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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.28101</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.28101</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N EMOCIONAL: PR&#x00C1;CTICAS Y DISCURSOS DE SUBJETIVACI&#x00D3;N<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_Esp"><sup>1</sup></xref></article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>Emotional Education: Practices and Discourses of Subjectivation</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5655-4668</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>BORNHAUSER</surname>
<given-names>Niklas</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4109-9575</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>GARAY RIVERA</surname>
<given-names>Jos&#x00E9; Miguel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<label><sup>*</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Andr&#x00E9;s Bello. Chile.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Andr&#x00E9;s Bello</institution>
<country country="CL">Chile</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label><sup>**</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Santo Tom&#x00E1;s. Chile.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Santo Tom&#x00E1;s</institution>
<country country="CL">Chile</country>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><email>niklas.bornhauser@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2"><email>psi.garayrivera@gmail.com</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>101</fpage>
<lpage>122</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>11</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>01</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" xml:lang="es">

<license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n, m&#x00E1;s que un proceso an&#x00F3;nimo, impersonal y monol&#x00ED;tico, es un proceso heterog&#x00E9;neo y sobredeterminado en donde el educando se construye a s&#x00ED; mismo a partir de diversos procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n. El prop&#x00F3;sito de este ensayo es discutir cr&#x00ED;ticamente los alcances de la noci&#x00F3;n de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n a la luz de la introducci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional en el contexto escolar chileno. Sostenemos que se trata no solo de un discurso normativo y exterior (equivalente a una tecnolog&#x00ED;a de poder), sino tambi&#x00E9;n de una eficaz herramienta de autocontrol (tecnolog&#x00ED;a del yo) que modela la emocionalidad de los educandos comprometi&#x00E9;ndolos en un particular trabajo sobre s&#x00ED; mismos. As&#x00ED;, desde una perspectiva geneal&#x00F3;gica, la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional puede ser examinada como una operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n institucionalizada y te&#x00F3;ricamente legitimada para la instauraci&#x00F3;n de un orden establecido, mediante la adquisici&#x00F3;n de determinadas competencias &#x00FA;tiles no solo para que los sujetos sostengan y se adapten a dicho orden, sino tambi&#x00E9;n para que lo reproduzcan (optimismo, resiliencia, tolerancia a la frustraci&#x00F3;n, flexibilidad, entre otras.). Como conclusi&#x00F3;n, se subraya la importancia de pensar la educaci&#x00F3;n no como una operaci&#x00F3;n concreta, racional, que se aplica a un objeto prefigurado (el educando), sino como un devenir articulado complejo, compuesto por distintos vectores, entre ellos los procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n que se dan en su interior. A partir de esta distinci&#x00F3;n, la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional revela su aspecto j&#x00E1;nico, pudiendo encontrarse, por un lado, al servicio de la emancipaci&#x00F3;n del orden establecido, apuntando al ideal moderno de un ciudadano reflexivo y soberano y, por el otro, contribuyendo precisamente a la sujeci&#x00F3;n y al sometimiento de los educandos a trav&#x00E9;s de determinadas pr&#x00E1;cticas materializadas en el dispositivo educativo.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title><bold>ABSTRACT</bold></title>
<p>Education, rather than anonymous, impersonal and monolithic, is a heterogeneous and overdetermined process in which the learner constructs him/herself from diverse processes of subjectivation. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the critical scope of the notion of subjectivation in light of the introduction of emotional education in the Chilean school context. We argue that it is not only a normative and external discourse (equivalent to a technology of power), but also an effective tool of self-control (technology of the self) that models the emotionality of students, committing them in a particular work on themselves. Thus, from a genealogical perspective, emotional education can be analyzed as an institutionalized and theoretically legitimized operationalization for the instauration of an established order, through the acquisition of certain competences useful not only for the subjects to sustain and adapt to this order, but also to reproduce it (optimism, resilience, tolerance to frustration, flexibility, among others). In conclusion, the importance of thinking education not as a concrete, rational operation, applied to a prefigured object (the learner), but as a complex articulated becoming, composed of different vectors, including the processes of subjectivation that occur within it, is emphasized. From this distinction, emotional education reveals its Janic aspect, being able to be found, on the one hand, at the service of the emancipation of the established order, aiming at the modern ideal of a reflective and sovereign citizen and, on the other hand, contributing precisely to the subjection and subjugation of the learners through certain practices materialized in the educational device.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras claves</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>sujeto</kwd>
<kwd>subjetivaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n emocional</kwd>
<kwd>competencias</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>subject</kwd>
<kwd>subjectivation</kwd>
<kwd>emotional education</kwd>
<kwd>competences</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Fondecyt</institution>
<institution>ANID</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>1210037</award-id>
<award-id>21211050</award-id>
</award-group>
<funding-statement>Este trabajo fue escrito en el marco del Proyecto Fondecyt Regular N&#x00BA; 1210037. Agradecemos tambi&#x00E9;n a la Beca ANID de Doctorado Nacional folio 21211050.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-28101_Esp" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Hist&#x00F3;ricamente, la relaci&#x00F3;n entre aparatos educativos y educandos ha sido central en el &#x00E1;mbito de la investigaci&#x00F3;n en pedagog&#x00ED;a propiamente tal, convirti&#x00E9;ndose en uno de los principales asuntos que ha ocupado la tradici&#x00F3;n metaf&#x00ED;sica del pensar en Occidente. La transversalidad y extensi&#x00F3;n de este problema se debe, entre otros, a que se inscribe en una trama discursiva anterior y m&#x00E1;s extensa, que ha recurrido a oposiciones del tipo <italic>el sistema</italic> y <italic>el individuo, lo universal, lo particular</italic> y <italic>lo singular, lo abstracto</italic> y <italic>lo concreto, lo supraordenado</italic> y <italic>lo subordinado</italic> como modos posibles de pensar, primero, la compleja relaci&#x00F3;n entre el Uno y el Todo y, segundo, el proceso educativo en general y su sujeto en particular. Estas sistematizaciones, tradicionalmente dispuestas seg&#x00FA;n los modelos <italic>top-down</italic> y <italic>bottom-up</italic>, por muy productivas que fueran durante decenios, han resultado ser insuficientes a la luz de la emergencia y el establecimiento cr&#x00ED;tico de la noci&#x00F3;n de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n, resultante, a su vez, de las recientes revisiones de uno de los conceptos pivotes de esa discusi&#x00F3;n y del discurso de la Modernidad en particular: la noci&#x00F3;n de sujeto.</p>
<p>Debido a su posici&#x00F3;n estrat&#x00E9;gica como concepto bisagra, articulador de las distintas instancias anteriormente aludidas, cualquier revisi&#x00F3;n o reformulaci&#x00F3;n de esta noci&#x00F3;n afecta inmediatamente no solo a los conceptos vecindados o colindantes &#x2013;por ejemplo, los t&#x00E9;rminos raz&#x00F3;n, acci&#x00F3;n, conciencia, poder&#x2014;, sino tambi&#x00E9;n a los modos de comprender las relaciones entre estos. La propuesta de este ensayo reside en discutir cu&#x00E1;les son algunas de las consecuencias de la recepci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de una determinada vertiente del concepto de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n, derivada de los aportes de Michel Foucault, para la manera de concebir las relaciones entre el sistema escolar, por un lado, y el educando, tradicionalmente pensado como sujeto (de la educaci&#x00F3;n), por el otro. Las reflexiones siguientes, luego de una breve introducci&#x00F3;n de la problem&#x00E1;tica en cuesti&#x00F3;n, considerar&#x00E1;n m&#x00E1;s pormenorizadamente el caso del sistema educacional chileno y, en particular, a una hebra singular de sus innovaciones m&#x00E1;s recientes: la inclusi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-28101_Esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>ubjetivaci&#x00F3;n en el contexto escolar</sc></bold></title>
