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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31000</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31000</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>POPULISMO, LEGITIMIDAD Y EDUCACI&#x00D3;N FINANCIADA POR EL ESTADO</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>Populism, Legitimacy, and State-Sponsored Schooling</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0446-3243</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>KNIGHT ABOWITZ</surname>
<given-names>Kathleen</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_esp"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_esp">
<institution content-type="original">Miami University. USA.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Miami University</institution>
<country country="US">USA</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_esp"><email>knightk2@miamioh.edu</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>37</fpage>
<lpage>55</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>24</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>13</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
    <p>En este art&#x00ED;culo, analizo una muestra de las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas actuales en los movimientos populistas educativos de Brasil, Estados Unidos e Israel. Tras un breve examen de estas formas de populismo, que revela tendencias pol&#x00ED;ticas de nacionalismo &#x00E9;tnico, ortodoxia religiosa, antisecularismo y autoritarismo, reviso la teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica para interpretar el populismo desde una posici&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica democr&#x00E1;tica dual: pragmatismo, y teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica cr&#x00ED;tica o radical. Utilizo reflexiones pragm&#x00E1;ticas en la esfera p&#x00FA;blica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_esp">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_esp">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">2019</xref>), para explicar c&#x00F3;mo y por qu&#x00E9; emergen colectivos en la din&#x00E1;mica de las instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas de educaci&#x00F3;n. Y posteriormente, paso a la teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica radical para analizar la idea de la expresi&#x00F3;n populista y su funci&#x00F3;n en la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_esp">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_esp">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). En t&#x00E9;rminos pragm&#x00E1;ticos, los movimientos populistas son colectivos en potencia, basados en una idea experimentalista de la vida pol&#x00ED;tica que incluye asociaciones de grupos en la sociedad civil que generan opini&#x00F3;n, acci&#x00F3;n y desacuerdo en intentos de conformar decisiones en las instituciones estatales. Pero muchos movimientos populistas no llegan a ser colectivos democr&#x00E1;ticos en la medida en que se caracterizan por reducidos intereses privados, h&#x00E1;bitos irreflexivos y pr&#x00E1;cticas que son antag&#x00F3;nicas a la interpelaci&#x00F3;n, la capacidad de respuesta y la deliberaci&#x00F3;n. Como tales, los movimientos populistas amenazan la legitimidad normativa y la estabilidad de las instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales de ense&#x00F1;anza. Aunque las versiones minimalistas o menos militantes de populismo son compatibles con, y veh&#x00ED;culos importantes para la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa, las versiones maximalistas actualmente dominantes perfiladas en este art&#x00ED;culo amenazan el proyecto de estado liberal-democr&#x00E1;tico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>). Las teor&#x00ED;as pragm&#x00E1;ticas de pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica y acciones colectivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>) ofrecen v&#x00ED;as para conocer el momento populista, pero contienen significativas implicaciones de redise&#x00F1;o y reforma institucional para su materializaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
    <p>In this article, I explore a selection of current scholarship on educational populist movements in Brazil, the U.S., and Israel. After a brief examination of these populist forms, which reveal political trends of ethno-nationalism, religious orthodoxy, anti-secularism, and authoritarianism, I examine democratic theory to understand populism from a dual democratic theoretical positions: pragmatism, and radical or critical democratic theory. I use pragmatist insights into the public sphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_esp">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_esp">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">2019</xref>), to explain how and why publics emerge in the dynamic of democratic state institutions of schooling. I then turn to radical democratic theory to explain the idea of populist expression and its role in democratic politics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_esp">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_esp">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). In pragmatist terms, populist movements are potential publics, relying on an experimentalist idea of political life which includes group associations in civil society which generate feedback, action, and dissent in attempts to shape decisions in state institutions. Yet too many populist movements fail to become democratic publics insofar as they are characterized by narrowed, private interests, unreflective habits, and practices which are antagonistic to inquiry, responsiveness, and deliberation. As such, populist movements threaten the normative legitimacy and stability of liberal democratic state institutions of schooling. While minimalist, or thin versions of populism are compatible with, and important vehicles for educational politics, the presently dominating maximalist versions profiled in this article threaten the liberaldemocratic state project (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>). Pragmatist theories of democratic politics and publics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>) offer ways to meet the populist moment, but contain significant implications of institutional re-design and reform for their realization.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>democracia</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatismo</kwd>
<kwd>democracia radical</kwd>
<kwd>populismo</kwd>
<kwd>deliberaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>democracy</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatism</kwd>
<kwd>radical democracy</kwd>
<kwd>populism</kwd>
<kwd>deliberation</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x00AB;No era &#x2018;Vamos a dialogar&#x2019;. Sino &#x2018;Estas son nuestras reivindicaciones&#x2019;&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31000_esp">Williams 2022</xref>, p. 54)</p>
</disp-quote>
<sec id="sec-1-31000_esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Un funcionario del consejo escolar, elegido para servir en el &#x00F3;rgano de gobierno local de un distrito escolar de EE. UU. en el estado de Tennessee, hizo algunos comentarios sobre el di&#x00E1;logo frente a las exigencias en una entrevista en 2022, describiendo sus interacciones en el consejo con grupos populistas como Madres por la Libertad. Representantes del grupo hab&#x00ED;an estado asistiendo a las reuniones del consejo regularmente con quejas referentes al curr&#x00ED;culo que inclu&#x00ED;a libros que describ&#x00ED;an las dolorosas luchas de los afroamericanos durante el Movimiento por los Derechos Civiles en EE. UU. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31000_esp">Williams 2022</xref>). Grupos como Madres por La Libertad han surgido como poderosas fuerzas en la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa de EE. UU. El populismo se caracteriza por expresiones pol&#x00ED;ticas de contestaci&#x00F3;n y exigencias entre &#x00AB;el pueblo&#x00BB; y quienes les gobiernan, considerados como &#x00E9;lites en el encuadre populista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_esp">Laclau, 2005</xref>). El populismo aparece cuando cobran vida colectivos como una forma de agencia o articulaci&#x00F3;n manifestada.</p>
<p>Las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas han sido testigo del surgimiento del populismo en todo el mundo. Los sistemas educativos financiados por el Estado se encuentran entre las instituciones que son objetivos populistas en pa&#x00ED;ses como Estados Unidos, Chile, Brasil, Turqu&#x00ED;a e Israel. Tomando como punto de partida las recientes investigaciones sobre populismo en la legislaci&#x00F3;n y pol&#x00ED;tica educativa, analizo la importancia del populismo en los centros educativos financiados por el Estado: &#x00BF;cu&#x00E1;les son los supuestos beneficios democr&#x00E1;ticos, y el coste, de la expresi&#x00F3;n populista para la educaci&#x00F3;n en las democracias liberales? Si bien las formas populistas de contestaci&#x00F3;n tienen una importante funci&#x00F3;n en la esfera p&#x00FA;blica en materia de educaci&#x00F3;n, actualmente, muchos movimientos populistas conllevan la erosi&#x00F3;n de las normas democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales fundamentales. Aunque son necesarias formas de expresi&#x00F3;n populista para la evoluci&#x00F3;n y reforma democr&#x00E1;tica, parte del &#x00AB;esp&#x00ED;ritu intervencionista&#x00BB; de la propia democracia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31000_esp">Rogers, 2010</xref>, p. 5), el populismo tambi&#x00E9;n contiene las semillas de la destrucci&#x00F3;n democr&#x00E1;tica en tanto que reduce las posibilidades de deliberaci&#x00F3;n, y la necesaria capacidad de respuesta al pluralismo, que son esenciales para la legitimidad y estabilidad de las instituciones democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales.</p>
<p>En este art&#x00ED;culo, analizo una muestra de las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas actuales en los movimientos populistas educativos de Brasil, Estados Unidos e Israel<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_esp"><sup>1</sup></xref>. Tras un breve an&#x00E1;lisis de estas formas de populismo, que revela tendencias pol&#x00ED;ticas de nacionalismo &#x00E9;tnico, ortodoxia religiosa, antisecularismo y autoritarismo, reviso la teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica para interpretar el populismo desde una posici&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica democr&#x00E1;tica dual: pragmatismo, y teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica cr&#x00ED;tica o radical. Utilizo reflexiones pragm&#x00E1;ticas en la esfera p&#x00FA;blica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_esp">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_esp">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">2019</xref>), para explicar c&#x00F3;mo y por qu&#x00E9; emergen colectivos en la din&#x00E1;mica de instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas de educaci&#x00F3;n. Y despu&#x00E9;s paso a la teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica radical para analizar la idea de la expresi&#x00F3;n populista y su funci&#x00F3;n en la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_esp">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_esp">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). En t&#x00E9;rminos pragm&#x00E1;ticos, los movimientos populistas son colectivos en potencia, basados en una idea experimentalista de la vida pol&#x00ED;tica que incluye asociaciones de grupos en la sociedad civil que generan opini&#x00F3;n, acci&#x00F3;n y desacuerdo en intentos de conformar decisiones en las instituciones estatales. Pero muchos movimientos populistas no llegan a ser colectivos democr&#x00E1;ticos en la medida en que se caracterizan por reducidos intereses privatizados, h&#x00E1;bitos irreflexivos y pr&#x00E1;cticas que resultan antag&#x00F3;nicas a la interpelaci&#x00F3;n, la capacidad de respuesta y la deliberaci&#x00F3;n. Como tales, los movimientos populistas pueden amenazar la legitimidad normativa y la estabilidad de las instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales de educaci&#x00F3;n. Aunque las versiones minimalistas o menos militantes de populismo son compatibles con, y veh&#x00ED;culos importantes para la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa, las versiones maximalistas actualmente dominantes perfiladas en este art&#x00ED;culo amenazan el proyecto de modalidades de educaci&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica e inclusiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31000_esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>os populismos en las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas a nivel mundial</sc>: <sc>los casos de brasil, estados unidos e israel</sc></bold></title>
    <p>La palabra populismo tiene sus ra&#x00ED;ces en la antigua Roma, del lat&#x00ED;n <italic>populi,</italic> &#x00AB;para referirse simult&#x00E1;neamente al pueblo soberano y a la &#x2018;gente com&#x00FA;n&#x2019;&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant 2021</xref>, p. 39). Los antecedentes del populismo en pol&#x00ED;tica fechan la historia m&#x00E1;s reciente en el siglo XIX en Rusia y EE. UU. En las d&#x00E9;cadas de 1860 y 1870, j&#x00F3;venes urbanos rusos conocidos como <italic>narodniki</italic> intentaron activar a los campesinos para derrocar al Zar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>, p. 39). En 1891, en una convenci&#x00F3;n en Cincinnati, Ohio, una coalici&#x00F3;n de granjeros y obreros, que compart&#x00ED;an la misma problem&#x00E1;tica econ&#x00F3;mica, formaron el &#x201C;People&#x2019;s Party&#x201D;. Estos autodeclarados populistas fueron a la vez producto y catalizadores de un movimiento social de trabajadores, destinado a devolver el poder al pueblo. Estos populistas caracterizaron al &#x00AB;pueblo&#x00BB; como trabajadores corrientes: granjeros, obreros industriales, inmigrantes y nativos, negros y blancos, hombres y mujeres, cristianos y jud&#x00ED;os, cuya lucha compartida por la supervivencia econ&#x00F3;mica les un&#x00ED;a contra un adversario com&#x00FA;n: los plut&#x00F3;cratas, la &#x00E9;lite econ&#x00F3;mica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31000_esp">Frank 2020</xref>). Ser populista, en ese momento, era estar unido como &#x00AB;pueblo&#x00BB; contra &#x00AB;la &#x00E9;lite&#x00BB;. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31000_esp">Boyte (2012)</xref> sostiene que &#x00AB;los movimientos populistas son narrativa. Crecen a partir de la idea de que una &#x00E9;lite est&#x00E1; da&#x00F1;ando los valores, identidades y pr&#x00E1;cticas de un pueblo constituido culturalmente, sus memorias, or&#x00ED;genes y modos de vida&#x00BB; (p. 300).</p>
