Incluso si esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n se refiere a la ejecuci&#x00F3;n y no al contenido de la actividad filos&#x00F3;fica, este posicionamiento, que es sorprendentemente completado por normas deconstructivistas, corre el riesgo de unificaci&#x00F3;n de la pr&#x00E1;ctica de teorizaci&#x00F3;n filos&#x00F3;fica o pedag&#x00F3;gica. De igual modo, Reichenbach afirma que la &#x00AB;noci&#x00F3;n de lecturas pol&#x00ED;ticamente ambiguas de lo pedag&#x00F3;gico oculta la hipostatizaci&#x00F3;n de una interpretaci&#x00F3;n difusa de la moralidad bajo la apariencia de significancia de lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31083_esp">Reichenbach, 2016</xref>, p. 42). Aunque Reichenbach est&#x00E1; interesado en las pr&#x00E1;cticas pedag&#x00F3;gicas y el contenido pol&#x00ED;tico, mientras yo me centro aqu&#x00ED; en pr&#x00E1;cticas cient&#x00ED;ficas, su opini&#x00F3;n puede no obstante leerse como una advertencia oportuna. En este sentido, podr&#x00ED;a reformularse: la idea de lecturas <italic>claramente pol&#x00ED;ticas</italic> de la teorizaci&#x00F3;n educativa corre el riesgo de ocultar la hip&#x00F3;stasis de una interpretaci&#x00F3;n difusa de moralidad bajo la apariencia de significancia de lo pol&#x00ED;tico.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn6_esp" fn-type="other"><label>6.</label> <p>Siguiendo las indicaciones de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_esp">Bedorf (2010</xref>, pp. 23-26) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31083_esp">Marchart (2010</xref>, pp. 178-184), Ranci&#x00E8;re se interpreta aqu&#x00ED; como un representante de la &#x00AB;diferencia de lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31083_esp">Marchard, 2010</xref>) entre pol&#x00ED;tica (en Ranci&#x00E8;re: polic&#x00ED;a) y lo pol&#x00ED;tico (en Ranci&#x00E8;re: pol&#x00ED;tica).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn7_esp" fn-type="other"><label>7.</label> <p>A este respecto, es coherente que Ranci&#x00E8;re no se vea a s&#x00ED; mismo como fil&#x00F3;sofo <italic>pol&#x00ED;tico</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31083_esp">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 2004</xref>, p. 3) y adem&#x00E1;s &#x00AB;no ha escrito un solo libro sobre pol&#x00ED;tica, sino solamente algunos en los que la pol&#x00ED;tica aparece en diferentes formas: la de filosof&#x00ED;a, la de historia, la de est&#x00E9;tica&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31083_esp">Hebekus y V&#x00F6;lker, 2012</xref>, pp. 129-130).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn8_esp" fn-type="other"><label>8.</label> <p>El &#x00AB;todo es pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; de Foucault (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31083_esp">Foucault, 1996</xref>, p. 211) es interpretado por Marchart como una afirmaci&#x00F3;n heideggeriana en la l&#x00ED;nea de Laclau/Mouffe: para Marchart, Foucault fue capaz de hacer esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n &#x00AB;porque todo, precisamente, <italic>est&#x00E1;</italic> permeado por relaciones de poder y fuerza&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31083_esp">Marchart, 2013</xref>, p. 431, &#x00E9;nfasis a&#x00F1;adido). Marchart considera que la problem&#x00E1;tica aqu&#x00ED; identificada por Bedorf es &#x00AB;al fin y al cabo, nada[] [&#x2026;] sino solo sentido com&#x00FA;n, vendido en forma de dial&#x00E9;ctica inoportuna&#x00BB;, ya que pasa por alto &#x00AB;la naturaleza ontol&#x00F3;gica del concepto de lo pol&#x00ED;tico (con Foucault: el concepto de poder)&#x00BB; (ibid., pp. 431-432). Seg&#x00FA;n Marchart, para Foucault &#x00AB;no hay relaci&#x00F3;n social que no sea al mismo tiempo una relaci&#x00F3;n de conflicto y poder&#x00BB; (ibid., p. 432). Sin embargo, este &#x00AB;es&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;ser&#x00ED;a&#x00BB;, entendido ontol&#x00F3;gicamente por Marchart, tambi&#x00E9;n podr&#x00ED;a ser interpretado &#x00AB;nominal&#x00ED;sticamente&#x00BB; siguiendo la autodescripci&#x00F3;n de Foucault (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31083_esp">Foucault, 2011</xref>, p. 5). Luego Foucault intentar&#x00ED;a sistem&#x00E1;ticamente llevar esta consideraci&#x00F3;n hasta su final sin llegar a alcanzarlo &#x2014;que, contra Marchart (&#x00AB;el mito [&#x2026;] de Foucault [&#x2026;] de la eterna batalla [&#x2026;] finalmente no le llev&#x00F3; a ninguna parte&#x00BB;, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31083_esp">Marchart, 2013</xref>, p. 433), solo ser&#x00ED;a bienvenida desde un punto de vista <italic>educativo</italic>. La afirmaci&#x00F3;n de que todo <italic>es</italic> algo pol&#x00ED;tico podr&#x00ED;a entonces entenderse como una disposici&#x00F3;n experimental que podr&#x00ED;a ser reconciliada con mis consideraciones pragmatistas, no heideggerianas, presentadas en la segunda parte de este texto.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn9_esp" fn-type="other"><label>9.</label> <p>A pesar de que algunos pasajes en el ensayo de Horkheimer parecen sin duda como si la teor&#x00ED;a tradicional respaldara el orden pol&#x00ED;tico imperante &#x2014;que contradir&#x00ED;a mi argumento, porque entonces tambi&#x00E9;n asumir&#x00ED;a una inevitabilidad de lo pol&#x00ED;tico en cualquier teor&#x00ED;a&#x2014; desde mi punto de vista es solo una posibilidad, no un automatismo. M&#x00E1;s bien es, en definitiva, igual de posible que lo contrario, el uso de resultados de la ciencia tradicional con fines de teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn10_esp" fn-type="other"><label>10.</label> <p>Muchas de las teor&#x00ED;as revisadas no afirman esto en absoluto, pero esto no invalida el argumento. Esto solo asevera que <italic>si</italic> uno afirma contribuir al progreso pol&#x00ED;tico en su propio trabajo te&#x00F3;rico sobre educaci&#x00F3;n &#x2014;y me parece que impl&#x00ED;citamente este el caso la mayor&#x00ED;a de las veces &#x2013; esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n puede f&#x00E1;cilmente ser tirada por tierra. Esto es cierto independientemente de si las teor&#x00ED;as a las que nos referimos tambi&#x00E9;n hacen esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n para <italic>s&#x00ED; mismas.</italic> Tampoco implica que uno <italic>debe</italic> hacer esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n para el progreso de lo pol&#x00ED;tico en la teor&#x00ED;a educativa.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn11_esp" fn-type="other"><label>11.</label> <p>Podr&#x00ED;a incluso decirse que esta <italic>devaluaci&#x00F3;n de la pol&#x00ED;tica se disfraza</italic> a s&#x00ED; misma de una aparente moderaci&#x00F3;n y modestia respecto a las posibilidades (de lo pol&#x00ED;tico) de la teor&#x00ED;a (de lo pol&#x00ED;tico). Por consiguiente, Bedorf escribe &#x2014;con referencia a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31083_esp">Lacoue-Labarthe y Nancy (1981)</xref>, pero tambi&#x00E9;n ciertamente aplicable a la posici&#x00F3;n de Ranci&#x00E8;re&#x2014; que &#x00AB;el fil&#x00F3;sofo no debe alzarse a s&#x00ED; mismo a la condici&#x00F3;n de un observador que pretende conocer c&#x00F3;mo debe ordenarse la pol&#x00ED;tica o hacia donde deber&#x00ED;a evolucionar&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_esp">Bedorf, 2010</xref>, p. 14). Como se mostrar&#x00E1; m&#x00E1;s abajo, Rorty tambi&#x00E9;n podr&#x00ED;a encontrarse en <italic>tal</italic> modestia (v&#x00E9;ase <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-31083_esp">Schulenberg, 2017</xref> sobre amplias similitudes metate&#x00F3;ricas entre Ranci&#x00E8;re y Rorty), aunque en su caso modestia con respecto a las posibilidades pol&#x00ED;ticas de la teor&#x00ED;a en el sentido m&#x00E1;s estricto es indisociable de una <italic>devaluaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a.</italic> En este sentido, describe &#x00AB;la pol&#x00ED;tica, al menos en los pa&#x00ED;ses democr&#x00E1;ticos, como algo que debe ser realizado de manera franca, directa, p&#x00FA;blica y con un lenguaje tan f&#x00E1;cil de manejar como sea posible&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31083_esp">Rorty, 1996</xref>, p. 47).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn12_esp" fn-type="other"><label>12.</label> <p>En esto, las posiciones de Rorty y Mouffe son muy similares (p. ej., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31083_esp">Mouffe, 2018</xref>, pp. 16-17). En cambio, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31083_esp">Mouffe (2008</xref>, pp. 88-89) y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31083_esp">Laclau (1996)</xref> critican con aspereza a Rorty por estar demasiado limitado a &#x00AB;solo aquellos movimientos estrat&#x00E9;gicos que son posibles dentro del universo discursivo del liberalismo americano&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31083_esp">Laclau, 1996</xref>, p. 70). En este sentido, se puede argumentar que Rorty celebra los logros de la democracia liberal &#x2014;p. ej., libertad de expresi&#x00F3;n y de prensa, parlamentos, universidades&#x2014; pero nunca defiende la democracia liberal en principio; por el contrario, siempre &#x00AB;concibe la democracia manteni&#x00E9;ndose abierta a la reforma y al cambio institucional&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-31083_esp">Selk, 2019</xref>, p. 409), lo que puede ser siempre pluralista en t&#x00E9;rminos de ruptura mediante &#x00AB;costras de convenci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (Dewey) Por lo tanto, la cr&#x00ED;tica que hace Mouffe de que Rorty &#x00AB;quiere retener la visi&#x00F3;n de un consenso que no implicar&#x00ED;a ninguna forma de exclusi&#x00F3;n y la disponibilidad de alguna forma de realizaci&#x00F3;n de universalidad&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31083_esp">Mouffe, 2008</xref>, p. 89) no es precisa. Adem&#x00E1;s del hecho de que Rorty ha contradicho expl&#x00ED;citamente estas insinuaciones varias veces (p. ej. en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-31083_esp">Rorty, 2001a</xref>, incluso refiri&#x00E9;ndose expl&#x00ED;citamente a Mouffe, o en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31083_esp">Rorty, 2001b</xref>, p. 262, donde sencillamente afirma que &#x00AB;no se puede realizar una sociedad democr&#x00E1;tica sin expulsar a los agitadores fascistas&#x00BB;), podr&#x00ED;a contrarrestar dicha cr&#x00ED;tica diciendo que no es particularmente importante <italic>pol&#x00ED;ticamente,</italic> en la medida en que uno solo est&#x00E1; de acuerdo en los objetivos pol&#x00ED;ticos concretos &#x2014;lo que, en mi opini&#x00F3;n, ser&#x00ED;a una posici&#x00F3;n que facilitar&#x00ED;a la consecuci&#x00F3;n de la hegemon&#x00ED;a de izquierdas por la que Laclau y Mouffe est&#x00E1;n luchando.