<p>Los desarrollos te&#x00F3;ricos de Foucault tienden a ser ubicados, con acierto o no, en ciertos linajes o genealog&#x00ED;as<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2_Esp"><sup>2</sup></xref> entre las cuales se encuentran algunos trabajos de Louis Althusser (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-28101_Esp">Le Blanc, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-28101_Esp">Ryder, 2013</xref>)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3_Esp"><sup>3</sup></xref>. &#x00C9;ste, a comienzos de los &#x2018;70 postulaba que, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del car&#x00E1;cter imprescindible de los ya cl&#x00E1;sicos aparatos represivos de Estado (polic&#x00ED;a y ej&#x00E9;rcito) y de su incidencia fundamental en las sociedades disciplinarias, eran los aparatos ideol&#x00F3;gicos de Estado (la familia, la Iglesia y, principalmente, la escuela) a quienes les correspond&#x00ED;a un rol productivo, pro-positivo, no solo en cuanto al aseguramiento del <italic>status quo</italic>, sino en cuanto a su perpetuaci&#x00F3;n mediante la reproducci&#x00F3;n de las relaciones de producci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-28101_Esp">Althusser, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de discutir, con la prolijidad y extensi&#x00F3;n que ameritar&#x00ED;a, la eventual continuidad del pensamiento althusseriano en Foucault, en este lugar nos interesa revisar las posibles consecuencias, para el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n, de la repercusi&#x00F3;n de algunas de sus y del devenir de la noci&#x00F3;n de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n en particular. A este respecto, dentro de la amplia gama de &#x00E9;nfasis y orientaciones que hacen parte de su recepci&#x00F3;n contempor&#x00E1;nea, en relaci&#x00F3;n a la pregunta que nos ocupa, es posible destacar dos huellas del planteamiento althusseriano presentes, en cierta medida, es decir, inscritas &#x2013; y, con ello, reescritas, transcritas&#x2013; en el respectivo espacio conceptual en el que se sit&#x00FA;a el pensamiento de Foucault: primero, la centralidad otorgada a la escuela y a la educaci&#x00F3;n, dos dispositivos que en Althusser eran distinguidos como uno de los aparatos de dominaci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s importantes en todo modelo de gobierno; segundo, la necesidad de repensar la reproducci&#x00F3;n no solo por la cl&#x00E1;sica v&#x00ED;a &#x2018;represiva&#x2019;, basada en una r&#x00E1;pida y superficial asimilaci&#x00F3;n de los planteamientos freudianos y de la noci&#x00F3;n de represi&#x00F3;n en particular, sino de abrir paso a la problematizaci&#x00F3;n de la re-producci&#x00F3;n por una v&#x00ED;a propiamente productiva que excede cualquier repetici&#x00F3;n mec&#x00E1;nica y estereotipada. En concreto, la educaci&#x00F3;n &#x2013;y, por ende, sus principales dispositivos como el jard&#x00ED;n infantil, la escuela, la universidad y otras instituciones afines&#x2013; podr&#x00E1;n ser le&#x00ED;dos como lugares id&#x00F3;neos para intervenir productivamente en el entramado de relaciones de poder que atraviesa y sostiene una sociedad reproduciendo precisamente sus (sujetos-)soportes.</p>
<p>Estos alcances althusserianos se vuelven especialmente visibles dentro de la obra de Foucault una vez que introduce a su entramado conceptual la noci&#x00F3;n de <italic>gubernamentalidad</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2006</xref>). Tal como lo hemos indicado en otras ocasiones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-28101_Esp">Garay, 2022</xref>), esta noci&#x00F3;n se volver&#x00E1; fundamental en la met&#x00F3;dica con la que Foucault contin&#x00FA;a su trabajo hasta el d&#x00ED;a de su muerte, en tanto le permite escapar de lo que de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-28101_Esp">Deleuze (2006)</xref> llam&#x00F3; &#x201C;su impasse te&#x00F3;rico&#x201D; (p. 49)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4_Esp"><sup>4</sup></xref>, y con ello reconocer las limitaciones de su anterior concepci&#x00F3;n del poder, tanto de tipo soberano como disciplinario, que hac&#x00ED;an que escapar del &#x00E9;l y sus relaciones puramente restrictivas y limitantes fuera imposible.</p>
<p>De esta forma, a finales de la d&#x00E9;cada del setenta Foucault sostendr&#x00E1; la tesis de que el poder ha cambiado en su esencia desde un poder que asegura la reproducci&#x00F3;n de las relaciones de producci&#x00F3;n, desde su ejercicio disciplinador, hasta la forma de un <italic>biopoder</italic> cuyo objetivo es el control de la <italic>poblaci&#x00F3;n</italic> mediante lo que denomin&#x00F3; <italic>dispositivos de seguridad,</italic> situando a los individuos frente a un tri&#x00E1;ngulo: &#x201C;soberan&#x00ED;a, disciplina y gesti&#x00F3;n gubernamental&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2006</xref>, p. 135). As&#x00ED;, introduce por vez primera la noci&#x00F3;n de <italic>gubernamentalidad,</italic> que conceptualiza como el &#x201C;conjunto constituido por las instituciones, los procedimientos, an&#x00E1;lisis y reflexiones, los c&#x00E1;lculos y las t&#x00E1;cticas&#x201D; que logran imponer</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>un tipo de poder que podemos llamar &#x2018;gobierno&#x2019; sobre todos los dem&#x00E1;s: soberan&#x00ED;a, disciplina, y que indujo, por un lado, el desarrollo de toda una serie de aparatos espec&#x00ED;ficos de gobierno, y por otro, el desarrollo de toda una serie de saberes (p. 136).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La potencia de estos nuevos dispositivos de seguridad, advierte Foucault, no se agota simplemente en manejar soberanamente a una masa colectiva, sino m&#x00E1;s bien en gobernar la vida misma desde sus m&#x00E1;s &#x00ED;ntimos detalles y en la m&#x00E1;s profunda minuciosidad. Por lo mismo, se trata de un poder que se ejerce ya no exclusivamente por una v&#x00ED;a vertical, descendente y represiva, sino que es la misma poblaci&#x00F3;n que lo ejerce sobre s&#x00ED; misma, dotando a los sujetos de una particular responsabilidad en su propio agenciamiento. Esta idea de un poder productivo y no exclusivamente represivo, obliga a Foucault a replantearse tambi&#x00E9;n una serie de conceptos circundantes. Por ejemplo, uno de notoria centralidad en la obra foucaultiana, el <italic>dispositivo,</italic> cuya genealog&#x00ED;a (en Foucault) nos remite a su noci&#x00F3;n previa de <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5_Esp"><sup>5</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Marcar este tr&#x00E1;nsito no resulta en ning&#x00FA;n caso balad&#x00ED;, pues en este ejercicio que emprende Foucault se logra apreciar que la dimensi&#x00F3;n productiva y no solo limitante del poder comienza a adquirir un lugar central en su arquitectura te&#x00F3;rica. En el caso concreto de <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;,</italic> se aprecia c&#x00F3;mo disloca una noci&#x00F3;n hasta entonces exclusivamente relacionada con el campo de lo pensable en una &#x00E9;poca dada, en otras palabras: con el campo del <italic>saber</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6_Esp"><sup>6</sup></xref>; para introducir la noci&#x00F3;n de dispositivo, que incluye las relaciones de poder y las afectaciones posibles que estas provocan con relaci&#x00F3;n a los propios sujetos. Lo que hace Foucault es agregar en la ecuaci&#x00F3;n las propias transformaciones que vive el sujeto como una parte de la relaci&#x00F3;n entre saber y poder. Dicho de otra forma, a diferencia del concepto de <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;</italic>, la noci&#x00F3;n de dispositivo introduce nuevos clivajes que resultan fundamentales, en tanto: 1) no solo est&#x00E1; relacionada al <italic>saber,</italic> sino que establece una conexi&#x00F3;n &#x00ED;ntima entre saber y poder, &#x201C;no hay relaci&#x00F3;n de poder sin constituci&#x00F3;n relativa de un campo de saber, ni saber que no suponga y no constituya al mismo tiempo relaciones de poder&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2013</xref>, p. 37); 2) establece una dispersi&#x00F3;n del poder a lo largo de toda una multiplicidad de elementos; y 3) describe la producci&#x00F3;n de modos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n, entendido como las disposiciones que adopta el sujeto a partir de esta organizaci&#x00F3;n particular de fuerzas entre saber y poder.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, los dispositivos no son, sino, un conjunto heterog&#x00E9;neo de elementos, tanto discursivos y no discursivos, que se instalan sobre ciertas dimensiones de la vida y las transforman en dominios coherentes y campos estrat&#x00E9;gicos donde &#x2013;mediante distintas tecnolog&#x00ED;as de gobierno&#x2014; se trazan estas l&#x00ED;neas de fuerza entre saber, poder y subjetividad. De all&#x00ED; que Foucault delinee la gubernamentalidad como el arte de gobernar la vida en donde confluyen soberan&#x00ED;a, disciplina y la gesti&#x00F3;n de sujeto sobre s&#x00ED; mismo. Esto &#x00FA;ltimo solo es posible mediante la introducci&#x00F3;n de nuevas t&#x00E9;cnicas de control distintas a las <italic>tecnolog&#x00ED;as de poder</italic>, que se ejercen desde el exterior, que se imponen, dominan y objetivizan al sujeto desde &#x201C;arriba&#x201D;, como es el caso de las regulaciones legales; se trata de las <italic>tecnolog&#x00ED;as del yo</italic>, que define como aquellas t&#x00E9;cnicas que &#x201C;permiten a los individuos efectuar, por cuenta propia o con la ayuda de otros, cierto n&#x00FA;mero de operaciones sobre su cuerpo y su alma, pensamientos, conducta, o cualquier forma de ser, obteniendo as&#x00ED; una transformaci&#x00F3;n de s&#x00ED; mismos&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2008</xref>, p. 48)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7_Esp"><sup>7</sup></xref>. Es m&#x00E1;s, Foucault va a especificar algunos a&#x00F1;os m&#x00E1;s tarde, que lo que ha estado pensado como <italic>gubernamentalidad</italic> no es sino, precisamente, el espacio de contacto entre las tecnolog&#x00ED;as de poder y las de uno mismo. Esto es, el espacio entre el gobierno s&#x00ED; y de los otros.</p>