    <p>Para varios estudiosos, el populismo se define como una &#x00AB;ideolog&#x00ED;a delgada&#x00BB;, es decir poco desarrollada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31000_esp">Mudde, 2004</xref>), un discurso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_esp">Laclau, 2005</xref>) y un fen&#x00F3;meno cultural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31000_esp">Mazzarella, 2019</xref>). La expresi&#x00F3;n populista tiene ra&#x00ED;ces hist&#x00F3;ricas en todo el mundo, y hoy en d&#x00ED;a, procede de la organizaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica tanto de la derecha pol&#x00ED;tica como de la izquierda pol&#x00ED;tica. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant (2021)</xref> describe l&#x00ED;deres populistas en casi todos los continentes, desde el primer ministro indio, Narendra Modi, un nacionalista hind&#x00FA; considerado como el m&#x00E1;s prominente l&#x00ED;der populista de Asia, el One Nation Party australiano, opuesto a la inmigraci&#x00F3;n asi&#x00E1;tica y el multiculturalismo, a Hugo Ch&#x00E1;vez en Venezuela y Jair Bolsonaro en Brasil. Aunque la mayor&#x00ED;a de la expresi&#x00F3;n populista documentada en todo el mundo es de derechas y autoritaria por naturaleza, hay muchos ejemplos de populismo de izquierdas que se organizan para, entre otros temas, derechos civiles y humanos. Una distinci&#x00F3;n fundamental en los tipos de populismo, que emplear&#x00E9; aqu&#x00ED;, es entre las definiciones &#x00AB;maximalismo versus minimalismo&#x00BB; de la pol&#x00ED;tica populista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant 2021</xref>). Una definici&#x00F3;n maximalista se ve favorecida por los portavoces de los medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n y se caracteriza por l&#x00ED;deres autoritarios, objetivos nacionalistas y desaf&#x00ED;os fundamentales en las instituciones, leyes y usos democr&#x00E1;ticos. La definici&#x00F3;n maximalista es claramente evidente en la destacada literatura contempor&#x00E1;nea sobre populismo educativo, tal y como describo aqu&#x00ED;. Sin embargo, Sant sostiene que confundir el propio populismo con el bagaje ideol&#x00F3;gico que frecuentemente le acompa&#x00F1;a, ayuda a alimentar la demonizaci&#x00F3;n de la expresi&#x00F3;n populista en los medios y en el discurso dominante en lugar de facilitar una interpretaci&#x00F3;n rigurosa y cuidadosa. Por consiguiente, para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant (2021)</xref>, populismo es un &#x00AB;t&#x00E9;rmino poco consistente que hace referencia a pr&#x00E1;cticas pol&#x00ED;ticas que polarizan la sociedad en dos grupos distintos, la &#x00E9;lite y el pueblo, donde el pueblo cimenta la base principal de la voluntad general&#x00BB; (p. 52). La definici&#x00F3;n minimalista o delgada de Sant -haci&#x00E9;ndose eco del influyente an&#x00E1;lisis del concepto de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31000_esp">Mudde (2004)</xref>- proporciona una &#x00FA;til base para esta investigaci&#x00F3;n, y permite una gran variedad de pr&#x00E1;cticas y posturas que podr&#x00ED;an constituir un movimiento populista educativo particular.</p>
<p>Globalmente, los movimientos populistas han influido activamente en la legislaci&#x00F3;n y en la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa durante d&#x00E9;cadas. Esbozo una imagen limitada de estas pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas a partir de una cuidada selecci&#x00F3;n de art&#x00ED;culos de investigaci&#x00F3;n actuales de Brasil, Estados Unidos e Israel. La extensa erudici&#x00F3;n filos&#x00F3;fica sobre el populismo en la educaci&#x00F3;n muestra la abundante diversidad de expresiones y movimientos populistas que son contextualmente exclusivos de las din&#x00E1;micas pol&#x00ED;tico-culturales de sus or&#x00ED;genes nacionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31000_esp">Sullivan, 2019</xref>). Sin embargo, lo que surge de los recientes estudios emp&#x00ED;ricos es un retrato de populismo educativo caracterizado por valores de nacionalismo &#x00E9;tnico, autoritarismo y ortodoxia religiosa, singularmente unidos y expresados en una mir&#x00ED;ada de formas culturales. Adem&#x00E1;s, un patr&#x00F3;n visto en esta literatura emergente es el sentido de &#x00AB;reacci&#x00F3;n violenta&#x00BB; contra los valores democr&#x00E1;ticos liberales en centros educativos estatales, donde los intentos para hacer los centros educativos m&#x00E1;s inclusivos y representativos del rico pluralismo multicultural de las naciones se enfrenta con formas populistas de resistencia por grupos de ciudadanos y funcionarios populistas elegidos que les representan.</p>
<p>Brasil presenta un caso pr&#x00E1;ctico de estos patrones y tendencias globales. Surgido como estado democr&#x00E1;tico en la d&#x00E9;cada de 1980, la educaci&#x00F3;n en Brasil &#x00AB;experiment&#x00F3; un giro democr&#x00E1;tico social en las pol&#x00ED;ticas sociales. &#x2026; El &#x2018;derecho a la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x2019; inclu&#x00ED;a desarrollo infantil, justicia social, ejercicio de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a y cualificaci&#x00F3;n laboral&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31000_esp">Alvesa, Segattob, y Pinedaa, 2021</xref>, p. 332). En los a&#x00F1;os 2000, la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa reflejaba valores de inclusi&#x00F3;n y diversidad, &#x00AB;con &#x00E9;nfasis en la igualdad racial, [y] en la igualdad de tratamiento de los estudiantes basada en el reconocimiento de g&#x00E9;nero y LGTBQ&#x00BB; (ibid.). Como respuesta, se produjo una potente reacci&#x00F3;n violenta &#x00E9;tnico-nacionalista y religiosa conservadora. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31000_esp">Alvesa, Segttob y Pinedaa (2021)</xref> documentan c&#x00F3;mo el movimiento No Partisan School (NPSM), organizado en 2004, evolucion&#x00F3; r&#x00E1;pidamente para organizarse contra lo que era percibido como un movimiento izquierdista de censura pol&#x00ED;tica, ideol&#x00F3;gica y religiosa. Finalmente, el NPSM uni&#x00F3; sus fuerzas con un grupo cristiano pentecostalista, el Evangelical Parliamentary Front (EPF), para convertirse en un grupo unido y pol&#x00ED;ticamente poderoso aliado del presidente populista Jair Bolsonaro en 2018. Esta coalici&#x00F3;n populista de nacionalismo &#x00E9;tnico y evangelismo cristiano buscaba &#x00AB;alejar la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa de una praxis feminista, marxista y freireana&#x00BB;. Mientras &#x00AB;se basaba en un marco de educaci&#x00F3;n &#x00AB;no partidista&#x00BB; o &#x00AB;neutral&#x00BB;, la identificaci&#x00F3;n de las ideolog&#x00ED;as opuestas como &#x00AB;el enemigo&#x00BB; cre&#x00F3; autom&#x00E1;ticamente una divisi&#x00F3;n social binaria de &#x00AB;nosotros&#x00BB; contra &#x00AB;ellos&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;merecedores&#x00BB; frente a &#x00AB;no merecedores&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31000_esp">Hussain, y Yudas, 2021</xref>, p. 257). La coalici&#x00F3;n del NPSM y el EPF ha producido numerosos proyectos de ley modelados por valores conservadores y fundamentalistas cristianos cuyo objetivo son los centros educativos, las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas o las iniciativas percibidas como &#x00AB;el enemigo&#x00BB;. Representativo de todo esto es la acometida contra los materiales antihom&#x00F3;fobos en los colegios, dispuestos por la reciente presidenta electa Dilma Rousseff.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>El NPSM y el EPF reaccionaron, calificando este material de &#x00AB;kit gay&#x00BB; e hicieron campa&#x00F1;a contra su distribuci&#x00F3;n. La enorme presi&#x00F3;n de estos grupos actuando como lobby en el Congreso Nacional hizo que el gobierno de Rousseff realizara un giro de 180 grados y vetara la distribuci&#x00F3;n de este material educativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31000_esp">Alvesa <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>, p. 348).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La coalici&#x00F3;n entre NPSM y EPF tambi&#x00E9;n ha producido diversos intentos reaccionarios dirigidos contra la influencia de Paulo Freire en el programa educativo y entre el profesorado. Condenado como marxista, nuevos informes han documentado la intimidaci&#x00F3;n de profesores mediante &#x00AB;notificaciones extrajudiciales para reprimir el supuesto adoctrinamiento ideol&#x00F3;gico, incluyendo el tratamiento pedag&#x00F3;gico de temas relacionados con el g&#x00E9;nero y la sexualidad (ibid., p. 345). Aunque el intento de segundo mandato presidencial de Bolsonaro fue derrotado por estrecho margen en 2022, el poder de estas coaliciones populistas se mantendr&#x00E1;.</p>
<p>El caso de Brasil tiene importantes paralelismos con la escena pol&#x00ED;tica contempor&#x00E1;nea en Estados Unidos. En la actualidad, la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa populista de EE. UU. tiene su origen en crisis interrelacionadas. La primera de estas fue la reacci&#x00F3;n frente al COVID cuando se orden&#x00F3; el uso de mascarillas y el cierre de colegios. La segunda fue la agitaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica y las demandas de justicia racial surgidas tras el asesinato de un hombre afroamericano desarmado llamado George Floyd en el verano de 2020 por un agente de polic&#x00ED;a de Minneapolis, grabado en v&#x00ED;deo. Una resistencia reaccionaria a las iniciativas de justicia racial en la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa y p&#x00FA;blica surgi&#x00F3; despu&#x00E9;s del asesinato de Floyd, y fue encabezada nada m&#x00E1;s y nada menos que por el presidente Donald Trump, un populista de derechas cuya ret&#x00F3;rica ayud&#x00F3; a alentar la resistencia conservadora a las iniciativas de equidad en la educaci&#x00F3;n. Expertos conservadores han denunciado que la doctrina de te&#x00F3;ricos de la raza cr&#x00ED;ticos est&#x00E1; siendo ense&#x00F1;ada en escuelas p&#x00FA;blicas de hasta 12 a&#x00F1;os, alegando sin ninguna evidencia que tiene una fuerte influencia sobre el programa y el desarrollo profesional. En el momento de la redacci&#x00F3;n de este art&#x00ED;culo, 43 de los 50 estados de EE. UU. han presentado proyectos de ley o adoptado otras medidas para limitar el modo en que los profesores pueden hablar sobre racismo o sexismo en las aulas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31000_esp">Schwartz, 2021</xref>). En algunos estados como Florida, Oklahoma y Arizona, los gobernadores conservadores han introducido legislaci&#x00F3;n beligerante que penaliza formas de educaci&#x00F3;n relacionadas con la equidad y la inclusi&#x00F3;n de minor&#x00ED;as raciales, y estudiantes y familias LGTBQ. El estado de Florida populariz&#x00F3; primero una versi&#x00F3;n de estos proyectos de ley, apodada por los cr&#x00ED;ticos como legislaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;Don&#x2019;t Say Gay&#x201D;, que restringe el debate de temas de identidad de g&#x00E9;nero y sexualidad en las escuelas de primaria en dicho estado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31000_esp">D&#x00ED;az, 2022</xref>). Estas iniciativas populistas est&#x00E1;n, adem&#x00E1;s, a menudo respaldadas con autoritarismo, reafirmado por l&#x00ED;deres pol&#x00ED;ticos populistas que establecen un control mediante la clara amenaza de castigo en caso de incumplimiento. Los castigos por incumplimiento van desde la retenci&#x00F3;n de fondos p&#x00FA;blicos procedentes del distrito, la rebaja de la puntuaci&#x00F3;n en la libreta de calificaciones o calificaci&#x00F3;n de evaluaci&#x00F3;n estatal, retirada de la licencia profesional de la parte culpable, o permitir demandas civiles contra distritos o profesores individuales, como es el caso en Oklahoma, Florida, Missouri, Arizona y otros (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31000_esp">Bayless, 2022</xref>). Estas expresiones populistas tambi&#x00E9;n est&#x00E1;n motivadas por excepcionalismo nacionalista. Prohibiciones en contra de las denominadas &#x00AB;ideas divisionistas&#x00BB; impiden la ense&#x00F1;anza cr&#x00ED;tica sobre la historia de EE. UU. porque da&#x00F1;ar&#x00ED;an o atacar&#x00ED;an la pretendida verdad de Am&#x00E9;rica como un faro de esperanza y promesa democr&#x00E1;tica. Finalmente, estos movimientos populistas est&#x00E1;n cada vez m&#x00E1;s articulados como &#x00AB;derechos parentales&#x00BB;, con grupos como Madres por La Libertad abriendo el camino para coaccionar a los equipos directivos de los centros escolares de todo el pa&#x00ED;s a prohibir libros en las bibliotecas p&#x00FA;blicas y de los colegios que traten temas de equidad racial y LGTBQ (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31000_esp">Bailey, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Mirando al este desde Norteam&#x00E9;rica y Sudam&#x00E9;rica, observamos patrones similares en la legislaci&#x00F3;n y pol&#x00ED;tica educativa israel&#x00ED;, donde los populistas que gobiernan en coalici&#x00F3;n utilizan las revisiones de los programas curriculares y libros de texto como oportunidades para infundir un planteamiento &#x00AB;religioso-&#x00E9;tnico-nacionalista&#x00BB; en el material escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_esp">Silberberga, y Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 326). <italic>The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation State of the Jewish People</italic> (Ley Fundamental: Israel como Estado-Naci&#x00F3;n del pueblo jud&#x00ED;o) aprobada en 2018 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31000_esp">Knesset, 2018</xref>) es un ejemplo de pol&#x00ED;tica populista israel&#x00ED; de la variedad religiosa-&#x00E9;tnica-nacional. Esta, seg&#x00FA;n sus cr&#x00ED;ticos,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>se basa en un conjunto trascendental de ideales que proporcionan a la pol&#x00ED;tica populista y a las identidades &#x00E9;tnico-nacionales un sello de car&#x00E1;cter sagrado e inevitabilidad&#x2026; una ideolog&#x00ED;a que todo lo explica que impregna a las identidades nacionales con entusiasmo, absolutismo y justificaciones hist&#x00F3;ricas en nombre de una colectividad imaginada que frecuentemente es concebida como superior, sagrada, pura, y con una misi&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica duradera (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31000_esp">Agbaria, 2018</xref>, p. 23, en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_esp">Silberberga, y Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 319).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_esp">Silberberg y Agbaria (2021)</xref> se&#x00F1;alan la revisi&#x00F3;n de 2016 de los libros de texto nacionales sobre educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, <italic>Being citizens in Israel</italic>, como un ejemplo destacado de c&#x00F3;mo estas ideolog&#x00ED;as alimentadas por el populismo han impregnado la educaci&#x00F3;n. El nuevo contenido del texto es m&#x00E1;s religioso y menos pluralista. Estos autores tambi&#x00E9;n ponen de manifiesto que el propio proceso de revisi&#x00F3;n fue criticado por su falta de transparencia y la exclusi&#x00F3;n de educadores israel&#x00ED;-palestinos del proceso de revisi&#x00F3;n; varios miembros del comit&#x00E9; de revisi&#x00F3;n tambi&#x00E9;n dimitieron debido a controversias sobre el contenido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_esp">Silberberg, y Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 321). Silberberg y Agbaria adem&#x00E1;s se&#x00F1;alan que &#x00AB;el &#x00E9;nfasis sobre los ideales religiosos en la pol&#x00ED;tica populista de educaci&#x00F3;n puede contemplarse como un movimiento estrat&#x00E9;gico para circunscribir la identidad nacional de la mayor&#x00ED;a jud&#x00ED;a dentro de fronteras puramente religiosas&#x00BB; (p. 326). Al igual que en el caso de Brasil, vemos c&#x00F3;mo el conservadurismo religioso se siente llamado a resistir frente al estado secular que est&#x00E1; influyendo en los programas y actividades educativas financiadas por el estado.</p>