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn13_esp" fn-type="other"><label>13.</label> <p>Aqu&#x00ED; queda claro que la preocupaci&#x00F3;n de Rorty con <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica cultural</italic> es principalmente un cambio <italic>ling&#x00FC;&#x00ED;stico</italic>, mientras que para &#x00E9;l la <italic>pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> se orienta fundamentalmente a las condiciones <italic>materiales</italic>. En contraste, Gilcher-Holtey describe el concepto de Brechtian de pensamiento interviniente como &#x00AB;el cambio de opiniones, actitudes conductuales, y acci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica a trav&#x00E9;s del cambio de esquemas interpretativos, de percepci&#x00F3;n y de clasificaci&#x00F3;n del mundo social&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31083_esp">Gilcher-Holtey, 2007</xref>, p. 10), con lo que Rorty dif&#x00ED;cilmente podr&#x00ED;a estar de acuerdo con causa de ser un modo demasiado sicologista de describir tanto pol&#x00ED;tica como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn14_esp" fn-type="other"><label>14.</label> <p>La misma Butler, en su debate entre Austin, Derrida, y Bourdieu, llega a una versi&#x00F3;n del discurso pol&#x00ED;tico como una posibilidad de (re)apropiaci&#x00F3;n que es extremadamente similar a la pol&#x00ED;tica cultural de Rorty. Por ejemplo, escribe: &#x00AB;Un t&#x00E9;rmino como &#x201C;libertad&#x201D; puede llegar a significar lo que nunca hab&#x00ED;a significado antes, puede llegar a abarcar intereses y temas que hab&#x00ED;an sido excluidos de su alcance&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_esp">Butler, 1997</xref>, p. 160, para la concepci&#x00F3;n de Rorty de &#x00AB;justicia como una m&#x00E1;s amplia solidaridad&#x00BB; v&#x00E9;ase <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_esp">Rorty, 2007</xref>, cap&#x00ED;tulo 3). M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de Rorty, sin embargo, Butler aborda ampliamente la dimensi&#x00F3;n corporal de la subjetivaci&#x00F3;n ling&#x00FC;&#x00ED;stica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_esp">Butler, 1997</xref>).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn15_esp" fn-type="other"><label>15.</label> <p>Tras Rorty, J&#x00F6;rke debate tanto contra posiciones racionalistas orientadas a resultados como a las formuladas siguiendo a Derrida como &#x00AB;teor&#x00ED;a de la democracia sin democracia&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31083_esp">J&#x00F6;rke, 2006</xref>, p. 260).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn16_esp" fn-type="other"><label>16.</label> <p>Tanto si esta valoraci&#x00F3;n es correcta como si no, debo dejarlo a juicio del lector. Por esto, en el sentido de la concepci&#x00F3;n de pol&#x00ED;tica cultural descrito arriba, la pregunta rectora ser&#x00ED;a: &#x00BF;Cu&#x00E1;ndo los te&#x00F3;ricos educativos conseguimos moldear el uso y significado de t&#x00E9;rminos &#x2014;que es lo mismo para Rorty siguiendo al Wittgenstein tard&#x00ED;o &#x2013; de modo que se convirtieron en comunes m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de los debates puramente cient&#x00ED;fico-profesionales?</p></fn>
<fn id="fn17_esp" fn-type="other"><label>17.</label> <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31083_esp">Kaloianov (2014)</xref> asocia cr&#x00ED;tica de excelencia con la Escuela de Frankfurt por Habermas y los reputados Honneth, Forst, y Jaeggi, mientras que considera la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial representada por Benjamin, Horkheimer y Adorno. Tengo serias dudas sobre esta clasificaci&#x00F3;n y no la comparto, pero sin embargo considero &#x00FA;til la distinci&#x00F3;n entre las dos formas de cr&#x00ED;tica.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn18_esp" fn-type="other"><label>18.</label> <p>No puedo ofrecer aqu&#x00ED; ninguna evidencia de esta observaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica. Tanto si es cierta como si no, debo en consecuencia, hasta que haya tal evidencia, dejarlo de nuevo a juicio del lector.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn19_esp" fn-type="other"><label>19.</label> <p>Estoy en el lado de la teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica, p. ej. como es definida por Horkheimer, cuando se trata de aumentar la posibilidad de que la teor&#x00ED;a (educativa) puede y debe iniciar el cambio pol&#x00ED;tico-cultural. Sin embargo, tambi&#x00E9;n coincido con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31083_esp">Latour (2004)</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31083_esp">Hodgson, Vlieghe y Zamojski (2017)</xref> en que algunas de las herramientas establecidas de teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica han perdido en gran medida su potencial transformador. Por lo tanto, estoy interesado en el desarrollo de un planteamiento poscr&#x00ED;tico de la investigaci&#x00F3;n y teor&#x00ED;a educativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-31083_esp">Wortmann, 2019</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-31083_esp">2020</xref>).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn20_esp" fn-type="other"><label>20.</label> <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31083_esp">B&#x00FC;nger (2019</xref>, p. 161) sostiene que el t&#x00E9;rmino &#x00AB;cr&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; es cuestionable no solo por su elevada complejidad en la historia de la filosof&#x00ED;a, sino a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s por su uso diario. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31083_esp">Bittner (2009</xref>, p. 136) se&#x00F1;ala que este uso cotidiano es casi exclusivamente negativo y normativo: decir algo <italic>cr&#x00ED;ticamente</italic> es decir c&#x00F3;mo algo <italic>no debe</italic> ser.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn21_esp" fn-type="other"><label>21.</label> <p>Desde una perspectiva cr&#x00ED;tica podr&#x00ED;a objetarse que este segundo punto (falta de vocabulario positivo) contradice el primero (muy poca cr&#x00ED;tica existencial) porque podr&#x00ED;amos encontrar algo que sea positivo en lo existente si comenzamos a partir de las vidas de los oprimidos. Sin embargo, esto me parece una contradicci&#x00F3;n menor que la que se&#x00F1;ala los l&#x00ED;mites de la cr&#x00ED;tica existencial. Si bien, desde una perspectiva pol&#x00ED;tico-cultural, propongo ser cr&#x00ED;tico existencialmente m&#x00E1;s a menudo, no pienso que esto sea suficiente para una mayor relevancia p&#x00FA;blica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa cuando se considera como &#x00FA;nico instrumento.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title><bold>R<sc>eferencias bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas</sc></bold></title>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31083</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31083</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>IN WHICH SENSE, IF ANY, IS EDUCATIONAL THEORY &#x2018;POLITICAL&#x2019;? A PRAGMATIST PERSPECTIVE</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>&#x00BF;En qu&#x00E9; sentido, si lo hubiera, es la teor&#x00ED;a educativa &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;? Una perspectiva pragmatista</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2230-9538</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>WORTMANN</surname>
<given-names>Kai</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_eng"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_eng">
<institution content-type="original">University of Jena. Germany.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">University of Jena</institution>
<country country="DE">Germany</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_eng"><email>kai.wortmann@uni-tuebingen.de</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>20</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>30</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/deed.es_ES" xml:lang="es">
        <license-p>Attribution-NoCommercial-SinDerivadas 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>This paper tackles the question of in which sense, if any, educational theory should be considered as &#x2018;political&#x2019;. From a pragmatist perspective it evaluates three meanings of the term: first, the political as an exception, such as Ranci&#x00E8;re&#x2019;s interruption of the existing order, and second, the political as something that is always already given, such as in Derrida&#x2019;s concept of iteration. Third, the paper turns towards Rorty&#x2019;s plea for understanding philosophy as cultural politics, i.e., as intervention into the ongoing public discourse. It is argued that this third meaning of the term is better suited for understanding the political of educational theory as it is realistically modest and enables to analyze the political effectiveness of educational theory. These considerations are framed by both a reflection on the very possibility of drawing distinctions between theory and politics as well as an outlook on possible consequences following from an understanding of educational theory as cultural politics. In the outlook, the paper asks why we can hardly see any publicly relevant educational theory and provides suggestions for a &#x201C;caring critique&#x201D;, a careful attitude towards our own researching practices, situations, and assemblies.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo aborda la cuesti&#x00F3;n de en qu&#x00E9; sentido, si lo hubiera, la teor&#x00ED;a educativa debe considerarse como &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;. Desde una perspectiva pragmatista, analiza tres significados del t&#x00E9;rmino: primero, lo pol&#x00ED;tico como una excepci&#x00F3;n, como la interrupci&#x00F3;n del orden existente de Ranci&#x00E8;re, y segundo, lo pol&#x00ED;tico como algo que de por s&#x00ED; viene dado, como en el concepto de iteraci&#x00F3;n de Derrida. En tercer lugar, el art&#x00ED;culo se orienta hacia el alegato de Rorty para la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la filosof&#x00ED;a como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural, esto es, como intervenci&#x00F3;n en el discurso p&#x00FA;blico en curso. Se ha argumentado que este tercer significado del t&#x00E9;rmino es m&#x00E1;s apropiado para interpretar lo pol&#x00ED;tico de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa, ya que es un t&#x00E9;rmino moderado de forma realista y permite analizar la eficacia pol&#x00ED;tica de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa. Estas consideraciones se enmarcan tanto en una reflexi&#x00F3;n sobre la propia posibilidad de esbozar distinciones entre teor&#x00ED;a y pol&#x00ED;tica, como en una perspectiva sobre las posibles consecuencias derivadas de una interpretaci&#x00F3;n de la teor&#x00ED;a educativa como pol&#x00ED;tica cultural. Ante este panorama, el art&#x00ED;culo cuestiona por qu&#x00E9; apenas podemos ver alguna teor&#x00ED;a educativa relevante p&#x00FA;blicamente y ofrece propuestas para una &#x00AB;cr&#x00ED;tica amable&#x00BB;, una actitud cuidadosa hacia nuestras propias pr&#x00E1;cticas de investigaci&#x00F3;n, situaciones y grupos.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educational theory</kwd>
