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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.29595</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.29595</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>EL &#x0027;SESGO INCLUSIVO&#x0027; DEL ENFOQUE CAPACITISTA EN LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N INCLUSIVA</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>The &#x0027;Inclusive Bias&#x0027; of the Ableist Approach in Inclusive Education</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1993-1406</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera</surname>
<given-names>Alba</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_esp"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_esp"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_esp">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad a Distancia de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad a Distancia de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_esp"><email>alba.garcia@udima.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
<fpage>175</fpage>
<lpage>190</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>16</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>20</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa es una cuesti&#x00F3;n que preocupa cada vez m&#x00E1;s en diferentes &#x00E1;mbitos y niveles. Sin embargo, por muchos avances que se hayan pretendido realizar para lograr una inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa plena del alumnado, esta siempre seguir&#x00E1; comportando el mismo problema: el hecho de que unos incluyen y otros son incluidos. Por ello, este art&#x00ED;culo reflexionar&#x00E1; sobre algunas de las grandes problem&#x00E1;ticas que presenta el paradigma de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva. Entre ellas, presentar&#x00E1;, en primer lugar, lo que se ha venido a denominar como &#x00AB;sesgo inclusivo&#x00BB;, referido al enfoque capacitista que prevalece en el trasfondo del paradigma inclusivo, que contin&#x00FA;a erigi&#x00E9;ndose sobre las capacidades del alumnado y lo etiqueta en funci&#x00F3;n de ellas, condicionando y lastrando su inclusi&#x00F3;n. En segundo lugar examinar&#x00E1; la ruptura que se produce entre la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva, dificultando su adecuada implementaci&#x00F3;n y promoviendo en su lugar acciones de car&#x00E1;cter segregador. Y, en tercer lugar, abordar&#x00E1; el lenguaje capacitista que predomina en este modelo para aludir a las diferencias humanas, fomentando las creencias, actitudes y estereotipos negativos que se mantienen acerca de la diversidad. Por &#x00FA;ltimo, y a fin de evolucionar hacia un modelo educativo hol&#x00ED;stico que permita superar las problem&#x00E1;ticas que presenta el modelo inclusivo, se propone avanzar hacia la normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena de la diversidad y se reclama una verdadera escuela para todos, sin excepciones, que: ofrezca una educaci&#x00F3;n justa, equitativa y de calidad para todos y cada uno de los alumnos, tome como base una pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica, funcione como una comunidad de aprendizaje y ofrezca un dise&#x00F1;o universal de aprendizaje que facilite la respuesta a las necesidades educativas personales de cada estudiante para desarrollar al m&#x00E1;ximo su potencial individual.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Educational inclusion is an issue of increasing concern in different areas and levels. However, no matter how many advances have been made to achieve full educational inclusion of students, it will always continue to involve the same problem: the fact that some include and others are included. Therefore, this article will reflect on some of the major problems presented by the inclusive education paradigm. Among them, it will present, first, what has come to be called &#x0022;inclusive bias&#x0022;, referring to the ableist approach that prevails in the background of the inclusive paradigm, which continues to be built on the abilities of students and labels them based on them, conditioning and weighing down their inclusion. Second, it will examine the rupture that occurs between the theory and practice of inclusive education, hindering its proper implementation and instead promoting actions of a segregating nature. And, thirdly, it will address the ableist language that predominates in this model to refer to human differences, fostering negative beliefs, attitudes and stereotypes about diversity. Finally, and in order to evolve towards a holistic educational model that makes it possible to overcome the problems presented by the inclusive model, it is proposed to advance towards the full normalization of diversity and it is claimed a true school for all, without exceptions, which: offers a fair, equitable and quality education for each and every one of the students, is based on a critical pedagogy, works as a learning community and offers a universal design of learning that facilitates the response to the personal educational needs of each student to fully develop their individual potential.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva</kwd>
<kwd>inclusi&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>discapacidad</kwd>
<kwd>necesidades educativas</kwd>
<kwd>discriminaci&#x00F3;n educativa</kwd>
<kwd>segregaci&#x00F3;n escolar</kwd>
<kwd>oportunidades educativas</kwd>
<kwd>justicia social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>inclusive education</kwd>
<kwd>inclusion</kwd>
<kwd>disability</kwd>
<kwd>special needs</kwd>
<kwd>educational discrimination</kwd>
<kwd>school segregation</kwd>
<kwd>educational opportunities</kwd>
<kwd>social justice</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-29595_esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>INTRODUCCI&#x00F3;N</bold></title>
<p>La inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa es una cuesti&#x00F3;n que preocupa cada vez m&#x00E1;s en diferentes &#x00E1;mbitos y niveles, convirti&#x00E9;ndose incluso en objetivo pol&#x00ED;tico, propagand&#x00ED;stico, medi&#x00E1;tico y social. Por muchos avances que se hayan pretendido realizar para lograr una inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa plena del alumnado, siempre seguir&#x00E1; comportando el mismo grave problema, intr&#x00ED;nseco a su propia naturaleza y definici&#x00F3;n. Esto es, el hecho de que unos incluyen y otros son incluidos (normalmente las personas con discapacidad y otros grupos minoritarios). As&#x00ED;, este enfoque es el que, precisa y contradictoriamente, mantiene vivas ciertas pr&#x00E1;cticas y acciones segregadoras para alcanzar su objetivo, las cuales, a su vez, generan una discriminaci&#x00F3;n estructural que invisibiliza a las personas con discapacidad y legitimiza e incluso niega la existencia de dicha opresi&#x00F3;n sobre ellas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-29595_esp">Consejo de Estudiantes de la Universidad de M&#x00E1;laga, 2019</xref>). De hecho, esta discriminaci&#x00F3;n parece encontrarse en aumento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-29595_esp">Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Education Fund [LCCREF], 2009</xref>), motivada por suposiciones y creencias distorsionadas sobre la discapacidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-29595_esp">Wallace, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>En este sentido, a menudo las personas con discapacidad se describen como un grupo minoritario invisible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-29595_esp">Dunn, 2019</xref>) y marginado, que ha sufrido una larga historia de violencia, opresi&#x00F3;n y discriminaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-29595_esp">Keller, y Galgay, 2010</xref>). Concretamente, en Espa&#x00F1;a las personas con discapacidad han sido y son v&#x00ED;ctimas de diversas discriminaciones y limitaciones ejercidas sobre su disfrute y acceso a derechos, educaci&#x00F3;n, trabajo, informaci&#x00F3;n y servicios, tal como evidencian m&#x00FA;ltiples investigaciones e informes (v.g.: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-29595_esp">Consejer&#x00ED;a de Econom&#x00ED;a, Hacienda y Empleo, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-29595_esp">de Cabo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-29595_esp">de Ort&#x00FA;zar, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-29595_esp">Guti&#x00E9;rrez, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-29595_esp">Hern&#x00E1;ndez, y Mill&#x00E1;n, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-29595_esp">Huete, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-29595_esp">Huete, y Pallero, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-29595_esp">INE, 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-29595_esp">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-29595_esp">Moral, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-29595_esp">Moral, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-29595_esp">Observatorio sobre Discapacidad y Mercado de Trabajo en Espa&#x00F1;a, 2016</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-29595_esp">2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-29595_esp">2018</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-29595_esp">2019</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-29595_esp">2020</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-29595_esp">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-29595_esp">Observatorio Estatal de la Discapacidad, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-29595_esp">Organizaci&#x00F3;n de Naciones Unidas [ONU], 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-29595_esp">2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-29595_esp">Otaola, y Huete, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-29595_esp">Pascual, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-29595_esp">Ramiro, y Ram&#x00ED;rez, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-29595_esp">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, y Cano, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-29595_esp">Servicio P&#x00FA;blico de Empleo Estatal, 2019</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-29595_esp">2020</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-29595_esp">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-29595_esp">Silv&#x00E1;n, y Qu&#x00ED;fez, 2020</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-29595_esp">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-90-29595_esp">Valle, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-91-29595_esp">Villa, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>A estas discriminaciones y limitaciones se suma el sesgo, los prejuicios y el capacitismo que impregna el pensamiento de nuestra sociedad y opera como un discurso de poder y de dominaci&#x00F3;n transmitido a numerosos niveles. Por tanto, resulta imperativo concienciar a la poblaci&#x00F3;n de que este tipo de actos y actitudes no son, bajo ning&#x00FA;n concepto, aceptables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-29595_esp">LCCREF, 2009</xref>). Y en este sentido la educaci&#x00F3;n juega un papel clave, ya que el &#x00E1;mbito educativo es uno de los contextos en los que m&#x00E1;s se evidencia el capacitismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_esp">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>), especialmente con relaci&#x00F3;n a la inclusi&#x00F3;n del alumnado, produci&#x00E9;ndose un falso dilema entre el objetivo de favorecer el m&#x00E1;ximo desarrollo personal de cada estudiante y la acci&#x00F3;n diferenciadora a realizar para lograrlo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-29595_esp">Del Pozo-Armentia, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Por ello, este art&#x00ED;culo abordar&#x00E1;, en primer lugar, las diversas problem&#x00E1;ticas que presenta el paradigma de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva, para despu&#x00E9;s proponer y reclamar un modelo educativo hol&#x00ED;stico, que sea anticapacitista, cr&#x00ED;tico y personalizado, de modo que contribuya al logro de una verdadera escuela para todos y de la normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena de la diversidad.