<p>Estos tres pa&#x00ED;ses muestran un patr&#x00F3;n de populismo emergente en la literatura reciente: el populismo educativo se caracteriza en muchos lugares por nacionalismo &#x00E9;tnico, autoritarismo y conservadurismo y ortodoxia religiosa. Constituye un tipo de reacci&#x00F3;n violenta colectiva contra las reformas educativas del estado democr&#x00E1;tico liberal, cada vez m&#x00E1;s fuertes, que enfatizan la igualdad, la inclusi&#x00F3;n y el pluralismo en toda sociedad. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31000_esp">Brubaker (2017)</xref> se&#x00F1;ala tres elementos del populismo que tambi&#x00E9;n son relevantes en este conjunto de pa&#x00ED;ses: proteccionismo, antiinstitucionalismo y mayoritarismo.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>El proteccionismo supone una demanda para proteger a la gente contra las amenazas desde arriba y desde abajo. &#x2026; El antiinstitucionalismo refleja la desconfianza y los esfuerzos por socavar la legitimidad de las funciones mediadoras de las instituciones, especialmente partidos pol&#x00ED;ticos, medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n y tribunales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_esp">Silberberg, y Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 327).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>El mayoritarismo afirma la voluntad, intereses y derechos de la mayor&#x00ED;a frente a las minor&#x00ED;as. El mayoritarismo reclama</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x00AB;dificultar los esfuerzos para promover los intereses, proteger los derechos o reconocer la dignidad de grupos marginales, definidos por religi&#x00F3;n, raza u origen &#x00E9;tnico, situaci&#x00F3;n inmigratoria, sexualidad, o g&#x00E9;nero&#x2026; considerando estas como desventajas o subestimando simb&#x00F3;licamente a estos en la cultura dominante&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31000_esp">Brubaker, 2017</xref>, p. 365).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La pol&#x00ED;tica populista en educaci&#x00F3;n, a lo largo de la historia de la educaci&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica, ha contribuido a crear centros educativos con una orientaci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s inclusiva y pluralista; el Movimiento por los Derechos Civiles en EE. UU., al que se ha hecho referencia anteriormente, es un ejemplo de grupos y coaliciones que han utilizado la esfera p&#x00FA;blica &#x2014;manifestaciones, acciones pol&#x00ED;ticas y formas persistentes de demanda&#x2014; para ampliar la promesa de la democracia liberal de inclusi&#x00F3;n e igualdad para afroamericanos, estudiantes con discapacidad y poblaci&#x00F3;n femenina. Actualmente, la investigaci&#x00F3;n en materia educativa revela que est&#x00E1;n floreciendo formas de populismo conservador, religioso y nacionalista. El populismo es una especie de democracia asociativa, pero una que tiene un prop&#x00F3;sito y un conjunto de objetivos y h&#x00E1;bitos distintos. Para analizar los costes y beneficios de los movimientos populistas en las instituciones educativas, debemos sacar a la luz la funci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de las asociaciones de grupos en la pol&#x00ED;tica y gobierno democr&#x00E1;ticos, a trav&#x00E9;s de fil&#x00F3;sofos pragm&#x00E1;ticos de la democracia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_esp">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_esp">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">2019</xref>). Frente a la evidencia emp&#x00ED;rica aqu&#x00ED; tratada, que representa el impacto de la pol&#x00ED;tica populista contempor&#x00E1;nea en tres diferentes estados-naci&#x00F3;n, la idea de populismo como un elemento potenciador de pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica requiere un an&#x00E1;lisis adicional.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31000_esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>O<sc>rganizaciones democr&#x00E1;ticas y pol&#x00ED;ticas populistas</sc></bold></title>
<p>Un proyecto clave de los te&#x00F3;ricos democr&#x00E1;ticos en el &#x00FA;ltimo medio siglo ha sido &#x00AB;ampliar la democracia&#x00BB;, cuestionando te&#x00F3;ricamente las nociones est&#x00E1;tica y estatal de la democracia como &#x00AB;instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas formales al servicio de proteger valores liberales&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 31). Debido a que las escuelas financiadas por el estado no pueden cumplir totalmente las promesas de la democracia liberal en sus sistemas educativos, plagados de exclusiones basadas en clase, raza y g&#x00E9;nero, estas objeciones resultaron fundamentales para el desarrollo institucional educativo. Una notable constelaci&#x00F3;n de teor&#x00ED;as en este proyecto son las ofrecidas por pragm&#x00E1;ticos filos&#x00F3;ficos, que buscan interpretar la funci&#x00F3;n de la sociedad civil en la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica. Las teor&#x00ED;as de J&#x00FC;rgen Habermas de racionalidad comunicativa y la funci&#x00F3;n de la democracia deliberativa prevalecen aqu&#x00ED;, al igual que la teor&#x00ED;a de John Dewey de lo p&#x00FA;blico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31000_esp">Habermas, 1996</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_esp">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 40). Un conjunto paralelo de poderosas ampliaciones te&#x00F3;ricas ha sido aportado por te&#x00F3;ricos cr&#x00ED;ticos en su conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de democracia radical, usando estrategias agon&#x00ED;sticas de contestaci&#x00F3;n para empujar los procesos e instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas formales m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de sus actuales dimensiones excluyentes y opresoras, mediante la contestaci&#x00F3;n y creaci&#x00F3;n de movimientos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31000_esp">Laclau y Mouffe, 1985</xref>). El populismo parte de estas dos tradiciones te&#x00F3;ricas.</p>
<p>Democracia, para los pragm&#x00E1;ticos, es una teor&#x00ED;a social, pol&#x00ED;tica y educativa, que se expande m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de los par&#x00E1;metros de las teor&#x00ED;as pol&#x00ED;ticas tradicionales centradas en el estado. Incluidos en el alcance pol&#x00ED;tico pragmatista est&#x00E1;n la mir&#x00ED;ada de grupos y formas sociales que conforman nuestras vidas a nivel social, relaciones intersubjetivas y encuentros en la diferencia. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega (2019)</xref> describe la relaci&#x00F3;n entre la teor&#x00ED;a de sociedad civil y los procedimientos e instituciones democr&#x00E1;ticos formales de la democracia representativa. Las teor&#x00ED;as de la sociedad civil</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>subrayan la funci&#x00F3;n de democracia directa de un subgrupo de organizaciones y asociaciones informales que desempe&#x00F1;an una funci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica directa en la sociedad, como movimientos sociales, partidos pol&#x00ED;ticos, medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n y ONG. Estas teor&#x00ED;as arrojan luz sobre la funci&#x00F3;n democr&#x00E1;tica desempe&#x00F1;ada por esta categor&#x00ED;a espec&#x00ED;fica de actor colectivo en procesos de formaci&#x00F3;n de opini&#x00F3;n y de voluntad, as&#x00ED; como en estrategias de control, resistencia y contrapoder (p. 41).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Las teor&#x00ED;as de la sociedad civil de la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica han sido, para las instituciones educativas, particularmente adecuadas, ya que las instituciones educativas proporcionan un espacio de asociaci&#x00F3;n informal y particularmente localizado, y valor, para familias, ni&#x00F1;os y j&#x00F3;venes. Incluso en sistemas centralizados de educaci&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica, las escuelas pertenecen tanto al sector de la sociedad civil como a sectores estatales o gubernamentales m&#x00E1;s institucionalizados. Las escuelas son lugares de m&#x00FA;ltiple interacci&#x00F3;n asociativa, reuniendo comunidades, familias, organizaciones voluntarias, y organizando trabajo pol&#x00ED;tico en sus &#x00F3;rbitas.</p>
<p>Las teor&#x00ED;as democr&#x00E1;ticas de la sociedad civil en la tradici&#x00F3;n pragm&#x00E1;tica centran nociones de la esfera p&#x00FA;blica, y m&#x00FA;ltiples colectivos, como asociaciones de significado y poder para definir intereses mutuos sobre problemas compartidos. Como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega (2019)</xref> apunta,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>la prioridad de los colectivos como principales sujetos pol&#x00ED;ticos implica un planteamiento localizado de la teor&#x00ED;a normativa, &#x2026; tomando como punto de partida del an&#x00E1;lisis pol&#x00ED;tico los procesos sociales concretos de la formaci&#x00F3;n de grupos en lugar de las instituciones existentes o los principios pol&#x00ED;ticos establecidos (p. 186).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>El terreno profusamente pluralista y social de los centros educativos hace de las teor&#x00ED;as de la esfera p&#x00FA;blica una herramienta &#x00FA;til para analizar las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas. Asociaciones de ciudadanos, miembros de la m&#x00E1;s amplia ciudadan&#x00ED;a de la naci&#x00F3;n-estado, se constituyen peri&#x00F3;dicamente en localidades o regiones para dar voz e influir en asuntos relacionados con sus colegios, cuestiones educativas o dificultades experimentadas por los estudiantes. Estos peque&#x00F1;os colectivos ciudadanos est&#x00E1;n impulsados por problemas o inquietudes compartidas entre familias o por otros actores educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31000_esp">Knight Abowitz, 2014</xref>). En la esfera p&#x00FA;blica, estas asociaciones ayudan a los ciudadanos a adquirir voz propia y poder para expresar sus intereses y agendas en la medida en que pueden ser distintas, o tambi&#x00E9;n opuestas, a las pol&#x00ED;ticas de sus centros educativos. Las comunidades educativas pueden ejercer presi&#x00F3;n con el fin de romper el comportamiento rutinario generado por los burocr&#x00E1;ticos y centralizados sistemas escolares con sus estructuras formales de representaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31000_esp">Waks, 2010</xref>). Como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31000_esp">Rogers (2009)</xref> se&#x00F1;ala, los colectivos pueden servir frecuentemente como</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>relaci&#x00F3;n directriz y de apoyo al estado y a sus instituciones representativas y administrativas. Pero en la medida en que el estado es resistente a la transformaci&#x00F3;n debido a su anquilosamiento, los colectivos act&#x00FA;an en un papel de mayor oposici&#x00F3;n que crea su poder fuera del estado (p. 225).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La democracia debe ser reinventada continuamente, ya que la sociedad y las condiciones pol&#x00ED;ticas evolucionan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_esp">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31000_esp">Rogers, 2009</xref>). Los marcos pol&#x00ED;ticos pragm&#x00E1;ticos asociativos, intersubjetivos y orientados a la praxis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31000_esp">Rogers, 2009</xref>) se superponen con los que los te&#x00F3;ricos democr&#x00E1;ticos radicales consideran respecto de la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica. Articulado a partir de la teor&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica, el proceso de ampliaci&#x00F3;n democr&#x00E1;tica de los te&#x00F3;ricos pol&#x00ED;ticos agonistas analiza el populismo como un tipo especial de estrategia agonista, empleando la l&#x00F3;gica de la esfera p&#x00FA;blica y la sociedad civil democr&#x00E1;ticas, pero hacia fines emancipadores. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31000_esp">Mouffe (2000)</xref> ofrece la distinci&#x00F3;n entre &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB; y &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; como una posici&#x00F3;n que explica los solapamientos y las distinciones con teor&#x00ED;as democr&#x00E1;ticas pragm&#x00E1;ticas, con &#x00E9;nfasis sobre el pluralismo profundo y sus elementos necesarios de conflicto:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Por &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB;, me refiero a la dimensi&#x00F3;n de antagonismo que es inherente en las relaciones humanas, antagonismo que puede adoptar muchas formas y surgir en diferentes tipos de relaciones sociales. &#x00AB;Pol&#x00ED;tica&#x00BB;, por otro lado, indica el conjunto de pr&#x00E1;cticas, discursos e instituciones que buscan establecer un cierto orden y organizar la coexistencia humana en condiciones que son siempre potencialmente conflictivas debido a que est&#x00E1;n afectadas por la dimensi&#x00F3;n de &#x00AB;lo pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; (p. 15).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Mouffe no persigue la unidad como definidora del proyecto democr&#x00E1;tico, ya que este objetivo es imposible; la democracia siempre deja un resto, un grupo excluido o un conjunto de subjetividades. La democracia ha creado una distinci&#x00F3;n entre nosotros y ellos en su propio dise&#x00F1;o, desde este punto de vista. La pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica, por tanto, en las tradiciones radicales, intenta crear los supuestos de un pluralismo profundo, y por tanto antagonismo, en el modelo.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Concebido desde el punto de vista de &#x00AB;pluralismo agon&#x00ED;stico&#x00BB;, la finalidad de la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica es construir el &#x00AB;ellos&#x00BB; de modo que ya no sea percibido como un enemigo a destruir, sino como un &#x00AB;adversario&#x00BB;, es decir, alguien cuyas ideas combatimos, pero cuyo derecho a defenderlas no ponemos en cuesti&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31000_esp">Mouffe, 2000</xref>, p. 15).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>El populismo adopta directamente temas de democracia agonista tal como han sido articulados por te&#x00F3;ricos democr&#x00E1;ticos radicales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_esp">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_esp">Mouffe, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>El pragmatismo complementa las teor&#x00ED;as radicales de democracia en tanto que ambas orientaciones contemplan la sociedad civil como una esfera rica para la pol&#x00ED;tica, donde agentes sociales colectivos pueden surgir como respuesta a un contexto social &#x00AB;inestable y parcialmente indeterminado&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31000_esp">Zamora, y Santarelli, 2021</xref>, p. 496). Ambas tradiciones te&#x00F3;ricas entienden las instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas como est&#x00E1;ticas y cercadas por burocracias que excluyen identidades e intereses minoritarios. Ambas tradiciones, asimismo, usan rutinas de asociaci&#x00F3;n y acci&#x00F3;n de grupo para ayudar a empujar las instituciones estatales hacia una reconstrucci&#x00F3;n expansiva.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Los movimientos sociales emancipadores han sido interpretados como colectivos <italic>deweyanos</italic>, en tanto que se movilizan para superar circunstancias de sujeci&#x00F3;n y dominaci&#x00F3;n, y/o sus acciones pueden verse como contribuyentes a la mejora de las condiciones de vida social de un cuerpo social m&#x00E1;s amplio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 198).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Los movimientos populistas actuales que est&#x00E1;n influyendo en la educaci&#x00F3;n en Brasil, EE. UU. e Israel no son emancipadores; est&#x00E1;n fundamentados en valores antiliberales, definidos por intereses privados no compartidos con la colectividad general, poseen h&#x00E1;bitos irreflexivos y entran en pr&#x00E1;cticas antagonistas de interpelaci&#x00F3;n y deliberaci&#x00F3;n. Como resultado, la pol&#x00ED;tica populista presente, con su interpretaci&#x00F3;n maximalista de &#x00AB;el pueblo&#x00BB; en t&#x00E9;rminos autoritarios, religiosos y &#x00E9;tnico-nacionalistas, no puede conducir a la ampliaci&#x00F3;n de la democracia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>). En su lugar, estos movimientos muestran los problemas de legitimidad y estabilidad que los populismos maximalistas llevan a las instituciones democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales de educaci&#x00F3;n. Para responder a estos desaf&#x00ED;os populistas, las instituciones estatales responsables de la educaci&#x00F3;n requieren que la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica mejore las condiciones y el dise&#x00F1;o. Estas condiciones son aquellas que fomenten la interpelaci&#x00F3;n, expandan h&#x00E1;bitos de responsabilidad y promuevan culturas y procesos de deliberaci&#x00F3;n que, en constantes condiciones de incertidumbre, produzcan decisiones que puedan guiar la evoluci&#x00F3;n y mejora de la pol&#x00ED;tica y pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa sin poner en riesgo la estabilidad y la legitimidad.