<kwd>the political</kwd>
<kwd>metatheory</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatism</kwd>
<kwd>Richard Rorty</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Ranci&#x00E8;re</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Derrida</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a educativa</kwd>
<kwd>lo pol&#x00ED;tico</kwd>
<kwd>metateor&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatismo</kwd>
<kwd>Richard Rorty</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Ranci&#x00E8;re</kwd>
<kwd>Jacques Derrida</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<disp-quote>
<p>I am dubious about the relevance of philosophy to education, for the same reason that I am dubious about the relevance of philosophy to politics. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31083_eng">Rorty, 1990</xref>, p. 41)</p>
</disp-quote>
<sec id="sec-1-31083_eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>This paper explores a double unease: On the one hand, towards an understanding of educational theory as purely <italic>scientific and thus apolitical</italic> reflection, on the other hand towards an understanding of educational theory as <italic>always already political</italic> and thus runs the risk of staging its own practice of theorising as political activism. In contrast, this paper seeks a more realistic attitude towards our own educational theoretical activities by both offering differences between educational theory and politics and describing the possibilities of their political relevance.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_eng"><sup>1</sup></xref></p>
<p>I will argue that political relevance of educational theory is only a possibility and thus not an automatism: Not every educational theory is political &#x2013; even if it claims this about itself and certainly not <italic>by</italic> its mere assertion. In this way, the paper aims at self-reflexively questioning the <italic>status of educational theory with regard to its political relevance</italic>. It thus does not deal with the political <italic>within</italic> educational theory but asks about the <italic>political quality of educational theory itself</italic>.</p>
<p>Evidently, &#x0027;educational theory&#x0027; here does not refer to a closed system of propositions but needs to be understood as practice: precisely as what we educational theorists do. Insofar as this includes highly diverse practices such as writing, reading, presenting, lecturing, teaching, and many others, &#x0027;educational theory&#x0027; in singular is a problematic term. However, if we assume that these practices are not carried out completely unconnected to each other, we could speak of educational theory as the arrangement of practices into bundles or constellations of practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31083_eng">Schatzki, 2002</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-31083_eng">2012</xref>). In this vein, this paper aims at engaging with theory as an <italic>activity</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31083_eng">Karcher, &#x0026; R&#x00F6;del, 2021</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2_eng"><sup>2</sup></xref></p>
<p>To answering the title question neither by saying that educational theory simply is <italic>not</italic> political, nor that it is <italic>always already</italic> political, this paper offers an alternative description of the relationship between educational theory and politics. The reason for the demand of conceptualizing educational theory not as always political is that otherwise we educational theorists should better become political theorists. The reason for the demand of conceptualizing educational theory not as never political is that otherwise we give up a great historical achievements of our discipline (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-31083_eng">Tr&#x00F6;hler, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>The question of in which sense our research activity is political becomes even more pressing if we consider, as Oelkers writes, that education is &#x0022;&#x0027;the&#x0027; politicised discipline par excellence. It participates in social debates, takes a position, and is therefore already entangled in political dualisms, so that it must decide where it stands and where it does not want to stand&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31083_eng">Oelkers, 2015</xref>, p. 37). Because of this political character of education, &#x0022;a strategy is required to exert influence in <italic>the public sphere, to determine the language</italic> and not to let brain researchers or media philosophy get the better of it&#x0022; (ibid., p. 43, emphasis added).</p>
<p>This paper raises the question of what can be understood by &#x0022;political&#x0022; if used as description for the activity of doing educational theory. It pursues the question with two distinctions. The first distinction (3) is between &#x0022;politics&#x0022; and the &#x0022;political&#x0022;, which has become common in political theory. Here, the paper mainly focusses on the concepts of Jacques Ranci&#x00E8;re and Jacques Derrida. The second is Richard Rorty&#x0027;s distinction between &#x0022;politics&#x0022; and &#x0022;cultural politics&#x0022; (4). In both parts, I first introduce the distinction and then examine what calling educational theory political would mean in this sense. However, I begin with preliminary reflections on the status of these distinctions (2). Finally, I offer an outlook on possible consequences following from an understanding of educational theory as cultural politics (5).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31083_eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>T<sc>heory and politics</sc>: <sc>on the status of dangerous distinctions</sc></bold></title>
<p>To introduce such a clear distinction between theory and politics implying theory not always being also political hardly seems en vogue at the moment. Therefore, I will start with a quote by Karl Mannheim, who in his seminal book &#x0022;<italic>Ideology and Utopia</italic>&#x0022; in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31083_eng">1929</xref> wrote:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Political discussion possesses a character fundamentally different from academic discussion. It seeks not only to be in the right but also to demolish the basis of its opponent&#x2019;s social and intellectual existence. Political discussion, therefore, penetrates more profoundly into the existential foundation of thinking than the kind of discussion which thinks only in terms of a few selected &#x201C;points of view&#x201D; and considers only the &#x201C;theoretical relevance&#x201D; of an argument. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31083_eng">Mannheim, 1929/1972</xref>, p. 34)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>At first, Mannheim&#x0027;s hierarchisation seems irritating. One might think that academic speech is more fundamental and deeper than mere political speech, but Mannheim conceives of the relationship the other way round: while political speech aims at the &#x0022;existential foundation&#x0022; and even &#x0022;basis of existence&#x0022; of the counterpart, academic speech &#x0022;only&#x0022; dwells on the surface of theory.</p>
<p>Furthermore, Mannheim&#x0027;s distinction is surprising in its strictness, since it is a &#x0022;fundamental&#x0022; difference. Fundamental differences - like fundamentalist argumentation in general - are alien to us today. &#x0022;Anti-foundationalism&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-31083_eng">Rorty, 2009</xref>) or &#x0022;postfoundationalism&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31083_eng">Marchart, 2013</xref>) has become a broad consensus in the cultural and social sciences.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3_eng"><sup>3</sup></xref> The term &#x0027;postfoundationalism&#x0027; expresses, on the one hand, that the rejection of any foundations can easily become fundamentalist itself, as well as, on the other hand, that foundations in the sense of foundational activities can hardly be dispensed with. When Butler, for example, speaks of &#x0022;contingent foundations&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31083_eng">Butler, 1992</xref>) in this sense, she may well be tying in with Mannheim&#x0027;s concept of ideology. For it is only because, as Mannheim has shown, all knowledge and thinking, and thus also one&#x0027;s own, is necessarily conditioned by worldview and socialisation, that justification and foundation continue to be provided - it is just that the claims to ultimate justification of these operations have become untenable.</p>