</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="sec-2-29595_esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>Problem&#x00E1;ticas del paradigma inclusivo</bold></title>
<sec sec-type="sec-3-29595_esp">
<label>2.1.</label>
<title><italic>El &#x00AB;sesgo inclusivo&#x00BB;</italic></title>
<p>Como ya se adelantaba en la introducci&#x00F3;n, el paradigma de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva tiene impl&#x00ED;cita una problem&#x00E1;tica que podr&#x00ED;a definirse como &#x00AB;sesgo inclusivo&#x00BB;, ya que para que unos sean incluidos es necesario que otros incluyan, perpetuando as&#x00ED; la discriminaci&#x00F3;n y el riesgo de exclusi&#x00F3;n de quienes se considera que necesitan ser incluidos y manteniendo el poder de quienes pueden (o no) incluirles. En definitiva, se podr&#x00ED;a afirmar que el &#x00AB;sesgo inclusivo&#x00BB; corresponde a un enfoque capacitista que prevalece en el trasfondo del paradigma de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva y, por tanto, en la legislaci&#x00F3;n educativa espa&#x00F1;ola vigente, ya que a pesar de que la Ley Org&#x00E1;nica 3/2020, de 29 de diciembre, por la que se modifica la Ley Org&#x00E1;nica 2/2006, de 3 de mayo, de Educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_esp">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>) procura trasladar el foco a las necesidades de cada estudiante, ciertamente sigue bas&#x00E1;ndose en el diagn&#x00F3;stico psicopedag&#x00F3;gico del alumnado que presenta ciertas dificultades y que es etiquetado como &#x00AB;alumnado con necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas de apoyo educativo&#x00BB; e incluso, dentro de este, como &#x00AB;alumnado con necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_esp">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>). Es decir, realmente contin&#x00FA;a erigi&#x00E9;ndose sobre las capacidades del alumnado y lo etiqueta en funci&#x00F3;n de ellas, perpetuando una perspectiva capacitista sobre el alumnado, que condiciona y lastra su plena inclusi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2017</xref>).</p>
    <p>Lo mismo sucede con la Estrategia Espa&#x00F1;ola sobre Discapacidad 2012-2020 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-29595_esp">Gobierno de Espa&#x00F1;a, 2021</xref>), que establec&#x00ED;a la importancia de lograr que los ni&#x00F1;os y ni&#x00F1;as con discapacidad se integrasen adecuadamente en el sistema educativo general con el apoyo individual necesario. Para ello, propon&#x00ED;a las siguientes l&#x00ED;neas de acci&#x00F3;n estrat&#x00E9;gica: impulsar la detecci&#x00F3;n precoz de las &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB;, potenciar la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado y promover una educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva en todas las etapas educativas con los apoyos que sean necesarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-29595_esp">Cano, y Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2015</xref>). No obstante, la nueva hoja de ruta de la Estrategia Espa&#x00F1;ola sobre Discapacidad 2021-2030 perseguir&#x00E1; el mismo objetivo, en l&#x00ED;nea con la estela de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea (que ha adoptado un marco similar a escala comunitaria para el mismo per&#x00ED;odo, denominado &#x00AB;NextGenerationEU&#x00BB;) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-29595_esp">Comisi&#x00F3;n Europea, 2020</xref>) y el Plan de Recuperaci&#x00F3;n, Transformaci&#x00F3;n y Resiliencia espa&#x00F1;ol (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-29595_esp">Gobierno de Espa&#x00F1;a, 2021</xref>). Ello debido a que las estad&#x00ED;sticas disponibles muestran que, pese al &#x201C;alto porcentaje de inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa, subyace un patr&#x00F3;n estructural discriminatorio de exclusi&#x00F3;n y segregaci&#x00F3;n hacia el alumnado con discapacidad, que se asienta en una mentalidad capacitista&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_esp">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>, p. 9).</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="sec-4-29595_esp">
<label>2.2.</label>
<title><italic>Ruptura entre teor&#x00ED;a y pr&#x00E1;ctica</italic></title>
<p>Otra de las grandes problem&#x00E1;ticas que comporta el paradigma inclusivo es su implementaci&#x00F3;n, ya que se produce una severa ruptura entre su configuraci&#x00F3;n a nivel te&#x00F3;rico y su expresi&#x00F3;n a nivel pr&#x00E1;ctico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-29595_esp">&#x00C1;lvarez-&#x00C1;lvarez, 2013</xref>), pareciendo olvidarse de que el &#x00E9;xito de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva no radica en la mera presencia de los alumnos con discapacidad en las escuelas ordinarias.</p>
<p>Seg&#x00FA;n los &#x00FA;ltimos datos disponibles del Instituto Nacional de Estad&#x00ED;stica, correspondientes al curso 2019-2020, en Espa&#x00F1;a hay un total de 8.286.603 estudiantes matriculados en ense&#x00F1;anzas de r&#x00E9;gimen general, de los cuales tan solo 38.068 cursan educaci&#x00F3;n especial: 27.384 en centros espec&#x00ED;ficos de educaci&#x00F3;n especial y 10.684 en unidades de educaci&#x00F3;n especial en centros ordinarios.</p>
<p>Por otra parte, seg&#x00FA;n los datos del Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional (MEFP) correspondientes al mismo curso acad&#x00E9;mico (curso 2019-2020), el porcentaje de &#x00AB;alumnado con necesidad espec&#x00ED;fica de apoyo educativo&#x00BB; matriculado en ense&#x00F1;anzas regladas no universitarias ascender&#x00ED;a a un 18.3 % (730.100 estudiantes), el 9.0 % recibe una atenci&#x00F3;n educativa diferente a la ordinaria (concretamente 745.794 estudiantes), y el 2.3 % recibir&#x00ED;a apoyo educativo en centros ordinarios por presentar &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB; (un total de 183.725 estudiantes). Del 18.3 % de alumnos &#x00AB;con necesidad espec&#x00ED;fica de apoyo educativo&#x00BB;, el 30.4 % (221.792 estudiantes) tendr&#x00ED;a &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB;, suponiendo un 2.7 % del total de estudiantes matriculados en ense&#x00F1;anzas regladas no universitarias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-29595_esp">MEFP, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Por tanto, en Espa&#x00F1;a, solamente el 0.4 % de los estudiantes se encontrar&#x00ED;a matriculados en ense&#x00F1;anzas de educaci&#x00F3;n especial, frente al 9.0 % que se encontrar&#x00ED;a matriculado en centros ordinarios recibiendo una atenci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;distinta&#x201D; a la ordinaria y el 7.3 % que se encontrar&#x00ED;a, supuestamente, &#x201C;incluido&#x201D; y atendido de forma &#x201C;ordinaria&#x201D;.</p>
<p>Todos estos datos ponen de manifiesto dos cuestiones importantes: la principal y primera de ellas responde al hecho de que el paradigma inclusivo actual sigue etiquetando al alumnado en funci&#x00F3;n de unas supuestas &#x00AB;necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas de apoyo educativo&#x00BB; o bien unas &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB;. Esto, nuevamente, se vincular&#x00ED;a al &#x00AB;sesgo inclusivo&#x00BB; explicado en el apartado anterior, ya que dicha etiqueta lo discrimina y distingue del resto de alumnos, bas&#x00E1;ndose en un enfoque capacitista y lastrando su posible inclusi&#x00F3;n en condiciones de igualdad. Y la segunda cuesti&#x00F3;n, vinculada tambi&#x00E9;n a la primera, hace referencia a la ruptura que se produce entre la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica inclusiva, ya que a&#x00FA;n existe un alto porcentaje de estudiantes atendido fuera de las aulas ordinarias (un 9.0 % en total, seg&#x00FA;n datos del <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-29595_esp">MEFP, 2021</xref>) y cuyo derecho a recibir una educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva de calidad est&#x00E1; siendo vulnerado, incumpliendo el art&#x00ED;culo 24 de la Convenci&#x00F3;n sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-29595_esp">ONU, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s, del 2.3 % de alumnos que reciben apoyo educativo en centros ordinarios por presentar &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB;, la mayor parte es atendida en aulas especiales durante m&#x00E1;s del 20% de la jornada escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-29595_esp">Ramberg, y Watkins, 2020</xref>), pasando m&#x00E1;s horas en ellas cuanto m&#x00E1;s significativas resultan sus dificultades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-94-29595_esp">Wendelborg, y T&#x00F8;ssebro, 2011</xref>).</p>