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31000_esp">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>nterpelaci&#x00F3;n</sc>, <sc>capacidad de respuesta y deliberaci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>La expresi&#x00F3;n populista, en formaciones maximalistas, es producto de m&#x00FA;ltiples factores del actual entorno social. La globalizaci&#x00F3;n, tanto econ&#x00F3;mica como cultural, ha creado una din&#x00E1;mica de ganadores y perdedores:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Entre los perdedores de la globalizaci&#x00F3;n se encuentran aquellos cuyos valores culturales han sido amenazados por el creciente multiculturalismo; aquellos que, tras d&#x00E9;cadas de deslocalizaci&#x00F3;n, sienten que sus conocimientos y habilidades ya no son econ&#x00F3;micamente valiosos; y aquellos que sienten que la soberan&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica de los ciudadanos est&#x00E1; siendo erosionada por la agenda pol&#x00ED;tica y econ&#x00F3;mica internacional. El populismo une a aquellos que quedan atr&#x00E1;s en sus quejas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>, p. 55).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Podemos ver estas amenazas al multiculturalismo en Israel con la circunscripci&#x00F3;n de la identidad nacional de la mayor&#x00ED;a jud&#x00ED;a dentro de fronteras y narrativas puramente religiosas, en los libros de texto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica revisados. Somos testigos de amenazas similares en EE. UU., donde grupos como Madres por la Libertad presentan iniciativas de prohibici&#x00F3;n de libros que abordan relatos presentando grupos minoritarios raciales y &#x00E9;tnicos, familias y personas LGTBQ, o personas con identidades de g&#x00E9;nero no binarias. El populismo cristiano conservador en Brasil tiene en el punto de mira a la educaci&#x00F3;n y al programa educativo &#x00AB;freireano&#x00BB; feminista y antihom&#x00F3;fobo. Estas quejas contra el multiculturalismo se pueden comunicar de muchas formas, ya que las formas cambiantes de los medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n &#x00AB;han facilitado la difusi&#x00F3;n de los discursos populistas&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant, 2021</xref>, p. 54). Estas condiciones se unen para demostrar el profundo pluralismo y la polarizaci&#x00F3;n que crecientemente marcan la vida p&#x00FA;blica en las democracias liberales. Formas concretas de soluciones &#x00AB;razonables&#x00BB; de consenso del estado liberal tradicional parecen, por consiguiente, cada vez m&#x00E1;s inalcanzables. Los te&#x00F3;ricos democr&#x00E1;ticos radicales nos dicen que debemos renunciar a los objetivos de gobernanza de consenso como &#x00AB;formas de escapismo&#x00BB; y de ese modo &#x00AB;enfrentarse al reto que supone el reconocimiento del pluralismo de valores&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31000_esp">Mouffe 2000</xref>, p. 9).</p>
<p>Donde Mouffe se equivoca, sin embargo, es en que la democracia no requiere ninguna forma permanente de consenso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31000_esp">Vasilev, 2015</xref>). El gobierno, en condiciones de profundo pluralismo, requiere algo menos concreto, pero quiz&#x00E1;s no menos desafiante: <italic>condiciones que fomenten la interpelaci&#x00F3;n, la capacidad de respuesta y la deliberaci&#x00F3;n</italic> que, en las constantes condiciones de incertidumbre, produzcan decisiones que puedan orientar la evoluci&#x00F3;n y mejora de la pol&#x00ED;tica y pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa sin poner en riesgo la estabilidad y la legitimidad. Cuando los colectivos emergentes se maximalizan en la pol&#x00ED;tica expresiva y activista del populismo autoritario, &#x00E9;tnico-nacionalista y religioso, la democracia asociativa pierde su potencial para realizar los procesos pol&#x00ED;ticos necesarios para la toma de decisiones democr&#x00E1;tica inclusiva en las sociedades plurales. Las pol&#x00ED;ticas democr&#x00E1;ticas en educaci&#x00F3;n que se caracterizan por la interpelaci&#x00F3;n y la capacidad de respuesta y deliberaci&#x00F3;n son necesarias para asegurar que los desaf&#x00ED;os populistas ayudan a mejorar y ampliar la inclusividad, y el acceso a las instituciones educativas democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales.</p>
<p>Las condiciones para la <italic>interpelaci&#x00F3;n</italic> son un problema hoy en d&#x00ED;a en todas partes. En la introducci&#x00F3;n, describo un encuentro entre un funcionario escolar elegido localmente, un representante de una instituci&#x00F3;n educativa democr&#x00E1;tica liberal, y una persona que representaba a un grupo c&#x00ED;vico &#x2014;Madres por La Libertad&#x2014; que presentaba una demanda populista. Aqu&#x00ED; entran en conflicto dos pr&#x00E1;cticas pol&#x00ED;ticas distintas: la pr&#x00E1;ctica de pregunta-respuesta, se&#x00F1;alando una disposici&#x00F3;n a involucrarse en una interpelaci&#x00F3;n compartida, frente a la pr&#x00E1;ctica de articulaci&#x00F3;n de una demanda, la expresi&#x00F3;n asertiva de una petici&#x00F3;n formalizada. Este encuentro es un momento de contingencia, potencialmente bloqueado por la demanda en lugar de realizar un an&#x00E1;lisis del problema en cuesti&#x00F3;n usando formas de inteligencia social. La formaci&#x00F3;n de un colectivo es resultado de la interpelaci&#x00F3;n social relativa a una cuesti&#x00F3;n determinada, lo que Dewey denomin&#x00F3; &#x00AB;situaciones problem&#x00E1;ticas&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31000_esp">Dewey, 1938</xref>, p. 109; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_esp">Frega, 2010</xref>). La interpelaci&#x00F3;n se hace necesaria para una &#x00AB;situaci&#x00F3;n problem&#x00E1;tica&#x00BB; deweyana, que es una condici&#x00F3;n social indeterminada que requiere m&#x00E9;todos experimentales de pensamiento, acci&#x00F3;n, reflexi&#x00F3;n y descubrimiento entre diferentes intereses e identidades. Tal y como Frega describe:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Razones, as&#x00ED; como intereses, valores y objetivos pol&#x00ED;ticos son los resultados tentativos y falibles del propio proceso pol&#x00ED;tico. Mediante la interpelaci&#x00F3;n de colectivos, los intereses y objetivos ni son simplemente perseguidos ni simplemente justificados: son el principio de todo lo construido mediante la confrontaci&#x00F3;n deliberativa realizada seg&#x00FA;n el paradigma epistemol&#x00F3;gico de la interpelaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_esp">Frega, 2010</xref>, p. 30).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Las asociaciones populistas frecuentemente limitan su interpelaci&#x00F3;n a problemas y situaciones experimentadas por un limitado conjunto particular de intereses e identidades, ya que su organizaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; a menudo limitada a personas y grupos afines. Los conservadores brasile&#x00F1;os han organizado y creado coaliciones entre diferencias pol&#x00ED;ticas y religiosas, para formular una alianza t&#x00E1;ctica de posiciones y poder pol&#x00ED;tico orientada hacia valores conservadores tradicionales. Existe un problema planteado de articulaci&#x00F3;n; uno que ayuda a formular una descripci&#x00F3;n del problema que corresponde a las experiencias sociales y vividas de aquellos entre su asociaci&#x00F3;n o grupo limitado de actores conservadores. Su interpelaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; hasta ahora limitada al proyecto de interpretar y organizar la articulaci&#x00F3;n de la demanda. Este es el &#x00E1;mbito &#x00AB;pol&#x00ED;tico&#x00BB; de Mouffe, de contestaci&#x00F3;n y conflicto. Para entrar en el terreno de juego de la pol&#x00ED;tica, de proceso y procedimiento entre una amplia y pluralista comunidad, la interpelaci&#x00F3;n debe estar abierta a un razonamiento y una investigaci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s general, la condici&#x00F3;n de acceso al &#x00E1;mbito institucional democr&#x00E1;tico. El rechazo a la interpelaci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de los l&#x00ED;mites de una sencilla perspectiva asociativa tambi&#x00E9;n puede llevar f&#x00E1;cilmente a una &#x00AB;epistemolog&#x00ED;a de la certidumbre&#x00BB; que, en muchos casos, puede definir los proyectos populistas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31000_esp">Moreira, 2022</xref>). El populismo de Laclau acepta la contingencia de lo pol&#x00ED;tico, pero el objetivo &#x00FA;ltimo es cr&#x00ED;tico, y la demanda, que a menudo puede detener, en lugar de hacer evolucionar, la interpelaci&#x00F3;n hacia instituciones o funcionarios.</p>
<p>La condici&#x00F3;n de <italic>capacidad de respuesta</italic> refleja una necesidad para las instituciones democr&#x00E1;ticas de responder a las cambiantes necesidades y dificultades de su gente. Como ciudadanos, esperamos que nuestras instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales sean receptivas al cambio social y cultural, y a otras situaciones experimentadas por los ciudadanos, incluyendo las amenazas planteadas a los derechos y libertades liberales. Los representantes gubernamentales esperan que las asociaciones de ciudadanos sean receptivas a las razones y condiciones que representan los diversos intereses y objetivos del estado pluralista inclusivo. Este doble sentido de la capacidad de respuesta pol&#x00ED;tica se ha visto amenazado en un mundo donde las pol&#x00ED;ticas econ&#x00F3;micas neoliberales globales han exacerbado la desigualdad y hecho que muchos gobiernos sean generalmente m&#x00E1;s sensibles a los intereses y actores corporativos y privados que a sus propios ciudadanos. Esto, a su vez, ha hecho a los grupos ciudadanos m&#x00E1;s antag&#x00F3;nicos.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_esp">Sant (2021)</xref> se&#x00F1;ala el ascenso del populismo chileno como favorecido por condiciones globales que han fomentado la resistencia y rigidez institucional de los movimientos democr&#x00E1;ticos para la igualdad:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Los chilenos nos han estado diciendo durante treinta a&#x00F1;os que eran un pa&#x00ED;s democr&#x00E1;tico, pero poco en su r&#x00E9;gimen apuntaba a una distribuci&#x00F3;n igualitaria de poderes y muchos sintieron que su dignidad nunca se hab&#x00ED;a restaurado. En Chile, como en otros muchos pa&#x00ED;ses, la &#x00AB;buena vida neoliberal&#x00BB; estuvo tan institucionalizada que aqu&#x00ED; no hay mucho espacio para el debate y ninguno para la igualdad (p. 77).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La pol&#x00ED;tica populista continuar&#x00E1; apelando a los ciudadanos en tanto los representantes de las instituciones estatales rechacen comprometerse con asociaciones ciudadanas. Como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31000_esp">Peterson (2022)</xref> se&#x00F1;ala, el populismo se ha legitimado &#x00AB;porque las promesas de igualdad y soberan&#x00ED;a popular esenciales en los sistemas democr&#x00E1;ticos no se han cumplido para todos&#x00BB; (p. 1429). Sin embargo, este es un complejo argumento cuando procede de formas de populismo &#x00E9;tnico-nacionalista, antisecular y hom&#x00F3;fobo que est&#x00E1;n amenazando los principios liberales democr&#x00E1;ticos en Israel, Brasil y Estados Unidos. Grupos c&#x00ED;vicos o pol&#x00ED;ticos que demandan una narrativa hist&#x00F3;rica selectiva de la nacionalidad presentada en libros o curr&#x00ED;culo, que rechazan un retrato complejo y preciso del desarrollo y la identidad de una naci&#x00F3;n-estado, representar&#x00E1;n intereses que no cumplen la prueba de inclusividad democr&#x00E1;tica. Esto no significa que las instituciones y representantes democr&#x00E1;ticos puedan justificar una carencia de capacidad de respuesta hacia estos grupos o intereses. La funci&#x00F3;n del gobierno es ser &#x00AB;un dispositivo institucional para controlar resultados en inter&#x00E9;s de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a&#x00BB;, y mucho est&#x00E1; en juego en &#x00AB;la manera en que las necesidades y opiniones de los colectivos se toman en consideraci&#x00F3;n&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_esp">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 192). En definitiva, la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica debe, a nivel de instituciones estatales, proporcionar &#x00AB;un criterio inicial descriptivo y normativo para analizar procesos democr&#x00E1;ticos; su capacidad para favorecer una constituci&#x00F3;n inclusiva de la colectividad&#x00BB; (Ibid.). La capacidad de respuesta a todos los grupos e intereses es la promesa de estar abierta a la consideraci&#x00F3;n de razones y demandas presentadas por ciudadanos y asociaciones, y para involucrarse en el conflicto de forma productiva. Esta capacidad de respuesta es un requerimiento de todos los grupos y actores democr&#x00E1;ticos, tanto dentro de las instituciones estatales como los que representan las colectividades populistas.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>La incapacidad de los procesos democr&#x00E1;ticos y de las organizaciones pol&#x00ED;ticas establecidas para mediar e integrar el conflicto productivamente es problem&#x00E1;tica, lo que, a su vez, proporciona a antidem&#x00F3;cratas, autoritarios, racistas, o partidos y personalidades populistas margen para participar o incluso dominar la pol&#x00ED;tica y el proceso de gobierno (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31000_esp">Peterson, Brunkhorst, y Seliger, 2022</xref>, p. 1343).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La capacidad de respuesta a las formas agonistas de pol&#x00ED;tica requiere no solo una aquiescencia a las demandas intolerantes de grupos autoritarios, sino que probablemente requiere que las instituciones estatales desarrollen planes para una mejor mediaci&#x00F3;n y faciliten la interpelaci&#x00F3;n y deliberaci&#x00F3;n productiva en torno a los desaf&#x00ED;os populistas, de cualquier ideolog&#x00ED;a y clase (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31000_esp">Lowndes y Paxton, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Finalmente, llegamos al debate sobre la <italic>deliberaci&#x00F3;n</italic> y sus condiciones facilitadoras necesarias. Hablar y ofrecer explicaciones, por encima de la fuerza y la coacci&#x00F3;n, caracteriza los principios pol&#x00ED;ticos democr&#x00E1;ticos. La deliberaci&#x00F3;n es una cualidad de la toma de decisiones y el desacuerdo democr&#x00E1;ticos. Las formas puristas de procesos pol&#x00ED;ticos deliberativos reh&#x00FA;yen de formas simples mayoritarias y agregadas de toma de decisiones y son, por lo tanto, dif&#x00ED;ciles de escalar incluso para peque&#x00F1;as instituciones democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales. Pero afirmar que los procesos deliberativos de interpelaci&#x00F3;n e intercambio deben ser un aspecto central de la toma de decisiones de la democracia representativa es o deber&#x00ED;a ser una aseveraci&#x00F3;n bastante incontrovertible. Los procesos de deliberaci&#x00F3;n son fundamentales en una teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica pragm&#x00E1;tica y se asume que los participantes tienen capacidad para adaptar sus convicciones frente a buenas razones. Como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31000_esp">Frega (2012)</xref> se&#x00F1;ala:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>La teor&#x00ED;a de la interpelaci&#x00F3;n establece que los procesos de deliberaci&#x00F3;n colectiva son racionales en la medida en que est&#x00E1;n respaldados con referencia a experiencia y argumentos a la hora de ofrecer y admitir razones mediante las que los agentes fijan y transforman sus convicciones en su b&#x00FA;squeda com&#x00FA;n de soluciones compartidas a cuestiones problem&#x00E1;ticas (p. 273).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La deliberaci&#x00F3;n se construye sobre el intercambio dial&#x00F3;gico, y representa un elemento fundamental de la legitimidad democr&#x00E1;tica. Con todo, una de las enormes dificultades de los actuales desacuerdos sobre el sistema educativo en las sociedades plurales son las estridentes e incendiarias formas de intercambio pol&#x00ED;tico con que se plantean. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31000_esp">White y Neblo (2021)</xref> se&#x00F1;alan las formas de polarizaci&#x00F3;n afectiva que han acabado con la deliberaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica productiva en muchas sociedades democr&#x00E1;ticas. Las controversias sobre mascarillas durante la pandemia de la COVID que se produjeron en EE. UU. y otros lugares constituyen un ejemplo clave, y un incidente que puede ser origen de la expansi&#x00F3;n actual de la pol&#x00ED;tica populista en materia de educaci&#x00F3;n. En estos debates quedaba poco espacio para el compromiso o el punto intermedio; las familias antimascarillas alegaron que la obligatoriedad de la mascarilla recortaba sus libertades fundamentales como padres. Las posiciones a favor y en contra de las mascarillas se endurecieron hasta convertirse en enemigas en el campo de batalla de la pol&#x00ED;tica. La polarizaci&#x00F3;n afectiva y de convicciones sobre diferentes posturas hacia las mascarillas y las vacunas se convirtieron r&#x00E1;pidamente en posiciones de identidad y estilo de vida irresolubles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31000_esp">Talisse, 2019</xref>). Los distritos escolares en EE. UU., atrapados en medio de las diferentes posturas e intereses implicados en estas disputas, quedaron expuestos a una crisis de legitimidad, ya que cualquier terreno para la deliberaci&#x00F3;n qued&#x00F3; sumamente limitado. &#x00AB;Diremos que una crisis de legitimidad existe para una agencia dada en el grado en que sus pol&#x00ED;ticas se encuentran con amplia o intensa resistencia&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31000_esp">White, y Neblo, 2021</xref>, p. 175).</p>