<p>Reasons and distinctions must therefore be made plausible without resorting to conclusive foundations. The offensive affirmation of this contingency of one&#x0027;s own theorising also seems to me to be called for in political-democratic terms. After all, democracy could be defined as an attempt to institutionalise the groundlessness of its own political institutions. This critical self-reflexivity is already part of John Dewey&#x0027;s experimentalist pragmatism: in contrast to liberal positions such as those of John Stuart Mill or Hannah Arendt, which draw the distinction between the private and the public theoretically or even ontologically, Dewey emphasises that this &#x0022;line of demarcation [&#x2026;] has to be discovered experimentally&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31083_eng">Dewey, 1927/2016</xref>, p. 107). For Dewey, this demarcation would only be possible basing on clearly determinable properties of state and individual. However, insofar as these are always in the process of development, they elude a purely analytical differentiation or even determination of relations. For Dewey, the negotiation of the public-political&#x2019;s boundaries is therefore self-reflexively left to the political-experimental processes, which always have to be communal-public.</p>
<p>In this experimentalist sense, I would like to validate the plausibility why educational theory should not be understood as political activity per se. In doing so, I agree with those who do not identify a fundamental, i.e., essentially principled, difference between theory and politics; nevertheless I would like to argue for the advantages emphasising such a difference could bring - especially in political terms - and why framing the difference could cause problems.</p>
<p>The differentiations and problematisations proposed in the following can themselves be understood as an application that takes the controversial nature of social legitimation and the antagonistic constitution of the social into account. This does not mean, however, that it presupposes this ontologically - as, for example, Mouffe does with recourse to Heidegger - and takes it as an unquestionable starting point, since otherwise it would be self-contradictory.</p>
<p>I would like to clarify this positioning with regard to the connection between experimentalism understood in pragmatist terms and antagonism understood in hegemony theory by means of two quotations from Mouffe and Brecht. When Mouffe writes: &#x0022;Society is permeated by contingency and <italic>any</italic> order is of an hegemonic nature, i.e. it is always the expression of power relations&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31083_eng">Mouffe, 2013</xref>, p. XI, emphasis added), then the contingent status of <italic>one&#x0027;s own</italic> conception of hegemony seems precisely not to be considered. Accordingly, Mouffe and Laclau are also attested &#x0022;a problematic essentialisation of a political ontology conceived as conflictual&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31083_eng">Martinsen, 2019</xref>). If one now follows Mannheim again, who understands the &#x0022;political conflict&#x0022; as a &#x0022;rationalized form of the struggle for social predominance&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31083_eng">Mannheim, 1929/1972</xref>, p. 35), one could concede that such an essentialisation as undertaken by Mouffe and Laclau is not necessarily problematic for a <italic>political theory</italic> &#x2013; insofar as it could be concerned with the political only &#x2013;, but for a <italic>pedagogical</italic> one<italic>,</italic> insofar as one is not prepared to let it completely merge into a theory about the political.</p>
<p>In contrast to Mouffe, Brecht does not presuppose political thinking, but contrasts it with the kind of thinking that must be escaped when he writes that &#x0022;in order to avoid pure argumentation, [&#x2026;] one must always keep in mind that one is always thinking in a state of struggle&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31083_eng">Brecht, 1967</xref>, pp. 176&#x2013;177). In this regard, this essay presumes that the self-description of thinking as &#x0022;<italic>always being</italic> in struggle&#x0022; in the sense of an inevitable fact - or even, as with Mouffe, precondition - would not be <italic>conducive to the struggle itself.</italic> In order to be able to represent this position without self-contradiction, I must presuppose a beyond of the struggle from which this consideration of conduciveness can be made at all &#x2013; which, however, is not necessarily Brecht&#x2019;s &#x0022;pure argumentation&#x0022;, but can very well understand itself as always socially situated and acknowledged &#x2013; that &#x0022;one [&#x2026;] dwells in the company and dependence of other perceivers and counsellors&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31083_eng">Brecht, 1967</xref>, p. 177). Without this precondition of the possibility of a beyond of hegemonic struggle, the following considerations will not be convincing.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31083_eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>F<sc>irst distinction</sc>: <sc>politics and the political</sc></bold></title>
<sec id="sec-4-31083_eng">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title><italic>The distinction</italic></title>
<p>The first distinction I would like to discuss in terms of it being useful to answer the question of in which sense, if any, educational theory can be considered as political is that between &#x0027;politics&#x0027; and &#x0027;the political&#x0027;. This distinction, common in political theory and also used in educational theory,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4_eng"><sup>4</sup></xref> distinguishes <italic>politics</italic> (la politique, die Politik) as acting within political institutions from the <italic>political</italic> (le politique, das Politische) as going beyond these institutions or interrupting, challenging, transforming them. While the field of politics can be defined relatively precisely - diplomacy, party work or trade unions, for example - the specificity of the political is conceived in a highly contradictory way by different authors.</p>
<p>Despite all the heterogeneity in the determinations of the political, two tendencies can be identified, which Martinsen summarises under &#x0022;&#x0027;everything is political&#x0027;&#x0022; on the one hand and the &#x0022;&#x0027;withdrawal&#x0027; of the political&#x0022; on the other (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31083_eng">Martinsen, 2019</xref>, pp. 586&#x2013;587). One could say that the first tendency conceives of the political as always already given and prior, indeed quasi prima philosophia, since an iterative moment is inherent in every act (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31083_eng">Derrida, 1982a</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31083_eng">1982b</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5_eng"><sup>5</sup></xref> Contrary, the second tendency conceives of the political as an exception and thus precisely as a deviation, negation or &#x0022;interruption&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31083_eng">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 1999</xref>, p. 11) of the given. Wolin, for example, states that &#x0022;the political is episodic, rare&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-31083_eng">Wolin, 1994</xref>, p. 11) and Lacoue-Labarthe and Nancy speak of the &#x0022;re-trait du politique&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31083_eng">Lacoue-Labarthe, &#x0026; Nancy, 1981</xref>, p. 18).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31083_eng">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title><italic>In in which sense should educational theory be considered as &#x2018;political&#x2019;?</italic></title>
<p>Strictly speaking, the distinction between politics and the political is thus twofold. If we relate these distinctions to the status of educational theory, it seems clear that educational theory can hardly be conceived as part of &#x0022;politics&#x0022;.</p>
<p>But to what extent is it part of &#x0022;the political&#x0022; or can it at least be understood as &#x0022;political&#x0022; in this sense? In the following, I argue that <italic>both concepts of the political are problematic for the self-understanding of educational theory</italic>. In doing so, I do not want to claim that it is not possible to use the terms productively, but I would like to suggest that when using them in this way, the following problems should at least be considered and dealt with when it comes to one&#x0027;s own self-understanding.</p>
<p>Let us first consider the case in which the political is conceived as an exception, such as Ranci&#x00E8;re&#x0027;s interruption of the existing order.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6_eng"><sup>6</sup></xref> For Ranci&#x00E8;re, this interruption can occur when, in the name of equality, the &#x0022;part of those who have no part&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31083_eng">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 1999</xref>, p. 11) is demanded, that is, the political consideration of those subjects who, according to the police, i.e. domineering order, are denied equality and thus the ability to speak. Such an interruption can hardly be attested to many activities of educational theory, because educational theory necessarily takes place largely in accordance with the police order, and is practised by subjects who, as a rule, must be attested to a virtually privileged position as speakers in this order. Educational theory - at least in its academic form, for example as what we do in this journal - could in this sense <italic>bear witness to</italic> political events and feed them into academic discourse, but it could hardly <italic>be</italic> political itself.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7_eng"><sup>7</sup></xref></p>
<p>Educational theory that bears witness to the political could learn from Ranci&#x00E8;re himself who repeatedly influenced social conceptions of literature, art, and film, but also pedagogy and politics, in highly diverse interventions (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31083_eng">Ranci&#x00E8;re 1989</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31083_eng">1991</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31083_eng">1994</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31083_eng">1999</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31083_eng">2011</xref>). However, this form of educational theory would firstly have to be accompanied by a radical readjustment of its form (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31083_eng">Grabau, &#x0026; Rieger-Ladich, 2019</xref>). Secondly, the consistent implementation of such a self-understanding would require educational theory to turn away from its demarcation to the empirical, as Ranci&#x00E8;re himself impressively does. In this sense, one could also speak of an <italic>empirical philosophy of education</italic>, following Dewey and Latour (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31083_eng">Dewey 1938/1997</xref>, p. 25; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31083_eng">Latour 1997</xref>, p. 52, see also <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-31083_eng">Schildermans, Vlieghe, &#x0026; Wortmann i.p.</xref>). Positively speaking, one could thus say that a theory of education that understands itself as bearing witness to a political interruption is still largely forthcoming and would thus offer a high potential for stimulating further development of educational theoretical practices. Such a self-understanding, however, needs to be distinguished from one that understands itself as political.</p>