<p>Esta concepci&#x00F3;n no jur&#x00ED;dica del poder (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-28101_Esp">Foucault, 1996</xref>) se contrapone a cualquier visi&#x00F3;n del sujeto concebido, primero, como un ente ya armado, preconstituido, que luego atraviesa el proceso de educaci&#x00F3;n sufriendo transformaciones menores o conductuales y, segundo, como un recipiente pasivo de materias, valores y otros contenidos provistos por el aparato educativo. Por el contrario, siendo coherente con la idea &#x2013;que, seg&#x00FA;n ha demostrado <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Esp">Edgardo Castro (2004)</xref>, ya puede ser rastreada en <italic>Vigilar y castigar</italic>&#x2013; de que el poder, lejos a obedecer a fines meramente represivos en el sentido privativo o negativo, &#x201C;debe ser visto como una realidad positiva, es decir, como fabricante o productor de individualidad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Esp">Castro, 2004</xref>, p. 264). Este giro radical a la concepci&#x00F3;n jur&#x00ED;dica liberal de poder permite mantener el escepticismo frente a cualquier aproximaci&#x00F3;n que sostenga que el sujeto es una esencia, una sustancia extra-, pre- o ahist&#x00F3;rica (o frente a cualquier &#x2018;universal antropol&#x00F3;gico&#x2019;) y, al mismo tiempo, crea las condiciones de posibilidad para una recuperaci&#x00F3;n &#x2013;y reescritura en otro campo de relaciones de significaci&#x00F3;n&#x2013; del concepto de sujeto a trav&#x00E9;s de la opci&#x00F3;n de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n [<italic>assujettissement</italic>].</p>
<p>Siguiendo a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Esp">Edgardo Castro (2004)</xref>, &#x201C;es posible distinguir dos sentidos de la expresi&#x00F3;n &#x2018;modos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n&#x2019; en la obra de Foucault: un sentido amplio [&#x2026;] y uno m&#x00E1;s restringido, en relaci&#x00F3;n con el concepto foucaultiano de &#x00E9;tica&#x201D; (p. 333). Sobre el primer sentido, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-28101_Esp">Foucault (1988)</xref>, en un texto titulado <italic>El sujeto y el poder,</italic> se&#x00F1;ala: &#x201C;Mi objetivo [durante los &#x00FA;ltimos veinte a&#x00F1;os de trabajo], por el contrario, ha consistido en crear una historia de los diferentes modos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n del ser humano en nuestra cultura&#x201D; (p. 3). En cuanto a estos, aunque pueda parecer paradojal, Foucault se refiere a ellos como &#x201C;modos de objetivaci&#x00F3;n que transforman a los seres humanos en sujetos&#x201D; (p. 3), o como especifica <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Esp">Castro (2004)</xref>, &#x201C;modos en los que el sujeto aparece como objeto de una determinada relaci&#x00F3;n de conocimiento y de poder&#x201D; (p. 333). En el texto en cuesti&#x00F3;n, Foucault entrega las claves para distinguir, <italic>apr&#x00E8;s coup</italic>, tres modos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n: primero, modos de objetivaci&#x00F3;n que pretenden acceder al estatus de ciencias. Foucault aqu&#x00ED; se refiere, a modo de ejemplo, a la ling&#x00FC;&#x00ED;stica, la econom&#x00ED;a y la biolog&#x00ED;a, que proponen pensar el sujeto, respectivamente, como sujeto hablante, sujeto productor de riquezas y el sujeto dotado de vida. Segundo, modos que proceden a trav&#x00E9;s de pr&#x00E1;cticas divisorias (tanto del sujeto respecto de s&#x00ED; mismo como en relaci&#x00F3;n a otros). Dichas pr&#x00E1;cticas constituyen pares excluyentes, tales como loco y el cuerdo, el enfermo y el sano, el delincuente y el hombre probo. Tercero y &#x00FA;ltimo, modos a trav&#x00E9;s de los cuales &#x201C;el ser humano se convierte a s&#x00ED; mismo o a s&#x00ED; misma en sujeto&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-28101_Esp">Foucault, 1988</xref>, p. 3).</p>
<p>Este tercer modo ha sido estudiado de manera ejemplar en la <italic>Historia de la sexualidad</italic>, La segunda acepci&#x00F3;n, m&#x00E1;s acotada, se encuentra a partir del segundo volumen de la <italic>Historia de la sexualidad</italic> y en un art&#x00ED;culo titulado &#x2018;&#x00C9;tica&#x2019;. En este contexto, los modos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n aparecen como uno de los cuatro elementos a partir de los que es delimitado el concepto de &#x00E9;tica (los otros tres son: la sustancia &#x00E9;tica, las formas de elaboraci&#x00F3;n del trabajo &#x00E9;tico y teleolog&#x00ED;a del sujeto moral). El t&#x00E9;rmino &#x2018;&#x00E9;tica&#x2019; se refiere, a grandes rasgos, a establecer una relaci&#x00F3;n consigo mismo, a saber, una relaci&#x00F3;n que no es de mera constataci&#x00F3;n de algo preexistente, que existe con autonom&#x00ED;a y anterioridad, sino una relaci&#x00F3;n en la que el sujeto se constituye como sujeto moral. Implica que el ser humano se transforme en sujeto, concretamente, hace alusi&#x00F3;n a &#x201C;la forma en que el individuo establece su relaci&#x00F3;n con esa regla y se reconoce como vinculado con la obligaci&#x00F3;n de ponerla en obra&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-28101_Esp">Foucault, 1984</xref>, p. 19), en otras palabras, que toma conciencia y se comporte reflexivamente respecto de sus relaciones (deterministas, lineales, sociosimb&#x00F3;licas, coercitivas, etc.) con el conjunto normativo de reglas y, podr&#x00ED;amos a&#x00F1;adir freudianamente, con la ley.</p>
<p>Ahora, espec&#x00ED;ficamente en relaci&#x00F3;n con el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n, vemos c&#x00F3;mo la noci&#x00F3;n de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n ha sido empleada, por ejemplo, para dar cuenta de la idea de que &#x0022;los sujetos educativos se constituyen a trav&#x00E9;s de procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n de poderes, saberes y significaciones imaginarias que van modelando su identidad dentro de los dispositivos pedag&#x00F3;gicos en los que se insertan&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-28101_Esp">Angulo, 2010</xref>, p. 157). La educaci&#x00F3;n, por ende, se constituye como el espacio de inter&#x00E9;s de esta reflexi&#x00F3;n, en tanto se entienda por <italic>escuela</italic> no &#x00FA;nicamente el lugar (f&#x00ED;sico, acotado) donde se da aquel proceso mediador y de transmisi&#x00F3;n socio-cultural para la que original y expl&#x00ED;citamente habr&#x00ED;a sido pensada; tampoco si se entiende solo como el lugar de transmisi&#x00F3;n de conocimientos, t&#x00E9;cnicas y herramientas propias de una u otra disciplina. M&#x00E1;s bien, interesa hacer una lectura cr&#x00ED;tica de la escuela y de sus pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas, pens&#x00E1;ndolas no como operaciones tan solo cosm&#x00E9;ticas u ortop&#x00E9;dicas, que inciden accesoria o subsidiariamente en un sujeto ya conformado, sino como partes fundamentales de la misma constituci&#x00F3;n &#x2013;y deconstituci&#x00F3;n&#x2013; de un sujeto plural, heterog&#x00E9;neo, ensamblado, siempre en v&#x00ED;as de (de)formaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>En el contexto educacional chileno, de su enrevesada y extensa historia que se inicia aproximadamente alrededor de los llamados <italic>a&#x00F1;os fundacionales,</italic> nos enfocaremos en el &#x00FA;ltimo decenio del siglo XX, concretamente, en los a&#x00F1;os que parten con las primeras menciones de la noci&#x00F3;n de <italic>educaci&#x00F3;n emocional</italic> en el sentido moderno. El an&#x00E1;lisis de la experiencia de las reformas educacionales recientes en Chile, refleja el esfuerzo por tratar de convertir el proceso formativo [<italic>Bildung</italic>]<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8_Esp"><sup>8</sup></xref> integral de las personas &#x2013;inspirado en ideales ilustrados, derivados de la <italic>Aufkl&#x00E4;rung</italic> o de <italic>les Lumi&#x00E8;res</italic>&#x2013; en una suerte de producci&#x00F3;n en masas, industrial, tecnificada, que aspira al cumplimiento de est&#x00E1;ndares internacionales de rendimiento y en la que los prop&#x00F3;sitos y las acciones propiamente pedag&#x00F3;gicos han pasado a un segundo plano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-28101_Esp">Bustamante, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>Es as&#x00ED; como, en tiempos neoliberales, las pol&#x00ED;ticas p&#x00FA;blicas en materia de educaci&#x00F3;n son pensadas, m&#x00E1;s bien, como formas alternativas de mantener y perpetuar el orden imperante no exclusivamente por la v&#x00ED;a de la oportuna supresi&#x00F3;n de cualquier germen potencialmente insurgente, sino que, tambi&#x00E9;n, a trav&#x00E9;s del ejercicio activo del poder entendido como fuerza productiva. Bajo el r&#x00F3;tulo del <italic>Nuevo Management P&#x00FA;blico</italic> se han reunido una serie de aproximaciones y medidas que consisten en imponer de manera inapelable una visi&#x00F3;n privatizadora de lo p&#x00FA;blico a trav&#x00E9;s de la implementaci&#x00F3;n de cambios, tan bruscos como irreversibles, ligados principalmente a la marquetizaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-28101_Esp">Hall y McGinity, 2015</xref>), la medici&#x00F3;n y el gerencialismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-28101_Esp">Grinberg, 2006</xref>), adem&#x00E1;s de la creciente importancia de la performatividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-28101_Esp">Soto, Mera, N&#x00FA;&#x00F1;ez, Sisto, y Fardella, 2016</xref>). En general, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de sus diferencias espec&#x00ED;ficas, este tipo de control busca establecer una serie de din&#x00E1;micas de gesti&#x00F3;n que se caracterizan por su plasticidad y maleabilidad, cuyas pretensiones de administraci&#x00F3;n de los conflictos de poderes no solo se legitimen desde la invocaci&#x00F3;n de determinados modelos te&#x00F3;ricos, sino que, junto a las intervenciones en cuesti&#x00F3;n, lleven de la mano un conjunto de aparatos de objetivaci&#x00F3;n y medici&#x00F3;n de sus efectos, por muy variables y cuestionables que sean.</p>