<p>&#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo puede uno deliberar con el Otro? Esta es la pregunta que cada vez m&#x00E1;s nos hacemos a nosotros mismos &#x2014;no importa cu&#x00E1;l sea nuestra postura o condici&#x00F3;n&#x2014; en nuestras sociedades polarizadas. Cuando un ciudadano o un grupo de ciudadanos plantea una demanda a un organismo que elabora pol&#x00ED;ticas, la respuesta inicial es retroceder, rechazar o responder de la misma manera, con condiciones o contrademandas hacia ellos. El profundo pluralismo al que nos enfrentamos hoy en la vida p&#x00FA;blica pone en tensi&#x00F3;n los l&#x00ED;mites de la imaginaci&#x00F3;n deliberativa. Los colectivos se agrupan ahora alrededor de intereses de crecimiento saludable y desarrollo de ni&#x00F1;os y j&#x00F3;venes de g&#x00E9;nero no binario, crecientemente identificados en muchas sociedades, y aquellos que demandan acceso igualitario a espacios seguros e inclusivos en la educaci&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica. La misma idea de g&#x00E9;nero como constructo social, como ejemplo, es muy variable, y tiene tanto posibilidades emancipadoras como amenazadoras, dependiendo del posicionamiento y los intereses de cada uno. Las identidades de g&#x00E9;nero no binario son muy cuestionadas en muchos y variados terrenos, incluyendo el religioso y el cultural. Si consideramos la democracia como una formaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tico-social que debe evolucionar, o morir, encontrando modos de deliberar sobre posturas aparentemente irreconciliables, podemos ver que se requerir&#x00E1; un gran acuerdo de experimentaci&#x00F3;n creativa cuando se trata de reunir a colectivos muy diversos en la mesa de intercambio y negociaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31000_esp">Shuffelton, 2022</xref>). Esta experimentaci&#x00F3;n es esencial, sin embargo, frente a cualquier desaf&#x00ED;o populista a las instituciones democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales, y particularmente aquellas cuyos objetivos est&#x00E1;n orientados hacia los ni&#x00F1;os, un terreno que mezcla lo p&#x00FA;blico/privado, y alrededor del que circula mucha preocupaci&#x00F3;n parental. &#x00BF;Es posible para las instituciones educativas crear legitimidad mediante procesos que construyen procesos deliberativos para la toma de decisiones, haciendo de ese modo m&#x00E1;s receptivas las burocracias educativas, m&#x00E1;s flexibles, y m&#x00E1;s participadas por las sociedades pluralistas a las que sirve?</p>
<p>He argumentado que el populismo puede ser un potenciador de la democracia en los centros educativos cuando ayuda a impulsar a los centros a alcanzar los principios democr&#x00E1;ticos liberales de inclusi&#x00F3;n e igualdad. El populismo minimalista, cuando consiste en una asociaci&#x00F3;n de ciudadanos que se organizan en nombre de demandas deso&#x00ED;das o ignoradas hasta el momento por las instituciones estatales de educaci&#x00F3;n, puede aportar una mayor legitimidad y estabilidad a los sistemas escolares y educativos. Estos objetivos pueden surgir de pol&#x00ED;ticas democr&#x00E1;ticas que entienden el estado como una instituci&#x00F3;n liberal-democr&#x00E1;tica que debe ser sensible y receptiva a la colectividad y a las asociaciones que sus ciudadanos forman org&#x00E1;nicamente con el paso del tiempo. La educaci&#x00F3;n financiada por el estado en muchas naciones democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales est&#x00E1; sometida a la presi&#x00F3;n del desaf&#x00ED;o crucial de las formas autoritarias, &#x00E9;tnico-nacionalistas y religiosas ortodoxas de los movimientos populistas. Estos populismos maximalistas suscitan homogeneidad sobre pluralismo, y exclusividad sobre esferas p&#x00FA;blicas integradas. Prestar atenci&#x00F3;n y afrontar los miedos, la desubicaci&#x00F3;n y las incertidumbres que motivan estos movimientos requiere hablar a, y con, la gente que lleva estos miedos al terreno de lo pol&#x00ED;tico en forma de demandas antidemocr&#x00E1;ticas. Estas intervenciones pueden producirse a nivel legislativo y escolar. Las deliberaciones sobre el programa educativo deben ser transparentes y equilibrar las opiniones de expertos con capacidad de respuesta a los diversos grupos representativos de familias, estudiantes, y ciudadan&#x00ED;a en general. Las cuestiones de pol&#x00ED;tica y pr&#x00E1;ctica deben ser objeto de verdadera interpelaci&#x00F3;n y deliberaci&#x00F3;n. Sin estos movimientos expansivos en el gobierno y la elaboraci&#x00F3;n de pol&#x00ED;ticas democr&#x00E1;ticas, nuestras democracias no pueden esperar evolucionar m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del actual momento de crisis protofascista.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1_esp" fn-type="other"><label>1.</label> <p>Estos tres pa&#x00ED;ses objetivo se seleccionaron en base a tres criterios: 1) existencia de estudios contempor&#x00E1;neos publicados sobre educaci&#x00F3;n, emp&#x00ED;ricamente fundamentados en la influencia de los movimientos populistas sobre la pr&#x00E1;ctica, curr&#x00ED;culo o pol&#x00ED;tica educativa de un pa&#x00ED;s; 2) publicados en los &#x00FA;ltimos cinco a&#x00F1;os; y 3) sobre una serie de pa&#x00ED;ses democr&#x00E1;ticos de todo el mundo que alardean de un significativo pluralismo cultural e ideol&#x00F3;gico.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31000</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31000</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>POPULISM, LEGITIMACY, AND STATE-SPONSORED SCHOOLING</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>Populismo, legitimidad y educaci&#x00F3;n financiada por el Estado</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0446-3243</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>KNIGHT ABOWITZ</surname>
<given-names>Kathleen</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_eng"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_eng">
<institution content-type="original">Miami University. USA.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Miami University</institution>
<country country="US">USA</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_eng"><email>knightk2@miamioh.edu</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>37</fpage>
<lpage>55</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>24</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>13</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
    <license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
        
        <license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
    </license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
    <p>In this article, I explore a selection of current scholarship on educational populist movements in Brazil, the U.S., and Israel. After a brief examination of these populist forms, which reveal political trends of ethno-nationalism, religious orthodoxy, anti-secularism, and authoritarianism, I examine democratic theory to understand populism from a dual democratic theoretical positions: pragmatism, and radical or critical democratic theory. I use pragmatist insights into the public sphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_eng">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_eng">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">2019</xref>), to explain how and why publics emerge in the dynamic of democratic state institutions of schooling. I then turn to radical democratic theory to explain the idea of populist expression and its role in democratic politics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_eng">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_eng">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). In pragmatist terms, populist movements are potential publics, relying on an experimentalist idea of political life which includes group associations in civil society which generate feedback, action, and dissent in attempts to shape decisions in state institutions. Yet too many populist movements fail to become democratic publics insofar as they are characterized by narrowed, private interests, unreflective habits, and practices which are antagonistic to inquiry, responsiveness, and deliberation. As such, populist movements threaten the normative legitimacy and stability of liberal democratic state institutions of schooling. While minimalist, or thin versions of populism are compatible with, and important vehicles for educational politics, the presently dominating maximalist versions profiled in this article threaten the liberal-democratic state project (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>). Pragmatist theories of democratic politics and publics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>) offer ways to meet the populist moment, but contain significant implications of institutional re-design and reform for their realization.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
    <p>En este art&#x00ED;culo, analizo una muestra de las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas actuales en los movimientos populistas educativos de Brasil, Estados Unidos e Israel. Tras un breve examen de estas formas de populismo, que revela tendencias pol&#x00ED;ticas de nacionalismo &#x00E9;tnico, ortodoxia religiosa, antisecularismo y autoritarismo, reviso la teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica para interpretar el populismo desde una posici&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica democr&#x00E1;tica dual: pragmatismo, y teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica cr&#x00ED;tica o radical. Utilizo reflexiones pragm&#x00E1;ticas en la esfera p&#x00FA;blica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_eng">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_eng">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">2019</xref>), para explicar c&#x00F3;mo y por qu&#x00E9; emergen colectivos en la din&#x00E1;mica de las instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas de educaci&#x00F3;n. Y posteriormente, paso a la teor&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica radical para analizar la idea de la expresi&#x00F3;n populista y su funci&#x00F3;n en la pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_eng">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_eng">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). En t&#x00E9;rminos pragm&#x00E1;ticos, los movimientos populistas son colectivos en potencia, basados en una idea experimentalista de la vida pol&#x00ED;tica que incluye asociaciones de grupos en la sociedad civil que generan opini&#x00F3;n, acci&#x00F3;n y desacuerdo en intentos de conformar decisiones en las instituciones estatales. Pero muchos movimientos populistas no llegan a ser colectivos democr&#x00E1;ticos en la medida en que se caracterizan por reducidos intereses privados, h&#x00E1;bitos irreflexivos y pr&#x00E1;cticas que son antag&#x00F3;nicas a la interpelaci&#x00F3;n, la capacidad de respuesta y la deliberaci&#x00F3;n. Como tales, los movimientos populistas amenazan la legitimidad normativa y la estabilidad de las instituciones estatales democr&#x00E1;ticas liberales de ense&#x00F1;anza. Aunque las versiones minimalistas o menos militantes de populismo son compatibles con, y veh&#x00ED;culos importantes para la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa, las versiones maximalistas actualmente dominantes perfiladas en este art&#x00ED;culo amenazan el proyecto de estado liberal-democr&#x00E1;tico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>). Las teor&#x00ED;as pragm&#x00E1;ticas de pol&#x00ED;tica democr&#x00E1;tica y acciones colectivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>) ofrecen v&#x00ED;as para conocer el momento populista, pero contienen significativas implicaciones de redise&#x00F1;o y reforma institucional para su materializaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>democracy</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatism</kwd>
<kwd>radical democracy</kwd>
<kwd>populism</kwd>
<kwd>deliberation</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>democracia</kwd>
<kwd>pragmatismo</kwd>
<kwd>democracia radical</kwd>
<kwd>populismo</kwd>
<kwd>deliberaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;It was not &#x2018;Let&#x2019;s have a dialogue.&#x2019; It was &#x2018;Here are our demands.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31000_eng">Williams 2022</xref>, p. 54)</p>
</disp-quote>
<sec id="sec-1-31000_eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>A school board official, elected to serve on the local governing body for a U.S. school district in the state of Tennessee, offered observations about dialogue versus demands in a 2022 interview, describing his board&#x2019;s interactions with populist groups like Moms for Liberty. Representatives of the group had been attending board meetings regularly with complaints regarding a curriculum which included books depicting painful struggles of African Americans during the U.S. Civil Rights movement (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31000_eng">Williams 2022</xref>). Groups like Moms for Liberty have emerged as powerful forces in U.S. educational politics. Populism is characterized by the political expressions of contestation and demand between &#x201C;the people&#x201D; and those governing them, viewed as elites in the populist framing (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_eng">Laclau, 2005</xref>). Populism happens when the people come to life as a form of expressed agency or articulation.</p>
<p>Recent decades have witnessed a surge of populism around the world. State-supported education systems have been among the institutions which are populist targets, in countries like the United States, Chile, Brazil, Turkey, and Israel. Drawing from the emerging research on populism in educational politics and policy, I explore populism&#x2019;s value to state-sponsored schools: what are the alleged democratic benefits, and costs, of populist expression for education in liberal democracies? While populist forms of contestation have an important role in the public sphere of educational governance, at present, many populist movements bring the erosion of fundamental liberal democratic norms. While forms of populist expression are necessary to democratic evolution and reform, part of the &#x201C;interventionist spirit&#x201D; of democracy itself (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31000_eng">Rogers, 2010</xref>, p. 5), populism also contains the seeds of democratic destruction insofar as it diminishes deliberative possibilities, and the requisite responsiveness to pluralism, which are essential for the legitimacy and stability of liberal democratic institutions.</p>