<p>En este sentido, se produce una ruptura con lo que se desea a nivel te&#x00F3;rico que suceda en la pr&#x00E1;ctica. Esto es, que los sistemas educativos garanticen dos derechos a todos los estudiantes: &#x201C;el derecho a aprender de acuerdo con sus posibilidades y el derecho a aprender en com&#x00FA;n con sus compa&#x00F1;eros de similares edades&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_esp">Marchesi, y Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>, p. 47). A su vez, ambos derechos guardan relaci&#x00F3;n con el cuarto Objetivo de Desarrollo Sostenible de la Agenda 2030 de la Organizaci&#x00F3;n de las Naciones Unidas para la Educaci&#x00F3;n, la Ciencia y la Cultura (UNESCO), que reclama tanto el logro de una educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva, equitativa y de calidad como la promoci&#x00F3;n de oportunidades de aprendizaje durante toda la vida para todos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-29595_esp">UNESCO, 2016</xref>). Pero esto no ocurre en la mayor&#x00ED;a de las realidades educativas, donde se olvida que no basta con que los alumnos estudien juntos en la misma aula ordinaria, sino que es preciso asegurar que todos puedan disfrutar de las mejores condiciones para aprender y desarrollar al m&#x00E1;ximo su potencial individual.</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s, la ley educativa espa&#x00F1;ola actual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_esp">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>), pese a realizar una firme apuesta por la inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa, sigue dejando un resquicio abierto a que algunos estudiantes sean escolarizados en centros de educaci&#x00F3;n especial, por lo que no supone un avance real en esta direcci&#x00F3;n, al igual que suced&#x00ED;a con el informe <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-93-29595_esp">Warnock (1978)</xref>. Dicho informe propugnaba que todo el alumnado presenta necesidades educativas y propon&#x00ED;a que la categorizaci&#x00F3;n de la discapacidad desapareciera, pero, contradictoriamente, a su vez se&#x00F1;alaba que las necesidades de ciertos estudiantes pod&#x00ED;an considerarse &#x00AB;especiales&#x00BB; y distintas a las del resto. De este modo, el concepto de &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB; comenz&#x00F3; a consolidarse a nivel internacional a partir de la Declaraci&#x00F3;n de Salamanca (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-29595_esp">UNESCO, 1994</xref>), que volv&#x00ED;a a incurrir en el error de reclamar una educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva para todos los alumnos, exceptuando aquellos que, por &#x201C;razones de peso&#x201D;, no debieran asistir a los centros ordinarios.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, los centros de educaci&#x00F3;n especial limitan el desarrollo socioafectivo de su alumnado a un grupo de personas que no resulta representativo de la sociedad en general, lo cual dificulta su posterior inserci&#x00F3;n laboral y social, ya que &#x201C;la sociedad dif&#x00ED;cilmente admite a quienes no conoce&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-29595_esp">Casanova, 2011</xref>, p. 15). Es decir, igual de importante resulta para dicho alumnado aprender junto a sus iguales como a sus iguales aprender junto a dicho alumnado.</p>
<p>Otra de las rupturas que se produce entre la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica de la inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa se deriva de las pol&#x00ED;ticas mercantilistas que orientan buena parte del modelo educativo espa&#x00F1;ol, que permite y fomenta la privatizaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n y la articulaci&#x00F3;n de mecanismos selectivos de acceso seg&#x00FA;n criterios socioecon&#x00F3;micos, de rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico y procedencia &#x00E9;tnico-cultural, lo cual sin duda contribuye a generar unos altos &#x00ED;ndices de segregaci&#x00F3;n escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-29595_esp">Murillo, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>) y atenta contra el derecho de todos los ni&#x00F1;os a recibir una educaci&#x00F3;n justa, equitativa y de calidad. Por tanto, para vencer este tipo de discriminaci&#x00F3;n es necesario apostar por sistemas de acceso igualitario y erradicar toda forma de selecci&#x00F3;n arbitraria en el acceso escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-29595_esp">Duk, y Murillo, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, una clara ruptura entre teor&#x00ED;a y pr&#x00E1;ctica inclusiva se vincula a las barreras derivadas del dise&#x00F1;o curricular. Por una parte, a nivel internacional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_esp">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) se apuesta por un curr&#x00ED;culo flexible y abierto a la diversidad, recomendaci&#x00F3;n seguida por Espa&#x00F1;a (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_esp">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>), cuya legislaci&#x00F3;n, contradictoriamente, permite al mismo tiempo la realizaci&#x00F3;n de adaptaciones curriculares para aquellos estudiantes que las precisen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>), contribuyendo a la estigmatizaci&#x00F3;n y la patologizaci&#x00F3;n de la diferencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-29595_esp">Echeita, y Calder&#x00F3;n, 2014</xref>). Esto supone una pr&#x00E1;ctica segregadora y discriminatoria respecto a estos &#x00FA;ltimos, impidi&#x00E9;ndoles beneficiarse del curr&#x00ED;culum com&#x00FA;n que ha sido dise&#x00F1;ado para todo el alumnado (o m&#x00E1;s bien para un estudiante &#x201C;medio&#x201D; inexistente). Otro impedimento derivado del dise&#x00F1;o curricular es la sobrecarga existente a nivel de objetivos y contenidos, que impide atender adecuadamente a la diversidad dentro de las aulas ordinarias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-29595_esp">Dabdub-Moreira, y Pineda-Cordero, 2015</xref>). Por todo ello, el curr&#x00ED;culo debe dise&#x00F1;arse bajo un enfoque competencial que tenga en cuenta las directrices del Dise&#x00F1;o Universal de Aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-29595_esp">Center for Applied Special Technology [CAST], 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-29595_esp">Instituto de Tecnolog&#x00ED;a Educativa [ITE], 2009</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="sec-5-29595_esp">
<label>2.3.</label>
<title><italic>Lenguaje capacitista</italic></title>
<p>La &#x00FA;ltima de las problem&#x00E1;ticas tiene que ver con la mutua estructuraci&#x00F3;n del lenguaje y el conocimiento, y m&#x00E1;s concretamente, con el hecho de que el lenguaje que se emplea para hacer referencia a las diferencias humanas condiciona sin duda las actitudes que se mantienen acerca de la diversidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_esp">Marchesi, y Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>) y los modelos educativos que se implementan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>).</p>
<p>Por este motivo, en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas han sido impulsados ciertos cambios a favor de denominaciones que reemplacen las etiquetas y estereotipos negativos existentes sobre las diferencias humanas, ya que sin duda generan discriminaci&#x00F3;n y segregaci&#x00F3;n y dificultan el avance hacia la normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena de la diversidad.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, por ejemplo, hablar de &#x00AB;necesidades educativas especiales&#x00BB; obedecer&#x00ED;a a un patr&#x00F3;n capacitista que interpretar&#x00ED;a las capacidades de unos como &#x00AB;normales&#x00BB; y las de otros como &#x00AB;diferentes&#x00BB;, peores o menos v&#x00E1;lidas. Lo mismo suceder&#x00ED;a con las &#x00AB;necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas de apoyo educativo&#x00BB;, que implican que las de otros resulten &#x00AB;inespec&#x00ED;ficas&#x00BB; o bien que estos otros no requieren ning&#x00FA;n tipo de apoyo educativo, lo cual resulta imposible, pues todos necesitamos alg&#x00FA;n tipo de apoyo para aprender. Por tanto, resultar&#x00ED;a necesario liberar nuestro enfoque educativo de esta mirada capacitista y apostar por un modelo de normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena en el que se entienda que todas las personas tenemos nuestras propias caracter&#x00ED;sticas y necesidades educativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_esp">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>), distintas unas de otras, y que deben ser atendidas como tales, sin etiquetas, sesgos ni prejuicios, dentro de una educaci&#x00F3;n que sea &#x00AB;especial&#x00BB; para todos. Esto &#x00FA;ltimo resultar&#x00ED;a importante para acabar tambi&#x00E9;n con la &#x00AB;educaci&#x00F3;n especial&#x00BB;, que adem&#x00E1;s de etiquetar a quien la recibe conduce a pensar que el resto de la educaci&#x00F3;n no tiene nada de especial para nadie.</p>
    <p>En el contexto educativo tambi&#x00E9;n resulta necesario emplear el concepto de equidad en lugar del de igualdad, ya que resulta m&#x00E1;s preciso en cuanto a la necesidad de atender a la singularidad y a la diversidad humana en toda su plenitud y riqueza, poniendo en valor de forma positiva sus diferencias impl&#x00ED;citas y expl&#x00ED;citas, consider&#x00E1;ndolas como una gran oportunidad de aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_esp">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-29595_esp">Barth, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-29595_esp">Freire, 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-29595_esp">Stainback, y Stainback, 1999</xref>).</p>
<p>Otro ejemplo de cambio es el que propone <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero (2011)</xref>, quien apuesta por hablar de &#x00AB;oportunidades equivalentes&#x00BB; en lugar de hacerlo sobre &#x00AB;igualdad de oportunidades&#x00BB;, a fin de enfatizar la necesidad de ofrecer a todos los estudiantes unas oportunidades de aprendizaje equivalentes en cuanto a las posibilidades ofrecidas para que todo el alumnado desarrolle al m&#x00E1;ximo su potencial individual, pero que no tienen por qu&#x00E9; ser iguales en tanto id&#x00E9;nticas para todos. Esto guarda una estrecha relaci&#x00F3;n con los fundamentos del Dise&#x00F1;o Universal de Aprendizaje y la idea de que los estudiantes no tienen por qu&#x00E9; aprender haciendo lo mismo, en el mismo tiempo y de la misma forma (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-29595_esp">CAST, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-29595_esp">ITE, 2009</xref>). De hecho, precisamente para respetar sus diferencias individuales es imprescindible que el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza tambi&#x00E9;n se diversifique y enriquezca, ofreciendo a cada estudiante todo lo que necesite para aprender.</p>