<p>En lo que sigue proponemos un an&#x00E1;lisis de un dispositivo<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9_Esp"><sup>9</sup></xref> particular de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n, que ilustra lo anteriormente expuesto y permite poner a prueba c&#x00F3;mo ciertos conceptos, originalmente forjados en el seno de &#x00E1;mbitos disciplinares ajenos a la educaci&#x00F3;n, son asimilados y adaptados no con fines netamente pedag&#x00F3;gicos, sino con miras al incremento de la efectividad de las pr&#x00E1;cticas de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n en curso. Concretamente, nos referimos a la progresiva y silente inclusi&#x00F3;n de la llamada <italic>educaci&#x00F3;n emocional</italic> en los curr&#x00ED;culums en el caso de Chile.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-28101_Esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a educaci&#x00F3;n emocional</sc></bold></title>
<p>Sobre la base del supuesto antagonismo entre lo racional y lo emocional, que en materia educativa supondr&#x00ED;a un hist&#x00F3;rico privilegio a lo primero en desmedro de lo segundo, se ha ido generando un movimiento &#x2013;reactivo, contestatario, compensatorio&#x2013; que ha rescatado y revaluado los aspectos emocionales ligados a la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-28101_Esp">Extremera, y Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Berrocal, 2004</xref>). Esta tendencia, no solo en el caso chileno, se ha visto fortalecida gracias a su complicidad con la llamada <italic>psicolog&#x00ED;a positiva</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-28101_Esp">Cabanas, y Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2021</xref>). La idea que sustenta dicho movimiento, y que en este punto recuerda el surgimiento de la <italic>tercera fuerza</italic> a comienzos de la segunda mitad del siglo pasado en el campo de la psicolog&#x00ED;a, es que las emociones, que habr&#x00ED;an sido descuidadas hist&#x00F3;ricamente por la formaci&#x00F3;n escolar de corte tradicional, deben formar parte expl&#x00ED;cita de la educaci&#x00F3;n en tanto materia imprescindible para la formaci&#x00F3;n de personas integrales, competentes, provistas con las habilidades necesarias para enfrentar los desaf&#x00ED;os de la vida moderna &#x2013; cualesquiera que estos sean.</p>
<p>La principal diferencia respecto del surgimiento y de la propagaci&#x00F3;n del humanismo en los a&#x00F1;os 60, es que dicha hip&#x00F3;tesis, lejos de mantenerse &#x00FA;nicamente en un &#x00E1;mbito conceptual o te&#x00F3;rico, se ha materializado en gran n&#x00FA;mero de instructivos, manuales e incluso programas gubernamentales (como el programa HPV, Habilidades Para la Vida) orientados a formar competencias emocionales, ya sea en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-28101_Esp">Bisquerra, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-28101_Esp">2011</xref>) o de las empresas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-28101_Esp">Rodr&#x00ED;guez y Sanz, 2013</xref>). Otra diferencia con el mentado auge del humanismo en el campo de la psicolog&#x00ED;a, que en su momento denunciaba la hegemon&#x00ED;a discursiva y pr&#x00E1;ctica del psicoan&#x00E1;lisis y del conductismo, es que este &#x00E9;nfasis en lo emocional y lo positivo, lejos de constituir un gesto revolucionario tan radical como aislado, que propone la subversi&#x00F3;n de los dispositivos establecidos y el derrumbamiento de las relaciones de poder hegem&#x00F3;nicas, m&#x00E1;s bien ofrece al sujeto un conjunto de t&#x00E9;cnicas para adaptarse mejor al orden prestablecido y, en el mejor de los casos, destacarse favorablemente en un medio que asume como leg&#x00ED;timo. De hecho, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-28101_Esp">Cabanas &#x0026; S&#x00E1;nchez (2016)</xref> sugieren que la psicolog&#x00ED;a positiva, al prescindir de todo cuestionamiento de las pr&#x00E1;cticas establecidas, opera justamente recogiendo el testigo del movimiento humanista, pero invirtiendo su l&#x00F3;gica. El &#x00E9;xito y los logros escolares ya no determinan la felicidad del educando; ahora es m&#x00E1;s bien al rev&#x00E9;s: la felicidad del educando es lo que determinar&#x00E1; su &#x00E9;xito.</p>
<p>Para abordar la emergencia de este fen&#x00F3;meno, aunque sea superficialmente, resulta &#x00FA;til remitir al llamado <italic>affective turn</italic> en las ciencias sociales y humanas. Se trata de un conjunto de reconceptualizaciones sobre la emocionalizaci&#x00F3;n de la vida p&#x00FA;blica que comienzan a repercutir en el &#x00E1;mbito acad&#x00E9;mico a finales del siglo XX. Con la noci&#x00F3;n de giro afectivo se alude directamente &#x201C;al creciente y crucial papel de las emociones en la transformaci&#x00F3;n de esferas de la vida p&#x00FA;blica tales como los medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n, la salud, o la esfera legal entre otras&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-28101_Esp">Lara, y Enciso, 2013</xref>, p. 102)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10_Esp"><sup>10</sup></xref>. En esta l&#x00ED;nea, con aportes sobre todo de la antropolog&#x00ED;a y la sociolog&#x00ED;a, se ha instalado con robustez la idea de que las emociones son, principalmente, de car&#x00E1;cter sociocultural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-28101_Esp">Illouz, 2007</xref>), a pesar de su componente biol&#x00F3;gico. Esto supone que la experiencia emocional y afectiva var&#x00ED;a a partir de repertorios culturales diferenciados y, por lo tanto, depende tambi&#x00E9;n de mecanismos y estructuras de poder determinadas. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-28101_Esp">Para Luna y Mantilla (2018)</xref>, por ejemplo, las emociones pueden ser pensadas como prescripciones creadas por el sistema social, lo que nos remite a su evidente componente pol&#x00ED;tico y normativo que ponen de manifiesto los desbordes disciplinarios que son necesarios para afrontar la complejidad de esta dimensi&#x00F3;n de la vida, que nos puede hacer transitar desde formas emocionales de exclusi&#x00F3;n y control, hasta posibilidades afectivas de resistencia &#x2013;y viceversa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-28101_Esp">Cordero, Moscoso, y Viu, 2018</xref>). En otras palabras, lo emocional de la educaci&#x00F3;n puede tomar forma a partir de &#x201C;experiencias en las cuales los sujetos se sienten reconocidos, o por el contrario, como experiencias de invisibilidad social&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-28101_Esp">Nobile, 2019</xref>, p. 10).</p>
<p>De all&#x00ED; que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-28101_Esp">Nobile (2019)</xref> insista que recuperar estos aspectos m&#x00E1;s profundos del giro afectivo a la hora de hablar de los fen&#x00F3;menos educativos, resulta esencial en tanto permite problematizar la relaci&#x00F3;n <italic>educaci&#x00F3;n-emociones</italic> a partir de su imbricaci&#x00F3;n con procesos de producci&#x00F3;n y reproducci&#x00F3;n de desigualdades socioeducativas y, sobre todo, con las formas en que la escuela fabrica subjetividades. La manera en que tome forma esta relaci&#x00F3;n entre emociones y educaci&#x00F3;n en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa resulta, entonces, fundamental en una serie de niveles, especialmente por sus implicancias pr&#x00E1;cticas. Sin embargo, en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas hemos sido testigos del ascenso de un discurso emocional dentro del &#x00E1;mbito educativo que no necesariamente responde a la misma l&#x00F3;gica de las problematizaciones que el giro afectivo de las ciencias sociales y humanas parec&#x00ED;an ofrecernos. Se trata de una tendencia por promover una gesti&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica y estructurada de los propios sujetos sobre sus emociones que, durante el presente siglo, se ha posicionado como un verdadero nuevo paradigma desde el cual repensar la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Este nuevo punto de partida, sin embargo, parece no detenerse tanto en la especificidad de las experiencias cotidianas dentro del espacio educativo que &#x2013;expl&#x00ED;cita e impl&#x00ED;citamente&#x2014; inundan nuestro mundo afectivo, as&#x00ED; como tampoco en la posibilidad de subvertir el orden establecido que ello nos ofrece. Lejos de eso, se trata de una propuesta que m&#x00E1;s bien est&#x00E1; centrada en la urgencia de entrenar <italic>competencias</italic> y <italic>habilidades emocionales</italic> dentro del aula, con las cuales los educandos estar&#x00ED;an mejor preparados para enfrentar el mundo e insertarse en una sociedad com&#x00FA;nmente descrita como <italic>cambiante, desafiante</italic> y <italic>compleja,</italic> y que en el caso chileno responde a un tipo de sociedad profundamente neoliberal. Es decir, adaptarse mejor a un orden determinado. De esta forma, la relaci&#x00F3;n <italic>educaci&#x00F3;n-emociones</italic> se ha reducido a la mera necesidad de trabajar contenidos vinculados, sobre todo, a las emociones positivas dentro del espacio educativo (<italic>e.g.</italic> optimismo, resiliencia, tolerancia a la frustraci&#x00F3;n, control de impulsos, felicidad, etc.), recurriendo para ello a un variopinto conjunto de t&#x00E9;cnicas y herramientas, muchas veces provenientes de mundos ajenos al educativo (como el <italic>mindfulness</italic> o el yoga), y que son instrumentalizadas en esta direcci&#x00F3;n, ignorando parcial o totalmente el hecho de que antes que adaptarse y consolidar el <italic>statu quo</italic>, lo que el giro afectivo promueve es un ejercicio profundamente cr&#x00ED;tico y emancipatorio a partir del cuestionamiento de las relaciones de poder que se articulan sobre <italic>lo emocional</italic>-<italic>afectivo</italic>.