<p>In this article, I explore a segment of the existing scholarship on educational populist movements in Brazil, the U.S., and Israel<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_eng"><sup>1</sup></xref>. After a brief examination of these populist forms, which reveal political trends of ethno-nationalism, religious orthodoxy, anti-secularism, and authoritarianism, I examine democratic theory to understand populism from a dual philosophical perspective. I use pragmatist philosophical insights into the public sphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_eng">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_eng">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">2019</xref>), to explain how and why publics emerge in the dynamic of democratic state institutions of schooling. I then turn to radical democratic theory to explore the idea of populist expression and its role in democratic politics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_eng">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_eng">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). In pragmatist terms, populist movements are potential publics, relying on an experimentalist idea of political life which includes group associations in civil society which generate feedback, action, and dissent in attempts to shape decisions in state institutions. Yet too many populist movements fail to become democratic publics insofar, as they are characterized by narrowed, privatized interests, unreflective habits, and practices which are antagonistic to inquiry, responsiveness, and deliberation. As such, populist movements can threaten the normative legitimacy and stability of liberal democratic state institutions of schooling. While minimalist, or thin versions of populism are compatible with, and important vehicles for educational politics, the presently dominating maximalist versions profiled in this article threaten the liberal-democratic state project of public, inclusive forms of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31000_eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>P<sc>opulisms in global educational governance</sc>: <sc>the cases of brazil</sc>, <sc>united states</sc>, <sc>and israel</sc></bold></title>
    <p>The word populism has roots in ancient Rome, from the Latin <italic>populi, &#x201C;</italic>to simultaneously refer to the sovereign people and the &#x2018;common people&#x2019;&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant 2021</xref>, p. 39). Histories of populism in politics date more recent history to the 19<sup>th</sup> century in Russia and the U.S. In the 1860s and &#x2018;70s, Russian urban youths known as <italic>narodniki</italic> attempted to energize peasants towards overthrowing the Tzar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>, p. 39). In 1891, at a convention in Cincinnati, Ohio, a coalition of farmers and industrial laborers brought together by mutual economic struggle, formed the &#x201C;People&#x2019;s Party.&#x201D; These self-declared Populists were both the product of, and catalysts for a social movement of workers, dedicated to returning power to the people. These Populists characterized &#x201C;the people&#x201D; as everyday workers: farmers, industrial laborers, immigrants and native-born, Black and White, men and women, Christians and Jews, whose shared struggle for economic survival united them against a common adversary: plutocrats, the economic elite (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31000_eng">Frank 2020</xref>). To be a Populist, then, was to be united as &#x201C;the people&#x201D; against &#x201C;the elite.&#x201D; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31000_eng">Boyte (2012)</xref> argues that &#x201C;populist movements are narrative. They grow from the sense that an elite is endangering the values, identities, and practices of a culturally constituted people, its memories, origins, and ways of life&#x201D; (p. 300).</p>
    <p>By various scholars, populism is defined as a &#x201C;thin ideology&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31000_eng">Mudde, 2004</xref>), a discourse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_eng">Laclau, 2005</xref>), and a cultural phenomenon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31000_eng">Mazzarella, 2019</xref>). Populist expression has historical roots around the globe, and today, comes from political organizing on both the political left and the political right. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant (2021)</xref> describes populist leaders on nearly all continents, from Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi, a Hindu nationalist considered Asia&#x2019;s most prominent populist leader, to the Australian One Nation Party, opposing Asian immigration and multiculturalism, to Hugo Chavez in Venezuela and Jair Bolsonaro in Brazil. While much of the documented populist expression around the globe is right-wing and authoritarian in nature, there are many examples of left populism which organizes for, among other issues, human and civil rights. A key distinction in populist types, which I will employ here, is between &#x201C;maximal versus minimalist&#x201D; definitions of populist politics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant 2021</xref>). A maximalist definition is favored by media portrayals and features authoritarian leaders, nationalist goals, and fundamental challenges to democratic institutions, laws, and customs. The maximalist definition is clearly evident in the prominent contemporary literature on educational populism, as I describe here. Yet Sant argues that confusing populism itself with the ideological baggage it can often carry, helps feed the demonization of populist expression in the media and mainstream discourses rather than enabling close, careful interpretation. Thus, for <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant (2021)</xref>, populism is a &#x201C;thin term referring to political practices that polarise society into two distinct groups, the elite and the people, where the people underpin the ultimate source of the general will&#x201D; (p. 52). Sant&#x2019;s minimal or thin definition &#x2014; echoing <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31000_eng">Mudde&#x2019;s (2004)</xref> influential analysis of the concept &#x2014; provides a useful foundation for the present inquiry, allowing for a diverse array of practices and positions which might constitute a particular educational populist movement.</p>
<p>Globally, populist movements have been actively influencing educational politics and policy for decades. I sketch a limited portrait of this scholarship, drawing from a selective examination of contemporary research from Brazil, the United States, and Israel. The broader philosophical scholarship on populism in education shows the rich diversity of populist expressions and movements that are contextually unique to the cultural-political dynamics of their national origins (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31000_eng">Sullivan, 2019</xref>). Yet emerging out of recent empirical studies is a portrait of educational populism characterized by values of ethno-nationalism, authoritarianism, and religious orthodoxy, uniquely conjoined and expressed in a myriad of cultural forms. A pattern, too, seen in this emerging literature is the sense of &#x201C;backlash&#x201D; against liberal democratic values in state institutions of education, wherein attempts to make schools more inclusive of and representative of the rich multicultural pluralism of nations is met with populist forms of resistance by citizen groups and the populist elected officials representing them.</p>
<p>Brazil presents a case study of these global patterns and trends. Emerging as a democratic state in the 1980s, Brazil&#x2019;s education sector &#x201C;experienced a social-democratic turn in social policies. &#x2026; The &#x2018;right to education&#x2019; included child development, social justice, the exercise of citizenship and work qualification&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31000_eng">Alvesa, Segattob, &#x0026; Pinedaa, 2021</xref>, p. 332). By the 2000&#x2019;s, education policy was reflective of inclusion and diversity values, &#x201C;with an emphasis on racial equity, [and] equal treatment of students based on gender and LGBTQ recognition&#x201D; (Ibid.). Ethno-national and religious conservative backlash was powerfully organized, in response. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31000_eng">Alvesa, Segttob and Pinedaa (2021)</xref> document how the No Partisan School (NPSM) movement, organized in 2004, quickly developed to organize against what was perceived to be a movement towards leftist political, ideological and religious censorship. NPSM ultimately joined forces with a Christian Pentacostal group, Evangelical Parliamentary Front (EPF), to become a united, politically powerful ally to populist president Jair Bolsonaro in 2018. This populist coalition of ethno-national and Christian evangelism sought &#x201C;to move education policy away from a feminist, Marxist and Freirean praxis.&#x201D; While &#x201C;predicated on the framework of education as &#x2018;non-partisan&#x2019; or &#x2018;neutral&#x2019;, the identification of opposing ideologies as the &#x2018;enemy&#x2019; automatically creates a binary social division of &#x2018;us&#x2019; against &#x2018;them&#x2019; and &#x2018;deservers&#x2019; versus &#x2018;non-deservers&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31000_eng">Hussain, &#x0026; Yudas, 2021</xref>, p. 257). The coalition of NPSM and EPF has produced a number of bills shaped by conservative and Christian fundamentalist values which target schools, teaching practices, or initiatives perceived as the &#x2019;enemy.&#x2019; Emblematic of these is the pushback against anti-homophobic materials in schools, mandated by newly elected President Dilma Rousseff.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>NPSM and the EPF reacted, dubbing this material a &#x2018;gay kit&#x2019;, and campaigned against its distribution. The enormous pressure of these groups lobbied the National Congress-led Rousseff&#x2019;s government to make a U-turn and vet the circulation of this educative material (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31000_eng">Alvesa et al., 2021</xref>, p. 348).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The NPSM and EPF coalition has also produced a number of reactionary attempts to target Paulo Freire&#x2019;s influence in school curriculum and among teachers. Condemned as Marxist, news reports documented the intimidation of teachers by &#x201C;extrajudicial notifications to curb the supposed ideological indoctrination, including the pedagogical treatment of issues related to gender and sexuality&#x201D; (Ibid., p. 345). While Bolsanaro&#x2019;s second presidential bid has been narrowly defeated in 2022, the power of these populist coalitions will remain.</p>
<p>Brazil&#x2019;s case has important parallels with that of the contemporary political scene in the United States. The present era of U.S. populist educational politics came from intersecting crises. The first of these was the COVID-era backlash against mandated masking and school closures. The second was the political upheaval and demands for racial justice arising from the murder of an unarmed, African American man named George Floyd in the summer of 2020, by a Minneapolis police officer, captured on video. A reactionary resistance to the racial justice efforts in education and public policy emerging out of the Floyd murder, were led by none other than President Donald Trump, a right-wing populist whose rhetoric helped embolden conservative resistance to equity initiatives in education. Conservative pundits have charged that the legal scholarship of critical race theorists is being taught in K-12 public schools, alleged without evidence to have strongly influenced the curriculum and professional development. At the present writing, 43 of the 50 U.S. states have introduced bills or taken other steps to limit how teachers can discuss racism or sexism in classrooms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31000_eng">Schwartz, 2021</xref>). In some states like Florida, Oklahoma, and Arizona, conservative governors have introduced aggressive legislation which penalizes forms of education related to equity and inclusion of racial minorities, and GLBTQ students and families. The state of Florida first popularized a version of these bills, dubbed by critics as the &#x201C;Don&#x2019;t Say Gay&#x201D; legislation, which curbs discussion of gender identity and sexuality topics among elementary schools in that state (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31000_eng">Diaz, 2022</xref>). These populist efforts are, furthermore, often backed with authoritarianism, asserted by populist political leaders who establish control through overt threat of punishment for non-compliance. Non-compliance punishments range from withholding of state funding from the district, a down-grading of report-card or state evaluation rating, removing the professional license of the guilty party, or allowing civil lawsuits against districts or individual teachers, as is the case in Oklahoma, Florida, Missouri, Arizona, and others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31000_eng">Bayless, 2022</xref>). These populist expressions are also motivated by nationalist exceptionalism. Prohibitions against so-called &#x201C;divisive concepts&#x201D; forbid critical teaching about the history of the U.S. because it will damage or attack the alleged truth of America as a beacon of democratic hope and promise. Finally, these populist movements are increasingly articulated as &#x201C;parental rights,&#x201D; with groups like Moms for Liberty leading the way in pushing school boards across the country to ban books in school and public libraries addressing themes of racial equity and GLBTQ topics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31000_eng">Bailey, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Looking eastward from North and South America, we see similar patterns in Israeli education policy and politics, where populist governing coalitions using curriculum and textbook revisions as opportunities to infuse &#x201C;a religious-ethno-nationalist&#x201D; approach to school materials (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_eng">Silberberga, &#x0026; Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 326). <italic>The Basic Law: Israel as the Nation State of the Jewish People</italic>, passed in 2018 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31000_eng">Knesset, 2018</xref>) is an example of Israeli populist politics of the religious-ethno-national variety. It is, according to its critics,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>based on a transcendent set of ideals that gives populist politics and ethno-national identities a seal of sanctity and inevitability&#x2026; an all-explaining ideology that imbues national identities with zeal, absolutism, and historical justifications in the name of an imagined collectivity that is often conceived as superior, sacred, pure, and with a longstanding historic mission (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31000_eng">Agbaria, 2018</xref>, p. 23, in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_eng">Silberberga, &#x0026; Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 319).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_eng">Silberberg and Agbaria (2021)</xref> point to the 2016 revision of the national civics textbook, <italic>Being citizens in Israel</italic>, as a prominent example of how these populist-fueled ideologies have infused schooling. The new content of the text is more religious, and less pluralist. These authors also reveal that the revision process itself was criticized for its lack of transparency and exclusion of Israeli Palestinian educators from the revision process; several members of the revision committee also resigned over content disputes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_eng">Silberberg, &#x0026; Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 321). Silberberg and Agbaria further note that &#x201C;the emphasis on religious ideals in populist politics of education can be seen as a strategic move towards enclosing the national identity of the Jewish majority within what are purely religious boundaries&#x201D; (p. 326). As with the case of Brazil, we see a religious conservatism evoked to resist the secular state which is influencing curriculum and instruction in state-sponsored schooling.</p>