<p>Por tanto y en base a todo lo se&#x00F1;alado, resulta necesario avanzar hacia un modelo de normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena que acabe con este tipo de lastres conceptuales que impiden la construcci&#x00F3;n de una verdadera escuela para todos y una educaci&#x00F3;n personalizada que responda a las necesidades educativas personales de cada estudiante y a las demandas de la nueva ecolog&#x00ED;a del aprendizaje en la que nos encontramos inmersos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-29595_esp">Coll, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-29595_esp">2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="sec-6-29595_esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>APUESTA POR UNA ESCUELA PARA TODOS</bold></title>
<p>La apuesta por una escuela para todos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_esp">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-29595_esp">Arn&#x00E1;iz, 1996</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-29595_esp">2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_esp">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) no es nueva y se encuentra respaldada por diversas normativas y mandatos, entre los que cabe destacar la Declaraci&#x00F3;n Mundial de Educaci&#x00F3;n para Todos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_esp">UNESCO, 1990</xref>), que inici&#x00F3; el movimiento de educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva recalcando que su principal objetivo era dar respuesta a las necesidades de todo el alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-29595_esp">Mart&#x00ED;nez, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). Sin embargo, como ya se ha expuesto en los anteriores apartados, la inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa enfrenta un problema sumamente complejo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-29595_esp">Cruz-Vadillo, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-29595_esp">Duk, y Murillo, 2016</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-29595_esp">2018</xref>) del que derivan m&#x00FA;ltiples problem&#x00E1;ticas de dif&#x00ED;cil soluci&#x00F3;n. Si continuamos movi&#x00E9;ndonos bajo un paradigma inclusivo en el que unos incluyen y otros son incluidos, no podremos acabar con la discriminaci&#x00F3;n y la segregaci&#x00F3;n que lastra nuestro sistema educativo.</p>
<p>Resulta imprescindible avanzar hacia un paradigma educativo personalizado en el que ning&#x00FA;n estudiante sea etiquetado ni excluido, porque construir una verdadera escuela para todos, sin excepciones, resulta justo y necesario. Y para consolidar su base, se debe conseguir una normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena de la diversidad, entendiendo que todos formamos parte de ella y que nuestras diferencias individuales nos enriquecen y ayudan a aprender. Para ello, el sistema educativo debe tomar como base los principios de equidad y justicia social, transformando las escuelas en comunidades de aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-29595_esp">Flecha, y Puigvert, 2002</xref>) desde las que se ponga en marcha una pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-29595_esp">D&#x0027;Antoni, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-29595_esp">Freire, 1980</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-29595_esp">McLaren, 1997</xref>) que elimine el capacitismo y cualquier otra forma de discriminaci&#x00F3;n humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2021</xref>). Escuelas para todos que ofrezcan a cada estudiante oportunidades equiparables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>) que le permitan desarrollar al m&#x00E1;ximo su potencial individual, sin exclusiones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-29595_esp">Echeita, 2006</xref>), en el marco de una experiencia de aprendizaje ajustada a sus necesidades educativas personales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>). Escuelas que garanticen una educaci&#x00F3;n justa y de calidad para todos apoyada en el Dise&#x00F1;o Universal de Aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-29595_esp">CAST, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-29595_esp">ITE, 2009</xref>) y en el desarrollo de Planes Personales de Aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-29595_esp">Coll, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Pero para lograr dicha transformaci&#x00F3;n se requieren, adicionalmente, m&#x00FA;ltiples cambios, algunos de los cuales ya han sido mencionados en este art&#x00ED;culo. No obstante, cabe recordar la importancia que adquiere la actitud docente hacia la diversidad y la inclusi&#x00F3;n y la dotaci&#x00F3;n a docentes y centros de cualquier apoyo y ayuda que puedan requerir para promover el aprendizaje de todo el alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-29595_esp">Stainback, y Stainback, 1991</xref>). Aunque para lograrlo, en primer lugar se debe fortalecer y actualizar la formaci&#x00F3;n inicial y permanente de los profesores, directivos, inspectores educativos y otros profesionales del &#x00E1;rea y, en segundo, reconvertir todos los centros de educaci&#x00F3;n especial en centros de recursos, apoyo especializado y asesoramiento para los centros ordinarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-29595_esp">Casanova, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_esp">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-29595_esp" sec-type="discussion|conclusions">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>DISCUSI&#x00D3;N Y CONCLUSIONES</bold></title>
<p>Los avances realizados en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas hacia un modelo educativo inclusivo resultan claramente insuficientes e incompletos, incurriendo en el error de naturalizar la segregaci&#x00F3;n de aquellas personas que no responden al ideal normativo y perpetuando, por tanto, toda clase de pr&#x00E1;cticas, representaciones y acciones capacitistas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_esp">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>) que derivan en una discriminaci&#x00F3;n estructural que a menudo queda invisibilizada en el sistema. El lenguaje empleado en el modelo inclusivo contribuye a ello, etiquetando las diferencias individuales como si solamente aquellas que corresponden a dificultades de aprendizaje formasen parte de la diversidad. As&#x00ED;, se se&#x00F1;ala y segrega a los estudiantes que las presentan, lastrando su plena inclusi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>Como se ha expuesto en este art&#x00ED;culo, &#x201C;si no se cambia el lenguaje, el pensamiento seguir&#x00E1; siendo el mismo&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>, p. 41). En este caso, mientras se contin&#x00FA;e hablando de educaci&#x00F3;n especial o compensatoria, de necesidades educativas especiales, de necesidades espec&#x00ED;ficas de apoyo educativo, de aulas de apoyo, de adaptaciones curriculares, etc., la segregaci&#x00F3;n seguir&#x00E1; existiendo y perpetu&#x00E1;ndose como una pr&#x00E1;ctica com&#x00FA;nmente aceptada en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-89-29595_esp">Tilstone, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>). En definitiva, las creencias, actitudes, estereotipos, opresiones y pr&#x00E1;cticas discriminatorias seguir&#x00E1;n existiendo en tanto no cambie la percepci&#x00F3;n, consideraci&#x00F3;n y el lenguaje que se emplea respecto a las diferencias individuales, consider&#x00E1;ndolas como un elemento enriquecedor y propio de la naturaleza humana.</p>
<p>No cabe duda de que la respuesta educativa que se ofrece a la diversidad es compleja y multifactorial, dependiendo entre otros aspectos de la ratio de alumnos por profesor, del personal de apoyo disponible en el centro, de los recursos existentes en &#x00E9;l, del apoyo brindado por las administraciones educativas, del respaldo a nivel legislativo y normativo, etc.; pero, sobre todo y especialmente, de las competencias, conocimientos y experiencia que tenga el docente, de su actitud y percepci&#x00F3;n sobre las diferencias humanas, su sensibilidad hacia las diversas necesidades educativas personales de su alumnado y su compromiso con una educaci&#x00F3;n justa y de calidad para todos. Pero, como no podr&#x00ED;a ser de otra forma, para lograr este tipo de educaci&#x00F3;n todo ello debe verse acompa&#x00F1;ado tanto de una s&#x00F3;lida formaci&#x00F3;n inicial y permanente para el profesorado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_esp">Marchesi, y Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-29595_esp">Pinelli, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-29595_esp">Rizzo, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>) como de un cambio generalizado en las culturas y valores que caractericen tanto a dicha formaci&#x00F3;n como a las creencias y comportamientos sociales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-29595_esp">Camedda, y Santi, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_esp">Marchesi, y Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-29595_esp">Mart&#x00ED;nez, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>) y, por supuesto, de unas pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas que lo gu&#x00ED;en, respalden y adem&#x00E1;s garanticen los recursos necesarios para desarrollarla con &#x00E9;xito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_esp">Marchesi, y Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>). Porque si nuestro sistema educativo sigue sometido a continuos vaivenes pol&#x00ED;ticos sin alcanzar un pacto educativo estable que cuente con todos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-29595_esp">Cruz, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-29595_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Enguita, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-29595_esp">Novella, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-29595_esp">Pellicer, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-88-29595_esp">Tedesco, 2010</xref>), sin excluir a nadie ni proponerse en contra de nadie (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-29595_esp">Cruz, 2019</xref>) y que abandone por fin la polarizaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-29595_esp">Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Enguita, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-29595_esp">Collados, y Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2020</xref>), dif&#x00ED;cilmente las escuelas van a poder superar todas las problem&#x00E1;ticas se&#x00F1;aladas en este art&#x00ED;culo y lograr construir una verdadera escuela para todos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_esp">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-29595_esp">Arn&#x00E1;iz, 1996</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-29595_esp">2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_esp">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) basada en un modelo hol&#x00ED;stico y en la normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena.</p>