<p>Let us now turn to the second understanding of the political as something that is always already given. First of all, it can be stated that with this assumption, valuable possibilities for differentiation are possibly lost. In this sense, Bedorf states, &#x0022;if everything is political, it is nothing, and talk of the political loses its discriminatory power&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_eng">Bedorf, 2010</xref>, p. 33).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8_eng"><sup>8</sup></xref> If, for example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31083_eng">Horkheimer (1937/1982</xref>) was still able to build on the contrast between a mere analysis of existing conditions and their overcoming to make his famous comparison of traditional and critical theory, i.e. distinguish between different ways of behaving or not behaving towards the existing political order,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9_eng"><sup>9</sup></xref> a political theory of education in this sense would have retreated to the fact that overcoming - or at least a potential for overcoming - is always already in the theory itself.</p>
<p>This seems problematic to me in at least two respects. The first has already been hinted at: If we regard every educational theoretical utterance, every text produced, as an engagement in civil society&#x2019;s &#x201C;class struggle&#x201D; (Gramsci), we risk losing track of the question of actual political relevance. Distinguishing between texts that had a high inspirational power and others that were hardly ever even read would hardly be possible - both would be <italic>equally</italic> political. A structurally similar problem is stated by Butler regarding Derrida&#x0027;s understanding of iterability: while in Butler&#x2019;s reading Bourdieu &#x201C;fails to take account of the way in which performatives can break with existing contexts&#x0022;, Derrida &#x201C;appears to install the break as a structurally <italic>necessary</italic> feature of <italic>every</italic> utterance [&#x2026;] thus paralyzing the social analysis of <italic>forceful utterance</italic>&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_eng">Butler, 1997</xref>, p. 150, emphasis added).</p>
<p>Furthermore, to conceive of educational theory as political per se seems dangerous since the expectations of educational theory created by this view are too high, can hardly ever be fulfilled, or at least in rare exceptional cases only. This is because it is hardly ever possible to demonstrate that educational theory has contributed to concrete political progress - whether defined as reform or revolution.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10_eng"><sup>10</sup></xref> Therefore, the view of educational theory is always already political runs the risk of producing disappointments in educational theory and politics alike, which can lead to a turning away from or even excessive separation and isolation of both.</p>
<p>However, the political is theoretically conceived in detail and linked back to empirical evidence, in my opinion many theorists latently devaluate mere politics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31083_eng">J&#x00F6;rke, 2006</xref>). This devaluation is expressed, for example, by Hebekus and V&#x00F6;lker restricting politics to the &#x0022;governmental, technical exercise of power&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31083_eng">Hebekus, &#x0026; V&#x00F6;lker, 2012</xref>, p. 15) or Bedorf reconstructing politics as consisting in an &#x0022;order of the empirical that is <italic>caught up in</italic> the feasible&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_eng">Bedorf, 2010</xref>, p. 14, emphasis added), while the political is assigned the venerable task of its own &#x0022;<italic>remeasurement</italic>&#x0022; (ibid., emphasis in original).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11_eng"><sup>11</sup></xref> Arendt, for example, sees the political serving as a norm for politics, Ranci&#x00E8;re sees the political (in Ranci&#x00E8;re&#x0027;s terminology: politics) positioned as an interruption of the political order (in Ranci&#x00E8;re: police), or Lefort and Nancy - each in a different way &#x2013; see the political presupposed as a necessary foundation of politics, so there is room for assuming that <italic>theorising the political</italic> is implicitly prioritised over <italic>acting in politics</italic>.</p>
<p>In this section, starting from the distinction between &#x0027;politics&#x0027; and &#x0027;the political&#x0027;, I have tried to show that educational theory, firstly, is not political in the sense of belonging to politics. Secondly, at least in its present condition, educational theory can hardly be understood as political in the sense of interrupting or suspending the existing order, and thirdly, educational theory conceived as always already political entails several consequential problems, both political and educational. In this respect, the distinction between politics and the political could be of little help in describing the political character of educational theory. Therefore, a further distinction will be considered in the following.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-31083_eng">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>econd distinction</sc>: <sc>politics vs</sc>. C<sc>ultural politics</sc></bold></title>
<sec id="sec-7-31083_eng">
<label>4.1.</label>
<title><italic>The distinction</italic></title>
<p>As a second possibility, I propose Richard Rorty&#x0027;s distinction between <italic>politics</italic> and <italic>cultural politics</italic>. His concept of &#x0027;politics&#x0027; is similar to the one already presented in the first distinction, which describes politics as action within existing political institutions. Insofar as Rorty promotes decidedly left-wing politics, he understands political acts as communal action to protect the weaker members in society from the stronger.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12_eng"><sup>12</sup></xref> He sees redistribution of wealth in the form of, e.g., tax policy, high minimum wages, as well as workers&#x0027; and women&#x0027;s rights as the tools of choice. These requires legislative initiatives, which in turn require majorities in parliaments. Therefore, politics for Rorty is especially a question of strategy how to attempt hegemony, which within a representative democracy is expressed especially in the act of voting. Accordingly, for Rorty, heroes of politics are collectives that stand up for their interests against the powerful and wealthy: workers&#x0027; movements and trade unions, the Civil Rights Movement, feminists, or left parties.</p>
<p>In contrast, by <italic>cultural politics</italic> Rorty refers to the influence on the way we speak &#x2013; and thus also how we perceive ourselves, our fellow human beings, and our environment. Rorty develops this understanding in his book &#x0022;Philosophy as Cultural Politics&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_eng">Rorty, 2007</xref>, which clearly differs from earlier writings in this respect. In his earlier writings, Rorty used &#x0027;cultural politics&#x0027; synonymously with &#x0027;identity politics&#x0027;, which he critically rejected because it divided the American left and made necessary coalitions, such as those of black civil rights movements and trade unions, more difficult (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-31083_eng">Rorty, 1999</xref> for this earlier usage, as well as for the differences with the later <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-31083_eng">Wortmann 2022c</xref>). In &#x201C;Philosophy as Cultural Politics&#x201D;, on the other hand, he writes: &#x0022;The term &#x201C;cultural politics&#x201D; covers, among other things, arguments about what words to use&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_eng">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. 3), to &#x0022;suggest[ing] changes in the use of words&#x0022; and to &#x0022;put[ting] new words in circulation&#x0022; to &#x0022;enlarge[ing] our repertoire of individual and cultural self-descriptions&#x0022; (ibid., p. 124). In addition, he also captures radical-negative &#x0022;projects that involve eradicating entire subject areas&#x0022; (ibid., p. 15), such as his own project of making talk of &#x0027;the truth&#x0027; seem less attractive.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn13_eng"><sup>13</sup></xref> Heroes of cultural politics have managed to make certain terms common or to leave a lasting mark on their meaning, as for Rorty, for example, Freud and Dewey or, I would add, Butler.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn14_eng"><sup>14</sup></xref></p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-31083_eng">
<label>4.2.</label>
<title><italic>In in which sense should educational theory be considered as &#x2018;political&#x2019;?</italic></title>
<p>For Rorty, it is clear that philosophy&#x2019;s possibility of contribution to politics is marginal, whereas it can and should strive to become cultural politics. Following Rorty, I will parallelize this conviction with the view that <italic>educational theory is not political</italic> in the strict sense - as part of politics - but that it <italic>can be understood as cultural politics</italic>.</p>