<p>These three countries show a pattern of populism emerging in recent literature: educational populism is characterized in many places by ethno-nationalism, authoritarianism, and religious conservatism and orthodoxy. It constitutes a type of public backlash against the growing strength of liberal democratic state educational reforms emphasizing equity, inclusion, and pluralism in each society. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31000_eng">Brubaker (2017)</xref> notes three elements of populism that are also relevant to this array of countries: protectionism, anti-institutionalism, and majoritarianism. &#x201C;Protectionism entails a claim to protect the people against threats from above and from below. &#x2026; Anti-institutionalism reflects the distrust of and efforts to undermine the legitimacy of the mediating functions of institutions, especially political parties, media and the courts&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31000_eng">Silberberg, &#x0026; Agbaria, 2021</xref>, p. 327). Majoritarianism asserts the will, interests, and rights of the majority against minorities. Majoritarian claims &#x201C;challenge efforts to promote the interests, protect the rights, or recognize the dignity of marginal groups, defined by religion, race or ethnicity, immigration status, sexuality, or gender&#x2026; seeing these as disadvantaging or symbolically devaluing those in the mainstream&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31000_eng">Brubaker, 2017</xref>, p. 365).</p>
<p>Populist politics in education have, through the history of public education, helped to make schools more inclusive and pluralist in orientation; the U.S. Civil Rights movement, referenced earlier, is an example of groups and coalitions used the public sphere &#x2014; demonstrations, political actions, and persistent forms of demand &#x2014; to enlarge liberal democracy&#x2019;s promise of inclusivity and equality for African-Americans, students with disabilities, and women and girls. Today, educational research reveals conservative, religious, and nationalist-informed forms of populism to be flourishing. Populism is a species of associational democracy, but one which has a distinct purpose and set of goals and habits. To analyze the costs and benefits of populist movements to educational institutions, we must illuminate the critical role of group associations in democratic politics and governance, using pragmatist philosophers of democracy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_eng">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_eng">Frega, 2010</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">2019</xref>). In the face of the empirical evidence discussed here, representing the impacts of contemporary populist politics in three different nation-states, the idea of populism as a democracy-enhancing element of democratic politics requires further exploration.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31000_eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>emocratic publics and populist politics</sc></bold></title>
<p>A key project of democratic theorists in the last half century has been that of &#x201C;enlarging democracy,&#x201D; theoretically challenging the static and statist notions of democracy as &#x201C;formal political institutions in service to protect liberal values&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 31). Given that state-sponsored schools could not fully meet the promises of liberal-democracy in its schooling systems, plagued by class-, race-, and gender-based exclusions, these challenges were important for educational institutional development. A prominent constellation of theories in this project are those offered by philosophical pragmatists, seeking to understand the role of civil society in democratic politics. J&#x00FC;rgen Habermas&#x2019; theories of communicative rationality and the role of deliberative democracy loom large here, as do John Dewey&#x2019;s theory of the public (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31000_eng">Habermas, 1996</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_eng">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 40). A parallel set of powerful theoretical expansions has been contributed by critical theorists in their conceptualization of radical democracy, using agonist strategies of contestation to push formal political institutions and processes beyond present exclusionary and oppressive dimensions, through contestation and movement-building (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31000_eng">Laclau, &#x0026; Mouffe, 1985</xref>). Populism draws from both of these theoretical traditions.</p>
<p>Democracy, for pragmatists, is a social, political, and educational theory, expansive far beyond the parameters of traditional, state-centered political theories. Inclusive in pragmatism&#x2019;s political scope are the myriad of social groups and forms that shape our social lives, intersubjective relations, and encounters across difference. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega (2019)</xref> describes civil society theory&#x0027;s relationship to the formal democratic procedures and institutions of representative democracy. Civil society theories</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>underline the directly democratic function of a subset of informal associations and organizations which play a directly political role in society, such as social movements, political parties, media, and NGOs. These theories shed light on the democratic function played by this specific category of collective actor in processes of opinion- and will-formation, as well as in strategies of control, resistance, and counter-power. (p. 41)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Civil society theories of democratic politics have, for educational institutions, been particularly fitting, as educational institutions provide a particularly localized and informal space of association, and value, for families, children, and youth. Even in centralized systems of public education, schools belong to both the civil society sector and to the more formalized state or government sectors. Schools are the sites of multiple associational interaction, gathering communities, families, voluntary organizations, and political organizing work into their orbits.</p>
<p>Democratic theories of civil society in the pragmatist tradition center notions of the public sphere, and multiple publics, as associations of meaning and power to define mutual interests around shared problems. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega (2019)</xref> notes, &#x201C;The priority of publics as the main political subject implies a situated approach to normative theory, &#x2026; taking as the starting point of political analysis the concrete social processes of group-making rather than existing institutions or established political principles&#x201D; (p. 186). The richly pluralistic and social terrain of schools makes public sphere theories a useful tool for analyzing educational politics. Associations of citizens, members of the larger Public of the nation-state, periodically come into existence in localities or regions to give voice and influence to affairs related to their schools, educational issues, or challenges experienced by students. These small-p publics are associations activated by shared problems or concerns among families or other educational stakeholders (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31000_eng">Knight Abowitz, 2014</xref>). In the public sphere, these associations help citizens gain voice and power to express their interests and agendas as they might be distinct from, or oppositional to, the policies of their schools. Educational publics can exert pressure in order to break the habitual behavior generated from the bureaucratic, centrally-controlled school systems with their formal political representative structures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31000_eng">Waks, 2010</xref>). As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31000_eng">Rogers (2009)</xref> notes, publics can often serve a</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>directive and supportive relationship to the state and its representative and administrative institutions. But insofar as the state is resistant to transformation because of ossification, the public then functions in a more oppositional role that builds its power external to the state (p. 225).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Democracy must be continually re-invented as society and political conditions evolve (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31000_eng">Dewey, 1927</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31000_eng">Rogers, 2009</xref>). Pragmatism&#x2019;s associational, intersubjective, and praxis-oriented political frames (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31000_eng">Rogers, 2009</xref>) overlap with those of radical democratic theorist&#x2019;s accounts of democratic politics. Articulated using critical theory, the democratic enlargement process of agonist political theorists explores populism as a special type of agonist strategy, employing the logic of the democratic public sphere and civil society, but towards emancipatory ends. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31000_eng">Mouffe (2000)</xref> offers the distinction between &#x201C;politics&#x201D; and &#x201C;the political&#x201D; as a position explaining the overlaps and distinctions with pragmatist democratic theories, with an emphasis on deep pluralism and its requisite elements of conflict:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>By &#x2018;the political&#x2019;, I refer to the dimension of antagonism that is inherent in human relations, antagonism that can take many forms and emerge in different types of social relations. &#x2018;Politics&#x2019;, on the other hand, indicates the ensemble of practices, discourses and institutions which seek to establish a certain order and organize human coexistence in conditions that are always potentially conflictual because they are affected by the dimension of &#x2018;the political.&#x2019; (p. 15)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Mouffe aims not towards unity as defining the democratic project, as this goal is impossible; democracy always leaves a remainder, an excluded group or set of subjectivities. Democracy has an us/them distinction built into its very design, in this view. Democratic politics, then, in the radical traditions, attempts to build the assumptions of a deep pluralism, and thus antagonism, into the model.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Envisaged from the point of view of &#x2018;agonistic pluralism&#x2019;, the aim of democratic politics is to construct the &#x2018;them&#x2019; in such a way that it is no longer perceived as an enemy to be destroyed, but an &#x2018;adversary&#x2019;, i.e. somebody whose ideas we combat but whose right to defend those ideas we do not put into question (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31000_eng">Mouffe, 2000</xref>, p. 15).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Populism directly takes up themes of agonist democracy as articulated by radical democratic theorists (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31000_eng">Laclau, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31000_eng">Mouffe, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Pragmatism complements radical theories of democracy insofar as both orientations see civil society as a rich sphere for politics, where collective social agents can emerge in response to the &#x201C;unfixed, partially indeterminate&#x201D; social context (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31000_eng">Zamora, &#x0026; Santarelli, 2021</xref>, p. 496). Both theoretical traditions see democratic state institutions as becoming static and enclosed by bureaucracies that exclude minoritized interests and identities. Both traditions, too, use habits of group association and action to help push state institutions towards expansive reconstruction. &#x201C;Emancipatory social movements have been interpreted as Deweyan publics, insofar as they mobilize to overcome circumstances of subjection and domination, and/or their actions can be seen to contribute to improving the conditions of social life of the larger polity&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 198). Current populist movements influencing education in Brazil, the U.S., and Israel are not emancipatory; they are informed by anti-liberal values, defined by private interests not shared by the general public, possessing of unreflective habits, and engage in practices antagonistic to inquiry and deliberation. As a result, present populist politics, with their maximalist understandings of &#x201C;the people&#x201D; in authoritarian, religious, and ethno-nationalist terms, cannot lead to democratic enlargements (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>). Instead, these movements show the problems of legitimacy and stability that maximalist populisms bring to liberal democratic institutions of schooling. To respond to populist challenges, state institutions governing education require improved conditions and design for democratic politics. These conditions are ones which must foster inquiry, expand habits of responsiveness, and promote cultures and processes of deliberation which, amidst ongoing conditions of uncertainty, yield decisions which can guide evolution and improvement of educational policy and practice while not jeopardizing stability and legitimacy.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31000_eng">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>nquiry</sc>, <sc>responsiveness</sc>, <sc>and deliberation</sc></bold></title>
<p>Populist expression, in maximal formations, is a product of multiple factors of the present social environment. Globalization, both economic and cultural, has engendered a dynamic of winners and losers:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Losers of globalisation include those whose cultural values are challenged by growing multiculturalism; those who, after decades of delocalisation, feel that their knowledge and skills are no longer economically valuable; and those who feel that citizens&#x2019; political sovereignty is being eroded by international political and economic agenda. Populism unites those left behind in their grievances. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>, p. 55)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>We can see these challenges to multiculturalism in Israel&#x2019;s enclosure of the national identity of the Jewish majority within purely religious boundaries and narratives, in revised civics textbooks. We see similar challenges in the U.S., where book banning efforts by groups like Moms for Liberty target stories featuring racial and ethnic minority groups, GLBTQ families and persons, or people with non-binary gender identities. Brazil&#x2019;s conservative Christian populism has targeted Freirean, feminist, and anti-homophobic curriculum and teaching. These grievances against multiculturalism have many ways of being communicated, as changing forms of media has &#x201C;facilitated the spread of populist discourses&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant, 2021</xref>, p. 54). Both these conditions combine to demonstrate a deep pluralism and polarization which increasingly marks public life in liberal democracies. Finalized forms of &#x201C;reasonable&#x201D; solutions of the traditional liberal state consensus thus seem increasingly unavailable. Radical democratic theorists tell us that we should renounce governance goals of consensus as &#x201C;forms of escapism&#x201D; and thereby &#x201C;face the challenge that the recognition of the pluralism of values entails&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31000_eng">Mouffe 2000</xref>, p. 9).</p>