<p>Dicha normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena debe tomar como base una diversidad integrada por todos los seres humanos y sus diferencias, valoradas de forma positiva y sean cuales sean (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-29595_esp">Caama&#x00F1;o, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>), requiriendo un giro en las pol&#x00ED;ticas institucionales que fomente un cambio de mentalidad y actitud hacia la diversidad tanto docente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-29595_esp">Forlin, 2010</xref>) como social, ya que resulta indispensable comprender la complejidad de la diferencia, reconocer la discriminaci&#x00F3;n e identificar los prejuicios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-29595_esp">Sapon-Shevin, 2017</xref>), tanto propios como ajenos. Adem&#x00E1;s, para que el paradigma personalizado logre implementarse correctamente es necesario llevar a cabo otras acciones a nivel educativo, como flexibilizar los tiempos, espacios, grupos y horarios escolares, fomentar la interdisciplinariedad entre las diferentes materias, garantizar la accesibilidad del centro a todos los niveles, reducir las ratios profesor-alumno, proporcionar a cada centro los recursos que necesite, favorecer el trabajo internivelar del alumnado en funci&#x00F3;n de sus competencias y conocimientos, y un largo etc&#x00E9;tera.</p>
<p>Por tanto, como principal l&#x00ED;nea de futuro resulta necesario entender la diversidad como marco integrador de todas las diferencias individuales, descartando cualquier tipo de aproximaci&#x00F3;n capacitista o discriminatoria sobre ellas. Trabajar en la consolidaci&#x00F3;n de este enfoque es esencial para alcanzar la normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena del concepto de diversidad y poder lograr tanto una verdadera escuela para todos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_esp">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-29595_esp">Arn&#x00E1;iz, 1996</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-29595_esp">2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_esp">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) como un mundo en el que todos tengamos, por fin y de verdad, los mismos derechos y oportunidades.</p>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.29595</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.29595</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Articles</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>THE &#x0027;INCLUSIVE BIAS&#x0027; OF THE ABLEIST APPROACH IN INCLUSIVE EDUCATION</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>El &#x0027;sesgo inclusivo&#x0027; del enfoque capacitista en la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1993-1406</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera</surname>
<given-names>Alba</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_eng"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_eng"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1_eng">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad a Distancia de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad a Distancia de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_eng"><email>alba.garcia@udima.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2023352</issue-id>
    <fpage>175</fpage>
    <lpage>190</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>16</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>20</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Educational inclusion is an issue of increasing concern in different areas and levels. However, no matter how many advances have been made to achieve full educational inclusion of students, it will always continue to involve the same problem: the fact that some include and others are included. Therefore, this article will reflect on some of the major problems presented by the inclusive education paradigm. Among them, it will present, first, what has come to be called &#x0022;inclusive bias&#x0022;, referring to the ableist approach that prevails in the background of the inclusive paradigm, which continues to be built on the abilities of students and labels them based on them, conditioning and weighing down their inclusion. Second, it will examine the rupture that occurs between the theory and practice of inclusive education, hindering its proper implementation and instead promoting actions of a segregating nature. And, thirdly, it will address the ableist language that predominates in this model to refer to human differences, fostering negative beliefs, attitudes and stereotypes about diversity. Finally, and in order to evolve towards a holistic educational model that makes it possible to overcome the problems presented by the inclusive model, it is proposed to advance towards the full normalization of diversity and it is claimed a true school for all, without exceptions, which: offers a fair, equitable and quality education for each and every one of the students, is based on a critical pedagogy, works as a learning community and offers a universal design of learning that facilitates the response to the personal educational needs of each student to fully develop their individual potential.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa es una cuesti&#x00F3;n que preocupa cada vez m&#x00E1;s en diferentes &#x00E1;mbitos y niveles. Sin embargo, por muchos avances que se hayan pretendido realizar para lograr una inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa plena del alumnado, esta siempre seguir&#x00E1; comportando el mismo problema: el hecho de que unos incluyen y otros son incluidos. Por ello, este art&#x00ED;culo reflexionar&#x00E1; sobre algunas de las grandes problem&#x00E1;ticas que presenta el paradigma de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva. Entre ellas, presentar&#x00E1;, en primer lugar, lo que se ha venido a denominar como &#x00AB;sesgo inclusivo&#x00BB;, referido al enfoque capacitista que prevalece en el trasfondo del paradigma inclusivo, que contin&#x00FA;a erigi&#x00E9;ndose sobre las capacidades del alumnado y lo etiqueta en funci&#x00F3;n de ellas, condicionando y lastrando su inclusi&#x00F3;n. En segundo lugar examinar&#x00E1; la ruptura que se produce entre la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica de la educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva, dificultando su adecuada implementaci&#x00F3;n y promoviendo en su lugar acciones de car&#x00E1;cter segregador. Y, en tercer lugar, abordar&#x00E1; el lenguaje capacitista que predomina en este modelo para aludir a las diferencias humanas, fomentando las creencias, actitudes y estereotipos negativos que se mantienen acerca de la diversidad. Por &#x00FA;ltimo, y a fin de evolucionar hacia un modelo educativo hol&#x00ED;stico que permita superar las problem&#x00E1;ticas que presenta el modelo inclusivo, se propone avanzar hacia la normalizaci&#x00F3;n plena de la diversidad y se reclama una verdadera escuela para todos, sin excepciones, que: ofrezca una educaci&#x00F3;n justa, equitativa y de calidad para todos y cada uno de los alumnos, tome como base una pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica, funcione como una comunidad de aprendizaje y ofrezca un dise&#x00F1;o universal de aprendizaje que facilite la respuesta a las necesidades educativas personales de cada estudiante para desarrollar al m&#x00E1;ximo su potencial individual.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>inclusive education</kwd>
<kwd>inclusion</kwd>
<kwd>disability</kwd>
<kwd>special needs</kwd>
<kwd>educational discrimination</kwd>
<kwd>school segregation</kwd>
<kwd>educational opportunities</kwd>
<kwd>social justice</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n inclusiva</kwd>
<kwd>inclusi&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>discapacidad</kwd>
<kwd>necesidades educativas</kwd>
<kwd>discriminaci&#x00F3;n educativa</kwd>
<kwd>segregaci&#x00F3;n escolar</kwd>
<kwd>oportunidades educativas</kwd>
<kwd>justicia social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-29595_eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>Educational inclusion is an issue of growing concern in different areas and at different levels, even becoming a political, propagandistic, media and social objective. No matter how much progress has been made to achieve the full educational inclusion of students, it will always involve the same serious problem, intrinsic to its very nature and definition; that is, the fact that some &#x2018;include&#x2019; and others &#x2018;are included&#x2019; (usually people with disabilities and other minority groups). Thus, this approach is precisely the one that, paradoxically, keeps alive certain segregating practices and actions to achieve its goal, which, in turn, generate structural discrimination that renders people with disabilities invisible and legitimises and even denies the existence of such oppression against them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-29595_eng">Student Council of the University of Malaga, 2019</xref>). In fact, this discrimination seems to be on the rise (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-29595_eng">Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Education Fund [LCCREF], 2009</xref>), driven by distorted assumptions and beliefs about disability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-29595_eng">Wallace, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>In this regard, people with disabilities are often portrayed as an invisible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-29595_eng">Dunn, 2019</xref>) and marginalised minority group, which has suffered a long history of violence, oppression and discrimination (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-29595_eng">Keller, &#x0026; Galgay, 2010</xref>). Specifically, in Spain, people with disabilities have been and continue to be victims of various forms of discrimination and restrictions to their enjoyment of and access to rights, education, work, information and services, as evidenced by numerous research papers and reports (e.g.: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-29595_eng">Ministry of Economy, Finance &#x0026; Employment, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-29595_eng">de Cabo <italic>et al</italic>., 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-29595_eng">de Ort&#x00FA;zar, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-29595_eng">Guti&#x00E9;rrez, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-29595_eng">Hern&#x00E1;ndez, &#x0026; Mill&#x00E1;n, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-29595_eng">Huete, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-29595_eng">Huete, &#x0026; Pallero, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-29595_eng">INE, 