<p>In a short text with the telling title &#x0022;The Dangers of Over-Philosophication&#x0022;, which responds to attempts by educational theorists to use Rorty&#x0027;s philosophy for educational issues, Rorty explicitly writes that he is &#x0022;dubious about the relevance of philosophy to education, for the same reason that I am dubious about the relevance of philosophy to politics&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31083_eng">Rorty, 1990</xref>, p. 41). Philosophy cannot make the concrete proposals that are needed in pedagogy, for example a &#x0022;good new way of setting college entrance exams or of licensing teachers&#x0022; (ibid.) or practical &#x0022;experiments with collaborative teaching, interdisciplinary studies, integration of recent scholarship on race and gender into the curriculum&#x0022; (ibid., p. 44, for an overview of Rorty&#x2019;s thought in educational theory see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-31083_eng">Wortmann, 2022b</xref>).</p>
<p>The public relevance of educational theory cannot therefore be to justify educational practices. In response to an interview question about his position on the educational method of small group work, Rorty replied that theory and practice</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>play back and forth, but in as concrete a case as this it seems to me that you can just see whether a pedagogic experiment succeeds; if it doesn&#x0027;t, that may leave the theory intact or it may not, but the thing to do is find out whether it actually works (Rorty in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31083_eng">Olson, 1989</xref>, p. 4).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p><italic>Too much</italic> philosophy could even stand in the way of concrete reforms and experiments in education, namely if these were replaced by theoretical debates. Academics who merely engage in elitist theoretical battles &#x0022;are [&#x2026;] needlessly separating themselves from the people whom they are trying to help, the fellow-citizens with whom they share a country and a tradition&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31083_eng">Rorty, 1990</xref>, p. 44).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn15_eng"><sup>15</sup></xref></p>
<p>The proposal to conceptualise educational theory as cultural politics enables the <italic>distinction</italic> from politics. Or, to put it more sharply: <italic>The distinction between politics and cultural policy can bring into view what educational theory can and cannot do</italic>. The conceptions of both distinctions &#x2013; between politics and the political and between politics and cultural politics &#x2013; agree on what educational theory <italic>cannot do</italic>: engage in politics. However, what educational theory can do can be captured particularly well by Rorty&#x0027;s concept of cultural politics: making discursive interventions, &#x201C;contribute[ing] to humanity&#x2019;s ongoing conversation&#x201D; which &#x0022;has engendered new social practices, and changes in the vocabularies deployed in moral and political deliberation&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_eng">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. ix). In short, educational theory has the potential of initiating cultural-political change.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-31083_eng">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ducational theory as cultural politics</sc></bold></title>
<p>Rorty argues &#x0022;that cultural politics should replace ontology, and also that whether it should or not is <italic>itself</italic> a matter of cultural politics&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_eng">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. 5). If educational theory were to be understood as cultural politics, it could therefore not be about &#x0022;find[ing] out what anything is &#x201C;really&#x201D; like, but to help us grow up &#x2013; to make us happier, freer and more flexible&#x0022; (ibid., p. 124).</p>
<p>I would like to propose this shift as an &#x0022;offensive turn in [educational] theorising&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31083_eng">B&#x00FC;nger, 2021</xref>). With the arguments elaborated so far, an offensive turn of educational theory could be problematised in two respects and only fully supported in another one. Such a &#x0022;turn&#x0022; would be delicate if it either analytically stated that theory formation <italic>is always already</italic> offensive or normatively demanded that all theory formation <italic>should become</italic> offensive. But if an offensive turn in theorising leads to a turn in what we are doing &#x2013; educational theory &#x2013; to a more offensive cultural-political intervention, two questions follow. The first question is why educational theory is rarely of public relevance despite the ongoing emphasis on its own political character.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn16_eng"><sup>16</sup></xref> The second question follows from this: It asks about the possibilities and forms of becoming relevant. As a conclusion, then, I would like to propose two &#x0022;offensive turns&#x0022; of educational theory: firstly, a turn against itself &#x2013; and thus possibly against ourselves who do educational theory &#x2013; and secondly one into the public sphere.</p>
<p>First, then, the question of why we can hardly see any publicly relevant educational theory at present. I would like to provide a first answer with the &#x0022;rather brute, but nevertheless enlightening&#x0022; (Sonderegger in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31083_eng">Bembeza, &#x0026; Sonderegger, 2020</xref>, no pagination) &#x2013; I would say: helpful precisely <italic>because</italic> it is brute &#x2013; distinction between &#x201C;existential critique&#x201D; and &#x201C;excellence critique&#x201D; by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31083_eng">Kaloianov (2014)</xref>. Following this distinction, a reason for the low public relevance of educational theory could be that it has retreated too much from existential critique to excellence critique. While the critique of excellence struggles for <italic>academic</italic> accuracy, the existential critique is directed at and against the <italic>day-to-day</italic> problems of the weak, marginalised, and oppressed by starting from their existential situations.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn17_eng"><sup>17</sup></xref></p>
<p>So, when I problematise that educational theory has neglected existential critique, I do not want to plea for a dilution of academic quality standards and certainly not for anti-intellectualism. The most important reason for this is that I view existential critique and excellence critique as mutually dependent. If we follow Rorty&#x0027;s concept of cultural politics, it becomes clear that excellence critique cannot become superfluous but remains necessary for sophisticated existential critique. Conversely, truly excellent critique perhaps comes about precisely <italic>through</italic> existential critique, if one connects <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31083_eng">Kaloianov&#x0027;s (2014</xref>, pp. 68&#x2013;70) observation that existential critique has migrated from critical theory within philosophy to the various &#x0022;studies&#x0022; (cultural, woman, gender, queer, postcolonial, etc.), with Butler&#x0027;s observation that in recent times philosophical innovations rarely took place in academic philosophy, but mostly in other disciplines with strong theoretical research (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31083_eng">Butler, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Existential critique and excellence critique being mutually dependent is even the cause why it seems problematic if one of the two forms of critique is pursued disproportionately more than the other in educational theory.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn18_eng"><sup>18</sup></xref> In short, the cultural-political potentials of educational theory are not reached when only or predominantly excellence critique is practiced.</p>
<p>A second answer to the question of why educational theory has only little public relevance follows the assumption that existential critique also represents only a part of what is possible in educational theory, insofar as it remains critical and as such primarily negative: It is directed &#x2013; correctly and importantly &#x2013; against the existing (educational) conditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-31083_eng">Wortmann, 2020</xref>).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn19_eng"><sup>19</sup></xref> While it provides a sophisticated vocabulary to describe what is problematic or wrong about them or what should be changed,<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn20_eng"><sup>20</sup></xref> it lacks a similarly complex, nuanced, and theoretically sophisticated vocabulary to describe what is good or right and could therefore be worth continuing to be done. Practicing educational theory exclusively or predominantly as a critical theory cannot provide such &#x0022;knowledge for orientation and interpretation&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31083_eng">Reichenbach, 2017</xref>, p. 19), which the public expects from it, and justifiably so (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31083_eng">Hodgson, Vlieghe, &#x0026; Zamojski, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-31083_eng">Vlieghe, &#x0026; Zamojski, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-31083_eng">Wortmann, 2019</xref>). I thus see the second problem of educational theory in its limited ability to speak positively about its subject matter.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn21_eng"><sup>21</sup></xref></p>
<p>To be sure: Public relevance cannot be intentionally produced or fabricated. However, we can &#x2013; and indeed, as argued here, should &#x2013; strive to unfold a public relevance of educational theory. The political relevance of educational theory cannot be secured by speaking about its own political relevance. Although cultural change takes place very slowly one can strive for it and, according to Rorty, &#x0022;see to it&#x0022;:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>On the view of culture I am suggesting, intellectual and moral progress is achieved by making claims that seem absurd to one generation into the common sense of the later generations. The role of the intellectuals is to effect this change by explaining how the new ideas might, if tried out, solve, or dissolve, problems created by the old ones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_eng">Rorty, 2007</xref>, p. 85).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Following this non-technical understanding of &#x0022;bringing about change&#x0022;, I think it all comes down to what it means to <italic>provide</italic> for it. It is to this that I would like to conclude, as an outlook, on what it might mean for educational theory if it were to be described modally as publicly relevant. In this regard, I suggest that educational theory could be about a &#x0022;caring critique&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31083_eng">Laner, 2020</xref>), which is always also a <italic>careful</italic> one, about researching practices, situations and assemblies that require an attitude of &#x0022;care and caution&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31083_eng">Latour, 2004</xref>, p. 246), perhaps even &#x0022;love for the world&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31083_eng">Hodgson, Vlieghe, &#x0026; Zamojski, 2017</xref>, p. 18) &#x2013; for the objects researched and their cultural-political effects.</p>