<p>Where Mouffe is mistaken, however, is that democracy does not require any permanent forms of consensus (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31000_eng">Vasilev, 2015</xref>). Governance, in conditions of deep pluralism, requires something less finalized, but perhaps no less challenging: <italic>conditions fostering inquiry, responsiveness, and deliberation</italic> which, amidst ongoing conditions of uncertainty, yield decisions which can guide evolution and improvement of educational policy and practice while not jeopardizing stability and legitimacy. When emergent publics become maximalized into the expressive and activist politics of authoritarian, ethno-nationalist, and religious populisms, associational democracy loses its potential for realizing political processes necessary for inclusive democratic decision-making in pluralist societies. Democratic politics in education which are characterized by inquiry, responsiveness, and deliberation are needed to ensure that populist challenges help improve and expand the inclusivity of, and access to, liberal-democratic educational institutions.</p>
<p>Conditions of <italic>inquiry</italic> are a challenge everywhere today. In the introduction, I describe an encounter between a locally-elected school official, a representative of a liberal democratic education institution, and a person representing a civic group &#x2014; Moms for Liberty &#x2014;articulating a populist demand. Two distinct political habits conflict here: the habit of question-asking, signaling a willingness to engage in shared inquiry, versus the habit of articulating a demand, the assertive expression of a formalized request. This encounter is a moment of contingency, potentially foreclosed by demand rather than an exploration of the problem at hand using forms of social intelligence. The formation of a public is an outcome of social inquiry relative to a specific issue, what Dewey called &#x201C;problematic situations&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31000_eng">Dewey, 1938</xref>, p. 109; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_eng">Frega, 2010</xref>). Inquiry is necessitated by a Deweyan &#x201C;problematic situation,&#x201D; which is an indeterminate social condition requiring experimental methods of thinking, action, reflection, and discovery between different interests and identities. As Frega describes:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Reasons as well as interests, values, and political aims are the tentative and fallible outcomes of the political process itself. Through public inquiry, interests and aims are neither merely pursued nor simply justified: they are first of all constructed through the deliberative confrontation carried on according to the epistemological paradigm of inquiry. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31000_eng">Frega, 2010</xref>, p. 30).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Populist associations often limit their inquiry to the problems and conditions experienced by a limited, particular set of interests and identities, as organizing is often limited to like-minded persons and groups. Conservative Brazilians have organized and built coalitions across political and religious differences, to formulate a tactical alliance of positions and political power oriented towards traditional conservative values. Theirs is a problem-posing articulation; one that helps formulate a description of the problem that matches the lived and social experiences of those among their bounded association or group of conservative actors. Their inquiry is thus far limited to the project of understanding and organizing the articulation of the demand. This is Mouffe&#x2019;s &#x201C;political&#x201D; arena, of contestation and conflict. To enter the arena of the politics, of process and procedure amongst a pluralist, broader public, the inquiry must be opened up to broader reasoning and investigation, the condition of entering the democratic institutional arena. Refusal of inquiry beyond the bounds of a single associative perspective can too easily lead to an &#x201C;epistemology of certainty&#x201D; which can often define populist projects (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31000_eng">Moreira, 2022</xref>). Laclau&#x2019;s populism embraces the contingency of the political, but the ultimate goal is critique, and the demand, which can often halt rather than evolving inquiry towards institutions or officials.</p>
<p>The condition of <italic>responsiveness</italic> reflects a need for democratic institutions to respond to the evolving needs and challenges of its people. As citizens, we expect our liberal democratic state institutions to be responsive towards changing social, cultural, and other conditions experienced by citizens, including threats posed to liberal rights and freedoms. Government representatives expect that associations of citizens will be responsive to reasons and conditions which represent the inclusive pluralist state&#x2019;s diverse interests and goals. This dual sense of political responsiveness has become threatened in a world where global, neoliberal economic policies have exacerbated inequality and made many governments generally more responsive to corporate and private interests and actors than to its own citizens. This, in turn, has made citizens groups more antagonistic.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31000_eng">Sant (2021)</xref> notes the rise of Chilean populism as fostered by global conditions which have fostered institutional rigidity and resistance to democratic movements for equality:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Chileans were told for thirty years that they were a democratic country, but there was little in their regime that signalled an equal distribution of powers and many felt that their dignity had never been restored. In Chile, as in many other countries, the &#x2018;neoliberal good life&#x2019; was so institutionalised that there is not much scope for debate and none for equality. (p. 77)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Populist politics will continue to appeal to citizens as long as representatives of state institutions refuse to engage with citizen associations. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31000_eng">Peterson (2022)</xref> notes, populism has become legitimized &#x201C;because the promises of equality and popular sovereignty central to democratic systems are not realized for everyone&#x201D; (p. 1429). Yet this is a tricky premise when it comes to ethno-nationalist, anti-secular, and homophobic forms of populism which are threatening democratic liberal principles in Israel, Brazil and the United States. Civic or political groups which demand a selective historical narrative of nationhood presented in books or curriculum, which refuses an accurate, complex portrayal of a nation-state&#x2019;s development and identity, will present interests which fail the democratic test of inclusivity. This does not mean that democratic institutions and representatives can justify an unresponsiveness towards these groups or interests. Government&#x2019;s role is to be &#x201C;an institutional device to master consequences in the interest of publics,&#x201D; and much rides on &#x201C;the manner in which the needs and views of the public are taken into consideration&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31000_eng">Frega, 2019</xref>, p. 192). In the end, democratic politics should, at the level of state institutions, provide &#x201C;an initial descriptive and normative yardstick for analyzing democratic processes&#x2014;their capacity to favor an inclusive constitution of publics&#x201D; (Ibid.). Responsiveness to all groups and interests is the promise to be open to consideration of reasons and demands presented by citizens and civic associations, and to engage with conflict productively. This responsiveness is a requirement of all democratic groups and actors, both those within state institutions and those representing populist publics.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The failure of established political organizations and democratic processes to mediate and integrate conflict productively is problematic, which, in turn, provides undemocratic, authoritarian, racist, or populist parties and personalities the room to participate in or even dominate politics and the governing process. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31000_eng">Peterson, Brunkhorst, &#x0026; Seliger, 2022</xref>, p. 1343)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Responsiveness to agonist forms of politics requires not an acquiescence to illiberal demands of authoritarian groups, but likely requires that state institutions develop designs to better mediate and facilitate productive inquiry and deliberation around populist challenges, of all ideologies and stripes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31000_eng">Lowndes, &#x0026; Paxton, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Finally, we come to the discussion of <italic>deliberation</italic> and its requisite facilitative conditions. Talk and reason-giving, over force and coercion, characterize democratic political principles. Deliberation is a quality of democratic decision-making and disagreement. Purist forms of deliberative political processes eschew simple majoritarian and aggregate forms of decision-making and are thus difficult to scale for even small liberal-democratic institutions. But to assert that deliberative processes of inquiry and exchange must be a central aspect of representative democracy decision-making is a rather uncontroversial claim or should be. Processes of deliberation are central to a pragmatist political theory and assume that participants enter with an ability to adapt their beliefs in the face of good reasons. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31000_eng">Frega (2012)</xref> notes,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The theory of inquiry states that processes of public deliberation are rational as long as they are backed by reference to experience and arguments in the give and take of reasons through which agents fix and transform their beliefs in their common search for shared solutions to problematic issues. (p. 273)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Deliberation is built upon dialogic exchange, and represents a core element of democratic legitimacy. Yet one of the tremendous challenges of present disagreements around schooling in pluralist societies are the strident and barn-burning forms of political exchange under which they are proposed. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31000_eng">White and Neblo (2021)</xref> note the forms of affective polarization that have broken down productive political deliberation in many democratic societies. The controversies over masking during the COVID pandemic which took place in the U.S. and other places is a key example, and an incident that many trace to the expansion of populist politics in education today. In these debates, there was little room for compromise or middle ground; anti-masking families saw mask mandates as curtailing their fundamental liberties as parents. Maskers versus anti-maskers became positions which hardened into enemies on the political battlefield. Affective and belief polarization around various stances towards masking and vaccines quickly turned into intractable identity and lifestyle positions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31000_eng">Talisse, 2019</xref>). School districts in the U.S., caught in the middle between various positions and interests involved in these disputes, were set up for a legitimacy crisis as any ground for deliberation became very narrow. &#x201C;We will say that a crisis of legitimacy exists for a given agency to the degree that its policies are met with widespread or intensive resistance&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31000_eng">White, &#x0026; Neblo, 2021</xref>, p. 175).</p>
<p>How does one deliberate with the Other? This is increasingly the question we ask ourselves &#x2014; no matter what our position or status &#x2014; in our polarized societies. When a policy-making body is approached by a citizen or a group of citizens with a demand, the initial response is to recoil, reject, or respond in kind, with conditions or counter-demands of our own. The deep pluralism we face in public life today strains the boundaries of deliberative imagination. Publics now form around the interests of healthy growth and development of gender non-binary children and youth, increasingly identified in many societies, and whose equal access to safe, inclusive spaces in state schooling is demanded. The very idea of gender as a social construct, as one example, is great flux, and has both emancipatory and threatening possibilities, depending on your positionality and interests. Non-binary gender identities are challenging to many on various grounds, including religious and cultural. If we consider democracy as a social-political formation that must evolve, or die, finding ways to deliberate about seemingly intractable positions, we can see that it will require a great deal of creative experimentation when it comes to bringing diverse publics to the table of exchange and negotiation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31000_eng">Shuffelton, 2022</xref>). This experimentation is essential, however, in the face of any populist challenge to liberal democratic institutions, and particularly those whose purposes are oriented towards children, an arena which crosses the public/private domain, and around which much parental fear circulates. Is it possible for educational institutions to build legitimacy through processes which build deliberative processes for decision-making, thereby making educational bureaucracies more responsive, more flexible, more informed by the pluralist societies they serve?</p>
<p>I have argued that populism can be democracy-enhancing for educational institutions when it helps propel state institutions to achieve liberal-democratic principles of inclusion and equality. Minimalist populism, when it consists of an association of citizens organizing on behalf of demands that are presently unheard or unacknowledged by state institutions of schooling, can enable greater legitimacy and stability for schools and education systems. These goals can emerge from a democratic politics which understand the state as a liberal-democratic institution that must be sensitive and responsive to the publics and associations that its citizens organically form over time. State-supported schooling in multiple liberal democratic nations is under the press of fundamental challenge by authoritarian, ethno-national, and religious orthodox forms of populist movements. These maximalist populisms evoke homogeneity over pluralism, and exclusivist over integrated public spheres. Listening to and engaging the fears, displacements, and uncertainties that motivate these movements requires speaking to, and with, the people that bring these fears to the political arena in the form of anti-democratic demands. These interventions must happen at the legislative and school levels. Deliberations about curriculum must be transparent and, and balance the views of experts with responsiveness to the diverse, representative groups of families, students, and the broader citizenry. Questions of policy and practice must be subject to conditions of genuine inquiry and deliberation. Without such expansive moves in democratic governance and policy-making, our democracies cannot key hope to evolve beyond the present, proto-fascist moment of crisis.</p>
</sec>
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<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1_eng" fn-type="other"><label>1.</label> <p>These three countries of focus were chosen based on three criteria: 1) existing published scholarship drawing on contemporary, empirically-informed studies of populist movements&#x2019; influence on school practices, curriculum, or politics in a country; 2) published in the last five years; and drawing from 3) a range of democratic countries from around the world that boast significant cultural and ideological pluralism.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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