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-29595_eng">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-29595_eng">Moral, <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-29595_eng">Moral, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-29595_eng"><italic>Observatorio sobre Discapacidad y Mercado de Trabajo en Espa&#x00F1;a</italic>, 2016</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-29595_eng">2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-29595_eng">2018</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-29595_eng">2019</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-29595_eng">2020</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-29595_eng">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-29595_eng"><italic>Observatorio Estatal de la Discapacidad</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-29595_eng">United Nations [UN], 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-29595_eng">2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-29595_eng">Otaola, &#x0026; Huete, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-29595_eng">Pascual, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-29595_eng">Ramiro, &#x0026; Ram&#x00ED;rez, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-29595_eng">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, &#x0026; Cano, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-29595_eng"><italic>Servicio P&#x00FA;blico de Empleo Estatal</italic>, 2019</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-29595_eng">2020</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-29595_eng">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-29595_eng">Silv&#x00E1;n, &#x0026; Qu&#x00ED;fez, 2020</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-29595_eng">2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-90-29595_eng">Valle, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-91-29595_eng">Villa, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>These discriminations and restrictions are compounded by the bias, prejudice and ableism that permeates the thinking of our society and operates as a discourse of power and domination broadcast at numerous levels. It is therefore imperative to raise awareness among the population that such acts and attitudes are not, under any circumstances, acceptable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-29595_eng">LCCREF, 2009</xref>). And in this respect, education plays a key role, since the educational environment is one of the contexts in which ableism is most evident (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_eng">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>), especially in relation to the inclusion of students, producing a false dilemma between the objective of fostering the maximum personal development of each student and the differentiating action to be taken to achieve it (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-29595_eng">Del Pozo-Armentia, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Therefore, this article will first address the various problems posed by the paradigm of inclusive education, and then propose and call for a holistic educational model that is anti-ableist, critical and personalised, in order to contribute to the achievement of a true school for all and the full normalisation of diversity.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-29595_eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>P<sc>roblems of the inclusive paradigm</sc></bold></title>
<sec sec-type="sec-2-29595_eng">
<label>2.1.</label>
<title><italic>The &#x0022;inclusive bias&#x0022;</italic></title>
<p>As already mentioned in the introduction, the inclusive education paradigm has an implicit problem that could be defined as &#x0022;inclusive bias&#x0022;, since in order for some to &#x0027;be included&#x0027; it is necessary for others to &#x0027;include&#x0027;, thus perpetuating discrimination and the risk of exclusion of those who are deemed to need to &#x0027;be included&#x0027; and sustaining the power of those who can (or cannot) &#x0027;include&#x0027; them. In short, it could be argued that the &#x0022;inclusive bias&#x0022; reflects an ableist approach that underlies the paradigm of inclusive education and therefore prevails in current Spanish educational legislation; since despite the fact that Act 3/2020, of 29 December, which amends Act 2/2006, of 3 May, on Education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_eng">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>) seeks to shift the focus on to the needs of each student, it is actually still based on the psycho-pedagogical diagnosis of students who show certain difficulties and who are labelled as &#x0022;students with specific educational support needs&#x0022; and even, within this, as &#x0022;students with special educational needs&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_eng">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>). In other words, it actually continues to be based on students&#x0027; abilities and labels them accordingly, perpetuating an ableist perspective on students, which affects and hinders their full inclusion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2017</xref>).</p>
    <p>The same is true of the Spanish Disability Strategy 2012-2020 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-29595_eng">Government of Spain, 2021</xref>), which established the importance of ensuring that children with disabilities are properly integrated into the mainstream education system with the necessary individual support. To this end, it proposed the following strategic lines of action: promoting the early detection of &#x0027;special educational needs&#x0027;, strengthening the ongoing training of teachers and promoting inclusive education at all educational stages with the necessary support (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-29595_eng">Cano, &#x0026; Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2015</xref>). However, the new roadmap of the Spanish Disability Strategy 2021-2030 will pursue the same objective, in line with the European Union (which has adopted a similar EU-wide framework for the same period, called &#x0022;NextGenerationEU&#x0022;) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-29595_eng">European Commission, 2020</xref>) and the Spanish Recovery, Transformation and Resilience Plan (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-29595_eng">Government of Spain, 2021</xref>). This is because available statistics show that, despite the &#x0022;high percentage of educational inclusion, there is a discriminatory structural pattern of exclusion and segregation towards students with disabilities, which is based on an ableist mentality&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_eng">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>, p. 9).</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="sec-3-29595_eng">
<label>2.2.</label>
<title><italic>Rift between theory and practice</italic></title>
<p>Another major problem with the inclusive paradigm is its implementation, as there is a wide rift between its definition at a theoretical level and its expression at a practical level (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-29595_eng">&#x00C1;lvarez-&#x00C1;lvarez, 2013</xref>), and it seems to be forgotten that the success of inclusive education does not lie in the mere presence of students with disabilities in mainstream schools.</p>
<p>According to the latest available data from the National Institute of Statistics, for the academic year 2019-2020, there are a total of 8,286,603 students enrolled in mainstream education in Spain, of which only 38,068 are in special education: 27,384 in specific special education centres and 10,684 in special education units in mainstream schools.</p>
<p>On the other hand, according to data from the Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (MEFP) for the same academic year (2019-2020), the number of &#x0022;students with specific educational support needs&#x0022; enrolled in regulated non-university education would amount to 18.3 % (730,100 students), 9.0 % would receive special educational attention (745,794 students), and 2.3 % would receive educational support in mainstream schools because they have &#x0022;special educational needs&#x0022; (a total of 183,725 students). Of the 18.3 % of students &#x0022;with specific educational support needs&#x0022;, 30.4 % (221,792 students) would have &#x0022;special educational needs&#x0022;, representing 2.7 % of the total number of students enrolled in regulated non-university education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-29595_eng">MEFP, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Therefore, in Spain, only 0.4 % of students would be enrolled in special education courses, compared to 9.0 % who would be enrolled in ordinary centers receiving &#x0022;different&#x0022; attention from ordinary and 7.3 % who would find, supposedly, &#x0022;included&#x0022; and cared for in an &#x0022;ordinary&#x0022; way.</p>
<p>All these data highlight two important issues: the first and foremost is the fact that the current inclusive paradigm continues to label students according to supposed &#x0027;specific educational support needs&#x0027; or &#x0027;special educational needs&#x0027;. This, again, would be linked to the &#x0027;inclusive bias&#x0027; explained in the previous section, as such labelling discriminates and distinguishes them from other learners, based on an ableist approach and hindering their possible inclusion on equal terms. And the second issue, also linked to the first, refers to the rift that exists between inclusive theory and practice, as there is still a high percentage of students outside mainstream classrooms (9.0 % in total, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-29595_eng">MEFP data, 2021</xref>) and whose right to receive a quality inclusive education is being violated, in breach of Article 24 of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-29595_eng">UN, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>Furthermore, of the 2.3 % of students who receive educational support in mainstream schools because they have &#x0022;special educational needs&#x0022;, the majority are taught in special classrooms for more than 20 % of the school day (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-29595_eng">Ramberg, &#x0026; Watkins, 2020</xref>), spending more hours in them the more significant their difficulties are (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-94-29595_eng">Wendelborg, &#x0026; T&#x00F8;ssebro, 2011</xref>).</p>