<p>The objects of educational theory could then be treated &#x0022;like one would approach an animal that shies away, with hesitation and care, and not with big and brutal concepts and theories, for which the practice would just be an illustration&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-31083_eng">Schildermans, 2020</xref>, no pagination). A possible careful gesture in educational theory could lie in an affirmation of the existing, with Whitehead &#x0022;a realization of worth [&#x2026;]. Its basic expression is - Have a <italic>care</italic>, here is something that <italic>matters</italic>!&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-31083_eng">Whitehead, 1938/1968</xref>, p. 116, emphasis added). Whitehead requests us to care about our abstractions: What effects do they have? What kind of thinking do they evoke? How do they affect our pool of possible self-descriptions? &#x0022;Be careful, here is a matter of concern!&#x0022; &#x2013; How would educational theory look like following such an appeal?</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1_eng" fn-type="other"><label>1.</label> <p>This paper is a heavily reworked version of my contribution in German (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-31083_eng">Wortmann 2022a</xref>). I want to thank Anna-Lynn Ridderbusch, Christian Grabau, Hannah Klein, Jakob Himmelmann, and Markus Rieger-Ladich for discussing earlier versions of this paper. All translations to English were made by the author.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn2_eng" fn-type="other"><label>2.</label> <p>It would be worthwhile to examine the extent to which <italic>certain</italic> practices of educational theory evade the modes of description proposed in this text, or whether actors resist them in their locally situated activities. Insofar as this paper works with a high generalisation of &#x0027;educational theory&#x0027;, on the one hand, strictly speaking, one cannot expect to be able to make accurate statements for the entire bundle of practices &#x0027;educational theory&#x0027;. But on the other hand, in order to reach beyond a &#x0022;self-sufficient situationism&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-31083_eng">Schmidt, &#x0026; Volbers, 2011</xref>, p. 26), in which there is a danger of shying away from generalisations, the text&#x0027;s claim is to offer adequate descriptions at least for a large part of what we do when we say we do &#x0027;educational theory&#x0027;. In this respect, it would not be more appropriate to speak of educational theories in the plural, as this would run the risk of referring to theoretical systems instead of focusing on the practicalities of educational theorising.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn3_eng" fn-type="other"><label>3.</label> <p>A striking exception here might be economics.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn4_eng" fn-type="other"><label>4.</label> <p>Buchstein calls the distinction obsessively dwelt on in political theory (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31083_eng">Buchstein, 2020</xref>, no pagination). To my knowledge, however, this distinction has rarely been applied explicitly within educational theory, i.e., in the sense of the question to what extent educational theory as an activity is or should be politics or political itself. For example, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-31083_eng">Sattler and Schlu&#x00DF; (2009)</xref> or <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31083_eng">Rieger-Ladich (2013)</xref> deal with the distinction between politics and the political exclusively with regard to the political education of the educandus and the citizenry, respectively. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31083_eng">L&#x00FC;tke-Harmann (2016)</xref> examines the (lack of) politicity of certain social pedagogical theoretical concepts from a difference-theoretical perspective. Sch&#x00E4;fer explores the unfathomability of pedagogy in order to state, from a perspective oriented towards Laclau and Mouffe, that the &#x0022;dominance of pedagogical theoretical approaches [&#x2026;] cannot be explained by the level of reflection or the plausibility of their explanations, but as an effect of disputes in which such theories (however) play a role&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31083_eng">Sch&#x00E4;fer, 2009</xref>, p. 391). However, as will be shown below, this already presupposes the politicity of pedagogy, the extent of which is to be explored here, as given everywhere. From this perspective, of course, as I have tried to show with reference to Mouffe, the concern of the present text would therefore be incomprehensible.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn5_eng" fn-type="other"><label>5.</label> <p>Consequently, Derrida states that &#x0022;philosophical activity does not <italic>require</italic> political practice, it is, in every respect, a political practice&#x0022; (quoted in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31083_eng">Hebekus, &#x0026; V&#x00F6;lker, 2012</xref>, p. 13, see also <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_eng">Butler, 1997</xref>, chapter 4). Even if this statement refers to the execution and not the content of philosophical activity, this positioning, which is surprisingly total by deconstructivist standards, runs the risk of unifying the practice of philosophical or pedagogical theorising. Similarly, Reichenbach states that the &#x0022;notion of politically unambiguous readings of the pedagogical conceals the hypostatisation of a diffuse understanding of morality in the guise of political significance&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31083_eng">Reichenbach, 2016</xref>, p. 42). Although Reichenbach is concerned with pedagogical practices and political content, while I focus here on scientific practices, his judgement can nevertheless be read as an apt warning. In this sense, it could be reformulated: The idea of <italic>clearly political</italic> readings of the educational theorising runs the risk of concealing the hypostasis of a diffuse understanding of morality in the guise of political significance.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn6_eng" fn-type="other"><label>6.</label> <p>Following the suggestions of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_eng">Bedorf (2010</xref>, pp. 23&#x2013;26) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31083_eng">Marchart (2010</xref>, pp. 178&#x2013;184), Ranci&#x00E8;re is read here as a representative of the &#x0022;political difference&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31083_eng">Marchard, 2010</xref>) between politics (in Ranci&#x00E8;re: police) and the political (in Ranci&#x00E8;re: politics).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn7_eng" fn-type="other"><label>7.</label> <p>In this respect, it is consistent that Ranci&#x00E8;re does not see himself as a <italic>political</italic> philosopher (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31083_eng">Ranci&#x00E8;re, 2004</xref>, p. 3) and has also &#x0022;not written a single book on politics, but only those in which politics appears in a different guise: that of philosophy, that of history, that of aesthetics&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31083_eng">Hebekus, &#x0026; V&#x00F6;lker, 2012</xref>, pp. 129&#x2013;130).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn8_eng" fn-type="other"><label>8.</label> <p>Foucault&#x2019;s &#x0022;everything is political&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31083_eng">Foucault, 1996</xref>, p. 211) is interpreted by Marchart as a Heideggerian statement along the lines of Laclau/Mouffe: For Marchart, Foucault was able to make this statement &#x0022;because everything, namely, <italic>is</italic> permeated by power and force relations&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31083_eng">Marchart, 2013</xref>, p. 431, emphasis added). Marchart considers the problematic identified here by Bedorf to be &#x0022;in the end, none[] [&#x2026;] but only commonsense, sold in the form of bad dialectics&#x0022;, since it overlooks &#x0022;the ontological status of the concept of the political (with Foucault: the concept of power)&#x0022; (ibid., pp. 431&#x2013;432). According to Marchart, for Foucault there is &#x0022;no social relation that is not at the same time a relation of conflict and power&#x0022; (ibid., p. 432). However, this &#x0022;is&#x0022; and &#x0022;would be&#x0022;, understood ontologically by Marchart, could also be read &#x0022;nominalistically&#x0022; following Foucault&#x0027;s self-description (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31083_eng">Foucault, 2011</xref>, p. 5): Then Foucault would consistently try to take this consideration to its end without ever reaching it - which, contra Marchart (&#x0022;Foucault&#x0027;s [&#x2026;] myth [&#x2026;] of the eternal battle [&#x2026;] ultimately led him nowhere&#x0022;, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31083_eng">Marchart, 2013</xref>, p. 433), would only be welcome from a <italic>educational</italic> point of view. The statement that everything <italic>is</italic> political could then be understood as an experimental arrangement that could be reconciled with my pragmatist, non-Heideggerian considerations presented in the second part of this text.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn9_eng" fn-type="other"><label>9.