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, las emociones devienen hoy en este nuevo paradigma educativo que ha sido ampliamente difundido y materializado a partir del r&#x00F3;tulo <italic>Educaci&#x00F3;n Emocional</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-28101_Esp">Bisquerra, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-28101_Esp">2009</xref>). Sin embargo, por aceptada y extendida que sea en la actualidad, su repentina emergencia alejada de las problematizaciones del giro afectivo en las ciencias sociales, as&#x00ED; como su r&#x00E1;pida y acr&#x00ED;tica expansi&#x00F3;n, invitan a ser cautos y emprender un ejercicio cr&#x00ED;tico orientado a develar en mayor profundidad aquello que determina su articulaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>En este sentido, como bien se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-28101_Esp">Nobile (2019)</xref>, a pesar de que al interior de la Educaci&#x00F3;n Emocional (en adelante, EE) hoy sea posible identificar matices, los aportes que bajo su nombre se engloban suelen compartir una clara matriz discursiva que se nutre tanto de la psicolog&#x00ED;a positiva como de los desarrollos de la aclamada <italic>inteligencia emocional</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-28101_Esp">Goleman, 1995</xref>), las cuales se han articulado, tanto expl&#x00ED;cita como impl&#x00ED;citamente, en un <italic>discurso dominante</italic> dentro del &#x00E1;mbito educativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-28101_Esp">&#x00C1;lvarez, 2018</xref>) desde el cual se concretan particulares formas de entender, gestionar y modelar las emociones, por sobre otras formas posibles.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, uno de los aspectos que caracteriza a las conceptualidades antes mencionadas es que, en vez de develar y oponerse a la tiran&#x00ED;a de las racionalidades orientadas a fines, considera e incorpora en su argumentaci&#x00F3;n al campo de la inteligencia: primero, con tal de entender las emociones en principio ajenas a la comprensi&#x00F3;n racional y, segundo, elaborar, sobre la base de ese entendimiento, estrategias y conductas conducentes a lidiar y autogestionar de manera exitosa aquellos aspectos del s&#x00ED; mismo tradicionalmente resistentes a la administraci&#x00F3;n racional. Resulta decisivo que, respecto de esta reconceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de las emociones, desde las esferas m&#x00E1;s globales y transversales como es el caso de la OMS, se haya hablado de ellas como <italic>habilidades para la vida</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-28101_Esp">Organizaci&#x00F3;n Mundial de la Salud, 1993</xref>). En este lugar, la aparente comprensibilidad de suyo de un t&#x00E9;rmino tan pegadizo como enga&#x00F1;oso encubre su indeterminaci&#x00F3;n radical, pues al reducir ling&#x00FC;&#x00ED;stica y conceptualmente la pluralidad inherente a la noci&#x00F3;n de vida(s), esquiva y deja en suspenso una pregunta esencial: &#x00BF;para qu&#x00E9; tipo de vida(s)?<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11_Esp"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
    <p>No es de sorprender que la inteligencia emocional, avalada por las organizaciones globales de salud y de salud mental en particular, haya pasado a ser asumida sin inconvenientes en los paradigmas actuales en educaci&#x00F3;n, consolid&#x00E1;ndose como un elemento central de la EE, que busca el desarrollo de ciertas estrategias que les permitan ir en busca &#x2013;o, mejor dicho, a la caza&#x2013; de un m&#x00E1;ximo de bienestar y felicidad. La b&#x00FA;squeda y, por supuesto, la consecuci&#x00F3;n no solo de la felicidad y plenitud, sino de un m&#x00E1;ximo posible de ambas, conforma el horizonte de expectativas en el cual se inscriben las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas actuales. De esta forma, la EE se propone &#x2013;mejor dicho: impone&#x2013; no solo el desarrollo, sino, m&#x00E1;s bien, la producci&#x00F3;n de sujetos emocionalmente competentes mediante la promoci&#x00F3;n de ciertas cualidades, rasgos, capacidades y conocimientos particularmente &#x00FA;til en el contexto capitalista en el que nos desenvolvemos (e.g. tolerancia a la frustraci&#x00F3;n, gesti&#x00F3;n del estr&#x00E9;s, resiliencia, flexibilidad para adaptarse a los cambios e incertidumbre, entre otras), formando parte, as&#x00ED;, de las presiones que sufre actualmente el sistema educativo para adaptarlo a las necesidades del mundo econ&#x00F3;mico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-28101_Esp">Sol&#x00E9; Blanch, 2020</xref>).</p>
    <p>Resulta llamativo que entre los bienintencionados profesionales de la educaci&#x00F3;n sea frecuente una apelaci&#x00F3;n a la innovaci&#x00F3;n neuroeducativa como justificaci&#x00F3;n a la implementaci&#x00F3;n de estos discursos y pr&#x00E1;cticas. Sobre todo porque esta revalorizaci&#x00F3;n de las emociones en general y de las emociones positivas en particular ha sido objeto de importantes cr&#x00ED;ticas conceptuales, epist&#x00E9;micas e hist&#x00F3;ricas. As&#x00ED; sucede con el propio concepto de <italic>inteligencia emocional</italic> (IE), que a pesar de sus fuertes cuestionamientos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-28101_Esp">Geher, 2004</xref>) ha sorteado toda resistencia, permeando el espacio de la educaci&#x00F3;n hasta sus rincones m&#x00E1;s remotos. Objeciones como las de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-28101_Esp">Barraza (2018)</xref>, que forman parte de una cr&#x00ED;tica a la interpretaci&#x00F3;n tendenciosa de hechos neurocient&#x00ED;ficos en educaci&#x00F3;n, conocidos como <italic>neuromitos</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-28101_Esp">Pallar&#x00E9;s-Dom&#x00ED;nguez, 2021</xref>), y en donde afirma que ni las inteligencias m&#x00FA;ltiples ni la inteligencia emocional son teor&#x00ED;as basadas en evidencia cient&#x00ED;fica, tambi&#x00E9;n han sido deso&#x00ED;das. Asimismo, se ha alertado que el concepto de IE no estar&#x00ED;a ni bien definido ni consensuado, siendo tempranamente denunciada su recepci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica dentro del campo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-28101_Esp">Hughes, 2005</xref>). Tampoco logra diferenciarse claramente de la combinaci&#x00F3;n de variables de personalidad y aspectos de la capacidad cognitiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-28101_Esp">Humphrey, Curran, Morris, Farrell y Woods, 2007</xref>). Adicionalmente, ha sido demostrado que la IE no tiene validez predictiva incremental para el rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico ni por sobre ni por debajo de las variables de personalidad y de CI (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-28101_Esp">Barchard, 2003</xref>) &#x2013;dos conceptos ambiguos y polivalentes, que hist&#x00F3;ricamente se han resistido a cualquier definici&#x00F3;n conceptual vinculante&#x2013;, ni que la presunta relaci&#x00F3;n entre IE y rendimiento escolar sea tal como dice su fundador (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-28101_Esp">Barraza, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, a pesar de las numerosas y atendibles cr&#x00ED;ticas, la dominaci&#x00F3;n que ejerce el significado de IE que Goleman le adscribe<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12_Esp"><sup>12</sup></xref>, ha llevado a pensar en &#x00E9;sta nada menos como <italic>el mejor predictor del &#x00E9;xito en la vida,</italic> y como un elemento ya no solo vital para el rendimiento escolar, sino tambi&#x00E9;n para el &#x00E9;xito laboral, la felicidad conyugal, la salud f&#x00ED;sica y que es capaz de predecir, nada menos, que hasta el 80 % del &#x00E9;xito en la vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-28101_Esp">Pool, 1997</xref>), estableciendo todo tipo de vinculaciones con nociones pertenecientes a un dominio no solo proto o pericient&#x00ED;fico, sino francamente ideol&#x00F3;gico, tal como ocurre, de hecho, con la idea de <italic>&#x00E9;xito en la vida,</italic> develando as&#x00ED; la presencia simult&#x00E1;nea de un doble sesgo: tanto ideol&#x00F3;gico como cient&#x00ED;fico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-28101_Esp">Cabanas, y Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2021</xref>). En otras palabras, y parafraseando a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-28101_Esp">Meirieu (2022)</xref>, estas tendencias pedag&#x00F3;gicas que se pretenden y escudan acr&#x00ED;ticamente en el cientificismo, muchas veces nos esconden las teor&#x00ED;as y finalidades sociales, filos&#x00F3;ficas y normativas que las animan.</p>
<p>No obstante, el avance de la IE, y sobre todo la naturalidad con la que ha sido adoptada en el paradigma educativo actual, parece irreversible. Esto se debe a que el &#x00E9;xito de la IE en particular y de la EE en general se han afiatado por otras v&#x00ED;as, ajenas al debate cient&#x00ED;fico y a la validez de sus conceptos, pero no por ello menos eficientes. Al consultar la web oficial del Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n de Chile, por ejemplo, se puede apreciar dicha naturalidad plasmada en la misi&#x00F3;n que esta entidad plantea para la educaci&#x00F3;n b&#x00E1;sica (primaria), donde se&#x00F1;alan que &#x201C;durante la Educaci&#x00F3;n B&#x00E1;sica los y las estudiantes desarrollen una autoestima positiva y conciencia de s&#x00ED; mismo, aprender a trabajar individualmente y en equipo, desarrollar su responsabilidad y tolerancia a la frustraci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-28101_Esp">Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n, s/f</xref>, p&#x00E1;rr. 3). Mismo &#x00E9;nfasis que se aprecia en lo referido a la educaci&#x00F3;n media (secundaria), donde, adem&#x00E1;s, se a&#x00F1;ade la urgencia de que los estudiantes puedan &#x00AB;<italic>integrarse plenamente a la sociedad</italic>&#x00BB;. De nuevo: &#x00BF;a qu&#x00E9; tipo de sociedad debemos integrarnos plenamente? &#x00BF;A una sociedad neoliberal, prefigurada, avalada por la tradici&#x00F3;n y las costumbres, en cuyo dise&#x00F1;o sus actores no tienen incidencia alguna? Y, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; implica la plena integraci&#x00F3;n a &#x00E9;sta?</p>