<p>In this respect, there is a rift between what is theoretically desired and what happens in practice. That is, education systems guarantee two rights to all students: &#x0022;the right to learn according to their possibilities and the right to learn in common with their peers of similar ages&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_eng">Marchesi, &#x0026; Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>, p. 47). In turn, both rights relate to the fourth Sustainable Development Goal of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization&#x0027;s (UNESCO) 2030 Agenda, which calls for both the achievement of inclusive, equitable and quality education and the promotion of lifelong learning opportunities for all (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-29595_eng">UNESCO, 2016</xref>). But this is not the case in most educational situations, where it is forgotten that it is not enough for pupils to study together in the same mainstream classroom, but that it is necessary to ensure that all can enjoy the best conditions for learning and develop their individual potential to the fullest.</p>
<p>Furthermore, the current Spanish education law (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_eng">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>), despite a firm commitment to educational inclusion, still leaves a loophole open for some students to be placed in special education centres, and therefore does not represent real progress in this respect, as was the case with the <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-93-29595_eng">Warnock report (1978)</xref>. This report argued that all students have educational needs and proposed that the classification of disability should disappear, but, contradictorily, it also pointed out that the needs of certain students could be considered &#x0022;special&#x0022; and different from those of others. Thus, the concept of &#x0022;special educational needs&#x0022; began to take root internationally with the Salamanca Statement (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-29595_eng">UNESCO, 1994</xref>), which again committed the error of calling for inclusive education for all students, with the exception of those who, for &#x0022;compelling reasons&#x0022;, should not attend mainstream schools.</p>
<p>However, special education centres limit the socio-affective development of their students to a group of people who are not representative of society in general, which hinders their subsequent labour and social integration, since &#x0022;society finds it difficult to admit those it does not know&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-29595_eng">Casanova, 2011</xref>, p. 15). In other words, it is just as important for these students to learn alongside their peers as it is for their peers to learn alongside them.</p>
<p>Another of the rifts between the theory and practice of educational inclusion stems from the mercantilist policies that govern much of the Spanish educational model, which permits and encourages the privatisation of education and the implementation of selective access mechanisms based on socio-economic criteria, academic performance and ethno-cultural background, which undoubtedly contributes to producing high rates of school segregation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-29595_eng">Murillo, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>) and undermines the right of all children to receive a fair, equitable and quality education. Therefore, to overcome this type of discrimination, it is necessary to focus on equal access systems and to eradicate all forms of arbitrary selection in school access (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-29595_eng">Duk, &#x0026; Murillo, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Finally, a clear rift between inclusive theory and practice can be seen in the barriers resulting from curriculum design. On the one hand, at the international level (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_eng">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) there is a commitment to a flexible curriculum open to diversity, a recommendation followed by Spain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_eng">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>), whose legislation, contradictorily, at the same time allows curricular adaptations for those students who need them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>), contributing to the stigmatisation and pathologisation of difference (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-29595_eng">Echeita, &#x0026; Calder&#x00F3;n, 2014</xref>). This is a segregating and discriminatory practice with respect to such students, preventing them from benefiting from the common curriculum that has been designed for all students (or rather for a non-existent &#x0022;average&#x0022; student). Another impediment arising from curriculum design is the current overload of objectives and content, which prevents diversity from being adequately addressed in mainstream classrooms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-29595_eng">Dabdub-Moreira, &#x0026; Pineda-Cordero, 2015</xref>). Therefore, the curriculum must be designed under a competency-based approach that takes into account the guidelines of Universal Design for Learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-29595_eng">Center for Applied Special Technology [CAST], 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-29595_eng">Instituto de Tecnolog&#x00ED;a Educativa [ITE], 2009</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="sec-4-29595_eng">
<label>2.3.</label>
<title><italic>Ableist language</italic></title>
<p>The last of the problems has to do with the mutual structuring of language and knowledge, and more specifically, with the fact that the language used to refer to human differences undoubtedly influences the attitudes held about diversity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_eng">Marchesi, &#x0026; Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>) and the educational models that are implemented (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>).</p>
<p>For this reason, in recent decades, certain changes in nomenclature have have been made to replace existing negative labels and stereotypes about human differences, as they undoubtedly lead to discrimination and segregation and hinder progress towards the full normalisation of diversity.</p>
<p>Thus, for example, to speak of &#x0022;special educational needs&#x0022; follows an ableist approach that interprets the abilities of some as &#x0022;normal&#x0022; and those of others as &#x0022;different&#x0022;, worse or less valid. The same is true of &#x0022;specific educational support needs&#x0022;, which implies that the abilities of others are &#x0022;non-specific&#x0022; or that these others do not require any educational support, which is impossible, as we all need some kind of support in order to learn. Therefore, it is necessary to free our educational approach from this ableist view and opt for a model of full normalisation in which it is assumed that all people have their own characteristics and educational needs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_eng">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>), different from one another, and that they should be treated as such, without labels, biases or prejudices, within an education that is &#x0022;special&#x0022; for all. The latter is important in order to put an end to &#x0022;special education&#x0022;, which, in addition to labelling those who receive it, implies that there is nothing special about any other type of education.</p>
    <p>In the educational context, it is also necessary to use the concept of equity rather than equality, as it is more precise in terms of the need to cater for uniqueness and human diversity in all its fullness and richness, viewing its implicit and explicit differences in a positive way, and considering them as a great learning opportunity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_eng">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-29595_eng">Barth, 1990</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-29595_eng">Freire, 1993</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-29595_eng">Stainback, &#x0026; Stainback, 1999</xref>).</p>
<p>Another example of change is proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero (2011)</xref>, who advocates using the term &#x0022;equivalent opportunities&#x0022; rather than &#x0022;equal opportunities&#x0022;, in order to emphasise the need to offer all students equivalent learning opportunities in terms of the possibilities provided for all learners to develop their individual potential to the fullest, but which need not be equal in the sense of being identical for all. This is closely related to the foundations of Universal Design for Learning and the idea that students do not have to learn by doing the same thing, in the same time and in the same way (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-29595_eng">CAST, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-29595_eng">ITE, 2009</xref>). In fact, precisely in order to respect their individual differences, the teaching process must also be diversified and enriched, offering each student everything they need to learn.</p>
<p>Therefore, considering all the above, it is necessary to move towards a model of full normalisation that puts an end to this type of conceptual burden that prevents the construction of a true school for all and a personalised education that responds to the individual educational needs of each student and to the demands of the new learning ecology we are currently immersed in (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-29595_eng">Coll, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-29595_eng">2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-29595_eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>all for a school for all</sc></bold></title>
<p>The call for a school for all (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_eng">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-29595_eng">Arn&#x00E1;iz, 1996</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-29595_eng">2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_eng">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) is not new and is supported by various regulations and mandates, including the World Declaration on Education for All (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_eng">UNESCO, 1990</xref>), which initiated the inclusive education movement, stressing that its main objective was to respond to the needs of all students (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-29595_eng">Mart&#x00ED;nez, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). However, as has already been explained in previous sections, educational inclusion faces an extremely complex problem (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-29595_eng">Cruz-Vadillo, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-29595_eng">Duk, &#x0026; Murillo, 2016</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-29595_eng">2018</xref>) from which numerous difficulty-solved issues arise. If we continue to move under an inclusive paradigm in which some &#x0027;include&#x0027; and others &#x0027;are included&#x0027;, we will not be able to put an end to the discrimination and segregation that plague our education system.</p>