</label> <p>Although some passages in Horkheimer&#x0027;s essay certainly sound as if traditional theory supports the prevailing political order - which would contradict my argument, because then it would also assume an inevitability of the political in any theory &#x2013; in my reading this is only a possibility, not an automatism. Rather, it is ultimately just as possible the other way round to use the results of traditional science for the purposes of critical theory.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn10_eng" fn-type="other"><label>10.</label> <p>Many of the theories reviewed do not claim this at all, but this does not invalidate the argument. This only asserts that <italic>if</italic> one makes the claim to contribute to political progress in one&#x0027;s own theoretical work on education - and this seems to me to implicitly be the case most of the time - this claim can easily be disappointed. This is true regardless of whether the theories one refers to also make this claim for <italic>themself.</italic> Nor does it imply that one <italic>should</italic> make this claim for political progress in educational theory.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn11_eng" fn-type="other"><label>11.</label> <p>One could even say that this <italic>devaluation of politics disguises</italic> itself in ostensible restraint and modesty regarding the (political) potentials of (political) theory. Thus, Bedorf writes &#x2013; with reference to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31083_eng">Lacoue-Labarthe and Nancy (1981)</xref>, but certainly also applicable to Ranci&#x00E8;re&#x0027;s position &#x2013; that &#x0022;the philosopher should not raise himself to the status of an observer who pretends to know how politics should be ordered or where it should develop&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31083_eng">Bedorf, 2010</xref>, p. 14). As will be shown below, Rorty could also be found in <italic>such</italic> modesty (see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-31083_eng">Schulenberg, 2017</xref> on extensive metatheoretical similarities between Ranci&#x00E8;re and Rorty), although in his case modesty with regard to the political possibilities of theory in the narrower sense goes hand in hand with a <italic>devaluation of theory.</italic> In this sense, he describes &#x0022;politics, at least in democratic countries, as something to be conducted in as plain, blunt, public, easy-to-handle language as possible&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31083_eng">Rorty, 1996</xref>, p. 47).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn12_eng" fn-type="other"><label>12.</label> <p>In this, Rorty&#x0027;s and Mouffe&#x0027;s positions are very similar (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31083_eng">Mouffe, 2018</xref>, pp. 16&#x2013;17). In contrast, both <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31083_eng">Mouffe (2008</xref>, pp. 88-89) and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31083_eng">Laclau (1996)</xref> sharply criticise Rorty for being too limited to &#x0022;only those strategic moves that are possible within the discursive universe of American liberalism&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31083_eng">Laclau, 1996</xref>, p. 70). In this regard, one can argue that Rorty celebrates the achievements of liberal democracy &#x2013; e.g., freedom of speech and of the press, parliaments, universities - but never defends liberal democracy in principle; on the contrary, he always &#x0022;conceives of democracy as keeping itself open to reform and institutional change&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-31083_eng">Selk, 2019</xref>, p. 409), which must always be pluralistic in terms of breaking through the &#x0022;crusts of convention&#x0022; (Dewey). Therefore, Mouffe&#x0027;s criticism that Rorty &#x0022;wants to retain the vision of a consensus that would not imply any form of exclusion and the availability of some form of realization of universality&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31083_eng">Mouffe, 2008</xref>, p. 89) is not accurate. Apart from the fact that Rorty has explicitly contradicted these insinuations several times (e.g. in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-31083_eng">Rorty, 2001a</xref>, even explicitly referring to Mouffe, or in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31083_eng">Rorty, 2001b</xref>, p. 262, where he simply states that one &#x0022;cannot realise a democratic society without expelling the fascist stirrers&#x0022;), he could counter such criticism by saying that it is not particularly important <italic>politically,</italic> as long as one just agrees on the concrete political goals - which, in my opinion, would be a position that would make achieving the left hegemony Laclau and Mouffe are striving for easier.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn13_eng" fn-type="other"><label>13.</label> <p>Here it becomes clear that Rorty&#x0027;s concern with <italic>cultural politics</italic> is primarily <italic>linguistic</italic> change, whereas for him <italic>politics</italic> is primarily aimed at <italic>material</italic> conditions. In contrast, Gilcher-Holtey describes the Brechtian concept of intervening thinking as &#x0022;the change of attitudes, behavioural dispositions, and political action through the change of interpretive, perceptual, and classification schemes of the social world&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31083_eng">Gilcher-Holtey, 2007</xref>, p. 10), with which Rorty would hardly agree caused in being a too psychologising way of describing both politics and cultural politics.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn14_eng" fn-type="other"><label>14.</label> <p>Butler herself, in her discussion of Austin, Derrida, and Bourdieu, arrives at a version of political speech acts as a possibility of (re)appropriation that is extremely similar to Rorty&#x0027;s cultural politics. For instance, she writes: &#x0022;A term like &#x201C;freedom&#x201D; may come to signify what it never signified before, may come to embrace interests and subjects who have been excluded from its jurisdiction&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_eng">Butler, 1997</xref>, p. 160, for Rorty&#x0027;s conception of &#x0022;justice as a larger loyalty&#x0022; see <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31083_eng">Rorty, 2007</xref>, chapter 3). Beyond Rorty, however, Butler strongly addresses the bodily dimension of linguistic subjectivation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31083_eng">Butler, 1997</xref>).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn15_eng" fn-type="other"><label>15.</label> <p>Following Rorty, J&#x00F6;rke argues against both rationalist-output-oriented positions and those formulated following Derrida as &#x0022;theory of democracy without democracy&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31083_eng">J&#x00F6;rke, 2006</xref>, p. 260).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn16_eng" fn-type="other"><label>16.</label> <p>Whether this assessment is correct or not, I must leave to the reader&#x0027;s judgement. For this, in the sense of the conception of cultural politics described above, the guiding question would be: When did we educational theorists manage to shape the use and meaning of terms &#x2013; what is the same for Rorty following the late Wittgenstein &#x2013; in such a way that they became common beyond purely professional-scientific discussions?</p></fn>
<fn id="fn17_eng" fn-type="other"><label>17.</label> <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31083_eng">Kaloianov (2014)</xref> associates excellence critique with the Frankfurt School since Habermas and the names Honneth, Forst, and Jaeggi, whereas he sees existential critique represented by Benjamin, Horkheimer, and Adorno. I have strong doubts about this classification and do not follow it, but nevertheless consider the distinction between the two forms of critique as helpful.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn18_eng" fn-type="other"><label>18.</label> <p>I cannot provide any evidence for this empirical observation here. Whether this is true or not must therefore, until there is such evidence, again be left to the reader&#x0027;s judgement.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn19_eng" fn-type="other"><label>19.</label> <p>I am on the side of critical theory, e.g., as defined by Horkheimer, when it comes to raising the possibility that (educational) theory can and should initiate cultural-political change. However, I also follow <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31083_eng">Latour (2004)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31083_eng">Hodgson, Vlieghe, and Zamojski (2017)</xref> in that some of the established tools of critical theory largely lost their transformative potential. Therefore, I am concerned with developing a post-critical approach to educational theory and research (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-31083_eng">Wortmann, 2019</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-31083_eng">2020</xref>).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn20_eng" fn-type="other"><label>20.</label> <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31083_eng">B&#x00FC;nger (2019</xref>, p. 161) argues that the term &#x0027;critique&#x0027; is challenging not only because of its high complexity in the history of philosophy, but even more so because of its everyday use. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31083_eng">Bittner (2009</xref>, p. 136) points out that this everyday use is almost exclusively negative and normative: to say something <italic>critically</italic> is to say how something <italic>should not</italic> be.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn21_eng" fn-type="other"><label>21.</label> <p>From a critical perspective, it could be objected that this second point (lack of positive vocabulary) contradicts the first (too little existential critique) because we could find little that is positive in the existing if we start from the lives of the oppressed. However, this seems to me to be less of a contradiction than it points to the limits of existential critique. Even if, from a cultural-political perspective, I suggest being existentially critical more often, I do not think of it as being sufficient for a higher public relevance of educational theory when regarded as the only instrument.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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