<p>Considerando la complejidad y sobredeterminaci&#x00F3;n del problema, no es de sorprender que sean varios los &#x00E1;ngulos desde los cuales pueda esbozarse la cr&#x00ED;tica de la propagaci&#x00F3;n de la IE en los distintos planos de los proyectos de educaci&#x00F3;n, entre ellos, el auge de lo emocional en los curr&#x00ED;culums. En este caso, de acuerdo con lo planteado inicialmente, nos interesa destacar c&#x00F3;mo estas modificaciones instauran y promueven el forjamiento de pr&#x00E1;cticas de dominaci&#x00F3;n que los sujetos en v&#x00ED;as de constituci&#x00F3;n no solo padecen, sino que ejercen constantemente sobre s&#x00ED;. De este modo, a diferencia de lo que ocurr&#x00ED;a en los principales modelos cl&#x00E1;sicos, esta v&#x00ED;a de sujeci&#x00F3;n no precisa de la represi&#x00F3;n en el sentido cl&#x00E1;sico, ni de la sanci&#x00F3;n ni del castigo, ni de una renuncia de s&#x00ED;, pues se fundamenta en generar <italic>habilidades</italic> y <italic>actitudes,</italic> que, como dir&#x00ED;a Foucault, buscan un cambio en s&#x00ED; mismo &#x201C;con el fin de alcanzar cierto estado de felicidad, pureza o sabidur&#x00ED;a&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2008</xref>, p. 48). Un cambio que no se circunscribe &#x00FA;nicamente al &#x00E1;mbito conductual y va m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de lo contingente y transitorio, materializ&#x00E1;ndose en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de un <italic>ethos</italic>.</p>
<p>Como consecuencia de lo anterior, es posible apreciar c&#x00F3;mo la emocionalidad, primero, es revalorizada e introducida conceptualmente en los proyectos formativos, para luego, en un segundo instante, dejada en mano de los mismos sujetos a ser educados, en lugar de operar desde el afuera, se convierte en una herramienta de (auto)control. Este control, a diferencia de lo que sucede en las pr&#x00E1;cticas emancipatorias cl&#x00E1;sicas, no apunta a la autonom&#x00ED;a respecto de las condiciones institucionales, socioecon&#x00F3;micas y culturales que crearon las condiciones de posibilidad de tal modo de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n, sino que contribuyen, desde esta suerte de <italic>extranjer&#x00ED;a interior</italic>, a la consolidaci&#x00F3;n de &#x00E9;stas. Modelan la emocionalidad de las personas, dejando el peso de la cuesti&#x00F3;n misma en el individuo. Al dejar la responsabilidad en manos del propio sujeto es posible no cesar en la enunciaci&#x00F3;n de la necesidad de cambio, enfatizando la urgencia de desarrollar, en cada individuo, competencias emocionales para afrontar las situaciones en las que se est&#x00E1; inmerso, sin cuestionar la legitimidad de esas situaciones.</p>
<p>Como ha destacado <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-28101_Esp">Pons (2008)</xref>, una de las principales funciones de este tipo de psicologizaci&#x00F3;n consiste, justamente, en permitir elaborar un discurso pol&#x00ED;ticamente correcto que desculpabilice a los fundamentos constitutivos del sistema econ&#x00F3;mico-pol&#x00ED;tico-social, identificando a quienes est&#x00E1;n en situaci&#x00F3;n de desventaja social ya sea como o v&#x00ED;ctimas de alguna disfuncionalidad, carencia, malformaci&#x00F3;n psicol&#x00F3;gica o de un aprendizaje o socializaci&#x00F3;n deficiente. O en casos m&#x00E1;s extremos, pero no menos comunes, sujetos no solo responsables sino incluso culpables de un <italic>destino</italic> buscado por ellos mismos &#x2013; ya sea consciente o inconscientemente. Lo que resta intacto, puesto fuera del alcance de cualquier examen cr&#x00ED;tico, son las condiciones estructurales que fijan el marco interior a partir del que se han de desarrollar, con el mayor &#x00E9;xito posible, los procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n en cuesti&#x00F3;n. Es all&#x00ED; donde radica el <italic>quid</italic> del proceso de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n le&#x00ED;do desde la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional: no se aspira a ideales ilustrados tradicionales, vinculados a la emancipaci&#x00F3;n y adquisici&#x00F3;n de la mayor&#x00ED;a de edad [<italic>M&#x00FC;ndigkeit</italic>] &#x2013;y, en definitiva, al uso aut&#x00F3;nomo, cr&#x00ED;tico de la propia capacidad de entendimiento, vuelta en contra de dichas determinaciones presuntamente invariables, capaz de interrogar su supuesta naturalidad&#x2014;, sino que se busca impulsar la generaci&#x00F3;n de un tipo de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n en el cual todo tipo de resistencia se desplace desde la oposici&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica que revindica al derecho a pensar &#x2013;y ser&#x2013; no solo interrogando lo que ya se sabe, sino tratando de &#x201C;emprender el saber de c&#x00F3;mo y hasta d&#x00F3;nde ser&#x00ED;a posible pensar distinto&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2003</xref>, p. 8), un modo diferente al ejercicio domesticado, templado de (pseudo)resistencia adaptativa a las adversidades pol&#x00ED;tico-sociales secundarias, pero, sobre todo a las adversidades reconocidas como <italic>propias</italic>.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-28101_Esp" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscusi&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>As&#x00ED; las cosas, el examen de la actual difusi&#x00F3;n y protagonismo de la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional en los proyectos de educaci&#x00F3;n en general y los curr&#x00ED;culums en particular, provee de un conjunto de elementos para pensar cr&#x00ED;ticamente el presente e interrogar la aparente obligatoriedad de que las cosas sean, y sigan siendo, de determinada manera &#x2013; y no de otras. De esta forma, las innovaciones curriculares, basadas en la promoci&#x00F3;n acr&#x00ED;tica de ciertos valores aparentemente incuestionables &#x2013;en este caso: la inteligencia emocional y el entramado conceptual que trae aparejado&#x2013; se traducen en tecnolog&#x00ED;as que, mediante la legitimaci&#x00F3;n que adquieren en tanto leyes cient&#x00ED;ficas, garantes del progreso, terminan produciendo efectos al menos dobles sobre los sujetos a ser educados: por un lado, se presentan como discursos normativos y sancionadores que, de acuerdo a la l&#x00F3;gica <italic>top-down</italic>, son ejercidos <italic>desde arriba</italic> con el prop&#x00F3;sito de objetivar a los sujetos. Su actuar puede caracterizarse como modos de sujeci&#x00F3;n coercitivos, restrictivos, que fijan, constri&#x00F1;en y encadenan a los sujetos mediante el despliegue encauzado de un conjunto de relaciones de poder destinadas a establecer y afianzar una cierta relaci&#x00F3;n de dominio. Por el otro lado, de acuerdo a lo sugerido en la obra de Michel Foucault, en particular lo desplegado en sus reflexiones en torno a la &#x00E9;tica, al presentarse en la pr&#x00E1;ctica como formas de establecer condiciones de posibilidad para que los mismos sujetos se piensen, juzguen, gestionen y dominen a s&#x00ED; mismos, es que se revelan, tambi&#x00E9;n, al menos potencialmente, como formas de incidir precisamente en aquello que presuponen. Es decir, como formas de poder no solamente ejercidas por otro (abstracto, social, simb&#x00F3;lico, exterior, etc.) <italic>sobre</italic> la vida cotidiana y el cuerpo de uno, sino, tambi&#x00E9;n, como pr&#x00E1;cticas reflexivas, es decir, capaces de tomarse a s&#x00ED; mismo como objeto, y que <italic>atraviesan</italic> por tanto la vida y el cuerpo mismo, convirti&#x00E9;ndose, finalmente, en condici&#x00F3;n de posibilidad de la existencia y de la transformaci&#x00F3;n de &#x00E9;stas.</p>
<p>Esta car&#x00E1;cter bifaz de los procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n se reproduce, a su vez, en la recepci&#x00F3;n foucaultiana de la Ilustraci&#x00F3;n [<italic>Aufkl&#x00E4;rung</italic>] y de las posibilidades de liberarse de las tutelas (autoritarias, doctrinarias, dogm&#x00E1;ticas) de otros y as&#x00ED; abandonar la minor&#x00ED;a de edad [<italic>Unm&#x00FC;ndigkeit</italic>], tambi&#x00E9;n traducido como emancipaci&#x00F3;n. En ese sentido, la actitud de Foucault respecto del proyecto de las Luces, parafraseando a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-28101_Esp">Francisco V&#x00E1;zquez (1993)</xref>, no es reducible al binomio excluyente entre rechazo o continuaci&#x00F3;n de la racionalidad ilustrada. Siguiendo a V&#x00E1;zquez en su argumentaci&#x00F3;n,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>el sujeto no es una instancia prefigurada que habr&#x00ED;a que descubrir mediante la escucha fenomenol&#x00F3;gica o la cr&#x00ED;tica de las ideolog&#x00ED;as [la opci&#x00F3;n de Althusser, como podr&#x00ED;amos agregar]. Es un espacio por construir en el interior de un contexto cultural preciso; ha de ser creado como n&#x00FA;cleo de resistencia y afirmaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-28101_Esp">V&#x00E1;zquez, 1993</xref>, p. 144).