<p>It is essential to move towards a personalised educational paradigm in which no student is labelled or excluded, because building a true school for all, with no exceptions, is fair and necessary. And to lay the foundations for this, we must achieve full normalisation of diversity, realising that we are all part of it and that our individual differences enrich us and help us learn. To this end, the education system must be based on the principles of equity and social justice, transforming schools into learning communities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-29595_eng">Flecha, &#x0026; Puigvert, 2002</xref>) that implement a critical pedagogy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-29595_eng">D&#x0027;Antoni, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-29595_eng">Freire, 1980</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-29595_eng">McLaren, 1997</xref>) that eliminates ableism and any other form of human discrimination (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2021</xref>). Schools for all that offer every student equivalent opportunities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>) that enable them to develop their individual potential to the fullest, without exclusion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-29595_eng">Echeita, 2006</xref>), within the framework of a learning experience tailored to their personal educational needs (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>). Schools that guarantee a fair and quality education for all, supported by Universal Learning Design (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-29595_eng">CAST, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-29595_eng">ITE, 2009</xref>) and the development of Personal Learning Plans (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-29595_eng">Coll, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>But in order to achieve such a transformation, many other changes are required, some of which have already been mentioned in this article. However, it is worth reiterating the importance of teachers&#x0027; attitudes towards diversity and inclusion and the provision of whatever support and help teachers and schools may require to enhance the learning of all students (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-29595_eng">Stainback, &#x0026; Stainback, 1991</xref>). However, in order to accomplish this, firstly, the initial and ongoing training of teachers, managers, educational inspectors and other professionals in the field must be improved and updated and, secondly, all special education centres must be reconverted into centres for resources, specialised support and counselling for mainstream schools (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-29595_eng">Casanova, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-29595_eng">LOMLOE, 2020</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-29595_eng" sec-type="discussion|conclusions">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscussion and conclusions</sc></bold></title>
<p>The progress made in recent decades towards an inclusive educational model is clearly insufficient and incomplete, committing the errror of normalising the segregation of those who do not respond to the regulatory ideal and thus perpetuating all kinds of ableist practices, representations and actions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-29595_eng">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>) that result in structural discrimination which is often concealed within the system. The language used in the inclusive model contributes to this, labelling individual differences as if only those related to learning difficulties were part of diversity. In this way, students with such differences are singled out and segregated, impeding their full inclusion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-29595_eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Barrera, 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>As discussed in this article, &#x0022;if language is not changed, thinking will remain the same&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>, p. 41). In the case that concerns us, while we continue to talk about special or compensatory education, special educational needs, specific educational support needs, support classrooms, curricular adaptations, etc., segregation will continue to exist and be perpetuated as a commonly accepted practice in the educational sphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-89-29595_eng">Tilstone, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-29595_eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Melero, 2011</xref>). In short, discriminatory beliefs, attitudes and practices, stereotypes and oppression will continue to exist until the perception, understanding and language used with respect to individual differences changes and they are seen as an enriching element of human nature.</p>
<p>There is no doubt that the educational response to diversity is complex and multifactorial, depending, among other aspects, on the ratio of students per teacher, the support staff available at the school, the resources available, the backing provided by educational administrations, legislative and regulatory support, etc.; but, especially and above all, on the skills, knowledge and experience of teachers, their attitude and perception of human differences, their sensitivity to the diverse personal educational needs of their students and their commitment to a fair and quality education for all. But, of course, in order to achieve this type of education, all of this must be accompanied by both thorough initial and ongoing teacher training (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_eng">Marchesi &#x0026; Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-29595_eng">Pinelli, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-29595_eng">Rizzo, <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>) and a widespread change in the cultures and values that characterise both this training and social beliefs and behaviours (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-29595_eng">Camedda, &#x0026; Santi, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_eng">Marchesi, &#x0026; Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-29595_eng">Mart&#x00ED;nez, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>) and, of course, educational policies that guide and support it and also guarantee the necessary resources to implement it successfully (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-29595_eng">Marchesi, &#x0026; Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2019</xref>). Because if our education system continues to be subject to continuous political ups and downs without achieving a stable educational pact that involves everyone (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-29595_eng">Cruz, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-29595_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Enguita, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-29595_eng">Novella, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-29595_eng">Pellicer, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-88-29595_eng">Tedesco, 2010</xref>), without excluding anyone or setting itself up against anyone (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-29595_eng">Cruz, 2019</xref>), and which finally abandons political polarisation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-29595_eng">Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Enguita, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-29595_eng">Collados, &#x0026; Hern&#x00E1;ndez, 2020</xref>), it will be difficult for schools to overcome all the problems described in this article and succeed in building a true school for all (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_eng">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-29595_eng">Arn&#x00E1;iz, 1996</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-29595_eng">2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_eng">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) based on a holistic model and full normalisation.</p>
<p>This full normalisation must be based on a diversity made up of all human beings and their differences, viewed in a positive way whatever they may be (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-29595_eng">Caama&#x00F1;o, <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>), requiring a shift in institutional policies to promote a change in mentality and attitude towards diversity, both educational (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-29595_eng">Forlin, 2010</xref>) and social, as it is essential to understand the complexity of difference, recognise discrimination and identify prejudices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-29595_eng">Sapon-Shevin, 2017</xref>), both our own and those of others. Furthermore, for the personalised paradigm to be implemented successfully, it is necessary to carry out other actions at the educational level, such as making times, spaces, groups and school timetables more flexible, promoting interdisciplinarity between different subjects, guaranteeing the accessibility of the centre at all levels, reducing teacher-student ratios, providing each centre with the resources it needs, encouraging students to work at different levels according to their skills and knowledge, and so on.</p>
<p>Therefore, as the main line of action for the future, it is necessary to view diversity as an integrating framework for all individual differences, rejecting any kind of ableist or discriminatory approach to them. It is essential to work on the consolidation of this approach in order to achieve the full normalisation of the concept of diversity and to be able to achieve both a true school for all (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-29595_eng">Ainscow, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-29595_eng">Arn&#x00E1;iz, 1996</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-29595_eng">2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-29595_eng">UNESCO, 1990</xref>) and a world in which we all have, finally and genuinely, the same rights and opportunities.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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