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>En el caso de los procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n en el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n, espec&#x00ED;ficamente, significa no simplemente negar las determinaciones (estructurales, hist&#x00F3;ricas, materiales, etc.) que emplazan al sujeto resultante, siempre transitorio, preliminar y fugaz, en su respectivo plexo de relaciones, sino hacerse cargo cr&#x00ED;ticamente de dichas determinaciones subjetivantes con tal de abrir el espacio para el despliegue de las fuerzas tendientes hacia la emancipaci&#x00F3;n como horizonte de sus esfuerzos. Dicha emancipaci&#x00F3;n, en analog&#x00ED;a a lo que se desprende de la lectura foucaultiana del texto de Kant &#x2018;Respuesta a la pregunta &#x2018;Qu&#x00E9; es la Ilustraci&#x00F3;n&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-28101_Esp">2004</xref>), lejos de ser un acto &#x00FA;nico, irreversible y resultado, es, m&#x00E1;s bien una actitud y un movimiento. Concretamente, pasa por atribuirse y ejercer el derecho de interrogar a la verdad acerca de sus efectos de poder, y, viceversa, conforma al binomio saber-poder, al poder acerca de sus discursos de verdad. Ese gesto emancipatorio, que implica siempre cierta exposici&#x00F3;n del sujeto, cierto asomarse m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del territorio familiar y asegurado, estrechamente relacionado con la noci&#x00F3;n foucaultiana de cr&#x00ED;tica, aparece en la vecindad inmediata de &#x201C;el arte de la inservidumbre voluntaria, el de la indocilidad reflexiva&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-28101_Esp">Foucault, 1995</xref>, p. 8). Dicha emancipaci&#x00F3;n, parafraseando a Foucault, tendr&#x00ED;a primordialmente por funci&#x00F3;n la desujeci&#x00F3;n, es decir, no solo la resistencia (diametral, reactiva, antag&#x00F3;nica) a las fuerzas de sujeci&#x00F3;n, sino, al mismo tiempo, la liberaci&#x00F3;n o el desentierro de fuerzas (auto)productivas, constitutivas del s&#x00ED; mismo, en el juego de lo que Foucault denomina la pol&#x00ED;tica de la verdad. En ese sentido, como ha mostrado, por ejemplo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-28101_Esp">Silvana Vignale (2013)</xref>, la revisi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de la idea de (el arte de) la inservidumbre voluntaria junto a aquella de indocilidad reflexiva abre una v&#x00ED;a posible de pensar, fuera de los caminos principales ya transitados, derivas posibles al problema de la subjetivaci&#x00F3;n que van m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las tradicionales soluciones bin&#x00F3;micas ya prefiguradas. Concretamente, m&#x00E1;s que implementar programas emancipatorios universales, parten por problematizar el potencial de los modos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n en tanto transformaci&#x00F3;n de s&#x00ED; en relaci&#x00F3;n a una regla, una norma o una ley, explorando en qu&#x00E9; medida y hasta donde es posible implementar ciertas pr&#x00E1;cticas que podr&#x00ED;an ser llamadas &#x2018;de la libertad&#x2019;. Resistencia, (des)subjetivaci&#x00F3;n y cr&#x00ED;tica de esta forma se anudan as&#x00ED; como hebras en torno a un eje &#x00E9;tico-pol&#x00ED;tico que apunta hacia la emancipaci&#x00F3;n entendida no como la liberaci&#x00F3;n irrestricta e incondicional <italic>de</italic> las relaciones de poder y los discursos de verdad (acaso por la v&#x00ED;a de la trascendencia) que determinan nuestro contexto hist&#x00F3;rico, sino como la posibilidad de resignificaci&#x00F3;n y subversi&#x00F3;n de esas redes desde el interior de ellas mismas. El &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n, en la medida en que supone, por un lado, la transmisi&#x00F3;n de saberes especializados, el aprendizaje de habilidades, valores, creencias y h&#x00E1;bitos, y, por el otro, el forjamiento de una actitud, un <italic>&#x00E9;thos</italic> hacia uno mismo, el otro y el mundo, es un lugar privilegiado para diagnosticar, investigar y monitorear estos procesos.</p>
<p>Resulta imprescindible tener presente, en ese lugar, las consideraciones, hechas por Foucault en <italic>El nacimiento de la cl&#x00ED;nica</italic> sobre c&#x00F3;mo ciertas pr&#x00E1;cticas biopsicosociales, mediante un conjunto de cambios ontol&#x00F3;gicos, epistemol&#x00F3;gicos y t&#x00E9;cnicos que, iniciado el siglo XIX se tradujeron en leyes y pr&#x00E1;cticas asistenciales concretas, conformaron el cuerpo en foco de la mirada cl&#x00ED;nica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2004</xref>). Una vez puesto al descubierto el &#x00ED;ntimo entrelazamiento entre relaciones de poder y cuerpo, articulados por el concepto de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n, mantener y cuidar un cuerpo saludable se convierte en responsabilidad de los individuos y sus familias y, respecto de la problem&#x00E1;tica que aqu&#x00ED; nos convoca, lo anterior pasa por cultivar un cuerpo normado, d&#x00F3;cil y eficiente que no solo incorpore los valores de la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional, sino que los ejerza mediante las pr&#x00E1;cticas cotidianas a trav&#x00E9;s de las cuales se relaciona con otros cuerpos.</p>
<p>Por ello conviene resaltar, tal como lo hace Foucault, que no se trata de hacer calzar un conjunto de pr&#x00E1;cticas con una racionalidad que permita apreciarlas como formas de dicha racionalidad; sino, m&#x00E1;s bien, &#x201C;de ver c&#x00F3;mo se inscriben en unas pr&#x00E1;cticas, o en unos sistemas de pr&#x00E1;cticas, unas formas de racionalizaciones, y qu&#x00E9; papel desempe&#x00F1;a en ellas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-28101_Esp">Foucault, 1982</xref>, p. 66). En otras palabras, si bien la racionalidad desde la cual son justificadas ciertas medidas puntuales en el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n ha de ser examinada con miras a su coherencia y sistematicidad, esto no nos debe inducir a descuidar los efectos menos visibles, pero m&#x00E1;s sostenidos en el tiempo, que son generados cuando ciertas formas de racionalidad se inscriben en pr&#x00E1;cticas determinadas. Parafraseando a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-28101_Esp">Moscoso-Flores (2011)</xref>, la pedagog&#x00ED;a se muestra como un discurso lleno de fracturas, espacios vac&#x00ED;os e indeterminaciones, en donde se inscribe una operatividad afirmativa ligada a los &#x00F3;rdenes de una racionalidad liberal de mercado. Es decir, independientemente de la pretendida coherencia racional de un determinado discurso, &#x2013;como es el caso del discurso educativo y, m&#x00E1;s espec&#x00ED;ficamente, del discurso de las emociones en la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x2014;, no hay que desconocer que es justamente en sus grietas y vac&#x00ED;os donde se ejerce el poder articulado con una racionalidad distinta. Por lo mismo, se hace necesario <italic>des-sedimentar</italic> ciertos discursos y pr&#x00E1;cticas que han sido elaborados y fijados como fen&#x00F3;menos sociales incuestionables dentro del modo de vida neoliberal, y desde all&#x00ED; enunciar una cr&#x00ED;tica otra que permita una reapropiaci&#x00F3;n del concepto de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n que implique no solo una adaptaci&#x00F3;n puntual del sujeto a las exigencias del contexto &#x2013;como sucede, de hecho, en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo&#x2014;, sino otras formas de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n como apertura a otras formas de existencias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-28101_Esp">Oliverio, 2022</xref>).</p>
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<fn id="fn1_Esp" fn-type="financial-disclosure"><label>1.</label> <p>Este trabajo fue escrito en el marco del Proyecto Fondecyt Regular N&#x00BA; 1210037. Agradecemos tambi&#x00E9;n a la Beca ANID de Doctorado Nacional folio 21211050.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn2_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>2.</label> <p>La idea de genealog&#x00ED;a es empleada con el prop&#x00F3;sito de desmarcarse de cualquier idea del &#x2018;antecedente&#x2019; o &#x2018;precursor&#x2019; (cfr. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-28101_Esp">Saar, 2007</xref>). Y es precisamente la referencia a esta noci&#x00F3;n, de raigambre nietzscheana, la que permite esclarecer, en principio, la naturaleza de la relaci&#x00F3;n entre Foucault y Althusser. Si bien, en t&#x00E9;rminos generales, ambos han sido considerados entre los autores &#x2018;post-&#x2018; o, en el caso de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-28101_Esp">Manfred Frank (1984)</xref>, &#x2018;neoestructuralistas&#x2019;, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de este r&#x00F3;tulo al mismo tiempo general y descriptivo, y de ciertas referencias en com&#x00FA;n (entre ellas, Freud y Marx), hay una serie de diferencias, precisamente a prop&#x00F3;sito de las supuestas semejanzas en lo que a las referencias se refiere, que definen sus respectivos posicionamientos. De estas quisi&#x00E9;ramos mencionar al menos tres: primero, mientras que Althusser le supone a Marx una &#x2018;ruptura epistemol&#x00F3;gica&#x2019; y se inscribe en cierta tradici&#x00F3;n del marxismo, la relaci&#x00F3;n de Foucault con Marx puede caracterizarse a trav&#x00E9;s de la siguientes dos citas: &#x201C;Para m&#x00ED;, Marx no existe&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-28101_Esp">Foucault, 1979a</xref>, p. 122) y &#x201C;Pero hay tambi&#x00E9;n de mi parte una especie de juego. Frecuentemente cito conceptos, frases, textos de Marx, pero sin sentirme obligado a agregar el peque&#x00F1;o documento autentificador, que consiste en hacer una cita de Marx, poner cuidadosamente la referencia a pie de p&#x00E1;gina y acompa&#x00F1;ar la cita con una reflexi&#x00F3;n elogiosa. [&#x2026;[ Yo cito a Marx sin decirlo&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-28101_Esp">1979b</xref>, p. 100). Segundo, mientras que la lectura althusseriana de Freud (especialmente en el compendio de textos publicado en castellano bajo el titulo <italic>Estructuralismo y psicoan&#x00E1;lisis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-28101_Esp">1970</xref>) es esquem&#x00E1;tica, podr&#x00ED;amos decir: casi estereotipada, impuesta por el m&#x00E9;todo (post)estructuralista, en el caso de Foucault se trata de una relaci&#x00F3;n mucho m&#x00E1;s pormenorizada, m&#x00E1;s <italic>&#x00E9;n detail</italic>, m&#x00E1;s prolija &#x2013; y m&#x00E1;s din&#x00E1;mica, m&#x00E1;s cambiante en el tiempo. Esto permite un uso efectual de Freud, una &#x2018;aplicaci&#x00F3;n&#x2019; a problemas no pensados por &#x00E9;ste, respectivamente, crea las condiciones de posibilidad para que las lecturas de Freud tengan un rendimiento emancipatorio, tendiente hacia el desapego de toda relaci&#x00F3;n ya sea de sujeci&#x00F3;n de parte del lector o de sometimiento del autor le&#x00ED;do. V&#x00E9;ase, al respecto: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-28101_Esp">Birman (2008)</xref> <italic>Foucault y el psicoan&#x00E1;lisis</italic>. Tercero, mientras que para Althusser el foco est&#x00E1; puesto en el an&#x00E1;lisis y el debilitamiento de la noci&#x00F3;n de ideolog&#x00ED;a, en el caso de Foucault, posiblemente como efecto de las primeras dos diferencias destacadas, el inter&#x00E9;s, aparte del &#x00E9;nfasis en las relaciones de poder, pasa por discutir los alcances de la noci&#x00F3;n de saber y, a partir de ah&#x00ED;, poner a prueba el concepto de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n como un movimiento en dos tiempos, dos direcciones y dos din&#x00E1;micas. Es en particular por esta &#x00FA;ltima raz&#x00F3;n que nos interesa recoger la problematizaci&#x00F3;n, de parte de Foucault, de un campo en cuya apertura particip&#x00F3; Louis Althusser (como consta, por ejemplo, en la discusi&#x00F3;n armada en el libro colectivo <italic>Psicolog&#x00ED;a, ideolog&#x00ED;a y ciencia</italic>, publicado en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-28101_Esp">1975</xref>, de N. Braunstein <italic>et al</italic>.).), pero del cual permaneci&#x00F3; preso de un modo que no se traduce en un aporte al problema en discusi&#x00F3;n.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn3_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>3.</label> <p>Adem&#x00E1;s de Althusser, a Foucault se le ha ubicado tambi&#x00E9;n en relaci&#x00F3;n con Nietzsche (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-28101_Esp">Cortez, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-28101_Esp">Rosenberg y Westfall, 2018</xref>), como &#x2018;lector&#x2019; de Kant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-28101_Esp">Gros, y D&#x00E1;vila, 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-28101_Esp">Moro, 2003</xref>) y de Marx (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-28101_Esp">Castro-G&#x00F3;mez, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-28101_Esp">Diaz Bernal, 2018</xref>). Ejercicios que, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de los juicios valorativos sobre sus aciertos o no, son interesantes en cuanto abren relaciones posibles.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn4_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>4.</label> <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-28101_Esp">Deleuze (2015)</xref> leyendo a Foucault se pregunta: &#x201C;no hay nada &#x2018;m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1;&#x2019; del poder?, &#x00BF;No estaba [Foucault] encerr&#x00E1;ndose en las relaciones de poder como en un callej&#x00F3;n sin salida?&#x201D; (p. 12). Para Deleuze, de hecho, este <italic>impasse te&#x00F3;rico</italic> al que habr&#x00ED;a entrado Foucault al conceptualizar de manera tan abrumadoramente totalizante las relaciones de poder, explicar&#x00ED;a la pausa de ocho a&#x00F1;os luego de la publicaci&#x00F3;n del primer tomo de <italic>Histoire de la sexualit&#x00E9;</italic> en 1976, aun cuando los tomos II y III estaban ya programados. Ser&#x00ED;a una pausa donde Foucault intenta pensar en c&#x00F3;mo &#x201C;franquear esa l&#x00ED;nea, pasar al otro lado, ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del poder-saber&#x201D;, abriendo con ello el tercer eje de su obra: la subjetivaci&#x00F3;n (o la &#x00E9;tica). Entendida como la l&#x00ED;nea del afuera, el eje de nuestra confrontaci&#x00F3;n con el afuera absoluto, en la cual &#x2013;y por la cual&#x2014; devenimos sujetos.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn5_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>5.</label> <p>A este respecto, el tomo I de la <italic>Historia de la sexualidad</italic> act&#x00FA;a casi a modo de proleg&#x00F3;meno respecto a esta nueva reconceptualizaci&#x00F3;n del poder. En &#x00E9;l, Foucault comienza a re-pensar cuestiones como las del dispositivo y se torna evidente que est&#x00E1; emprendiendo un marcado giro respecto a sus obras anteriores.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn6_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>6.</label> <p>Para Foucault, <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;</italic> constituye una regi&#x00F3;n intermedia que se forma por los c&#x00F3;digos ordenadores de una cultura (lenguaje, esquemas perceptivos, etc.), y el aparato reflexivo sobre dicho orden (ciencias y filosof&#x00ED;a), y que permite establecer los l&#x00ED;mites del saber o, en otras palabras, el campo de lo pensable para una &#x00E9;poca dada.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn7_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>7.</label> <p>Tambi&#x00E9;n afirma la existencia de <italic>tecnolog&#x00ED;as de producci&#x00F3;n</italic>, &#x201C;que nos permiten producir, transformar o manipular cosas&#x201D; y &#x201C;tecnolog&#x00ED;as de sistemas de signos, que nos permiten utilizar signos, sentidos, s&#x00ED;mbolos o significaciones&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-28101_Esp">Foucault, 2008</xref>, p. 48).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn8_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>8.</label> <p>El concepto de <italic>Bildung</italic>, intraducible al castellano y cuya genealog&#x00ED;a excede con creces lo que aqu&#x00ED; podr&#x00ED;a sugerirse, tiene sus antecedentes en el concepto griego de <italic>paideia</italic> y se debe, probablemente, a Meister Eckhart (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-28101_Esp">Herdt, 2019</xref>). Su ingreso a la pedagog&#x00ED;a se efectu&#x00F3; a trav&#x00E9;s de Johann Amos Comenius y su uso de la noci&#x00F3;n de <italic>eruditus (ilustrado, &#x2018;mayor-de-edad&#x2019;)</italic>, que literalmente significaba quitar o eliminar la cualidad de crudo, bruto, sin labrar, sin cultivar, tosco, torpe. La secularizaci&#x00F3;n del concepto se realiz&#x00F3; en el siglo XVIII a trav&#x00E9;s de Pestalozzi, Herder, Schiller, Goethe y Kant, y adopt&#x00F3; el significado de perfeccionamiento del ser humano. Durante el idealismo alem&#x00E1;n, experiment&#x00F3; una torna hacia lo subjetivo, hasta que W. von Humboldt finalmente convertir&#x00ED;a la idea en programa.</p></fn>
    <fn id="fn9_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>9.</label> <p>Para profundizar en la noci&#x00F3;n de dispositivo, sugerimos <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-28101_Esp">Foucault (1985</xref>, pp. 127-162), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-28101_Esp">Deleuze (1990</xref>, pp. 155-163).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn10_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>10.</label> <p>Las propias autoras consideran que los estudios de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-28101_Esp">Massumi (1995)</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-28101_Esp">Sedgwick &#x0026; Frank (1995)</xref>, son los pioneros en marcar este giro afectivo en las ciencias humanas, sirvi&#x00E9;ndose tanto de Spinoza como de Deleuze y sus cartograf&#x00ED;as para proponer la capacidad de los cuerpos de afectar y ser afectados.</p></fn>
    <fn id="fn11_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>11.</label> <p>Dejar abierta aquella pregunta por las formas de vidas (destacando su pluralidad e irreductibilidad), constituye un gesto cr&#x00ED;tico y profundamente contra-hegem&#x00F3;nico. Cuando se presta atenci&#x00F3;n a las tecnolog&#x00ED;as contempor&#x00E1;neas de gobierno, no cabe duda la centralidad que adquiere la necesidad de producir un cierto tipo de subjetividad acorde a las necesidades del mercado (competitiva, individualista, eficiente, optimista y resiliente). Como dir&#x00ED;an <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-28101_Esp">Laval y Dardot (2015)</xref>, lo que est&#x00E1; en juego en el neoliberalismo no es, sino, la propia forma de nuestra existencia. De all&#x00ED; que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-28101_Esp">Sztulwark (2020)</xref>, por ejemplo, siguiendo muy de cerca lo desarrollado por Suely Rolnik en Brasil, proponga una distinci&#x00F3;n entre <italic>modos y formas</italic> de vida; siendo los <italic>modos de vida</italic> la manera de vivir tal y como sugieren las estructuras de poder, mientras que las <italic>formas de vida</italic> suponen un cuestionamiento a los automatismos y linealidades que la racionalidad dominante propone. Por esta raz&#x00F3;n, en el contexto de la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional, que se hable de ella como una habilidad para la vida de modo gen&#x00E9;rico, supone antes una adecuaci&#x00F3;n al modo de vida neoliberal, que una apertura con potencial emancipatorio como podr&#x00ED;a ser pensada desde el <italic>affecive turn.</italic></p></fn>
<fn id="fn12_Esp" fn-type="other"><label>12.</label> <p>Es importante mencionar que los primeros en usar la noci&#x00F3;n de inteligencia emocional como un constructo definido fueron <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-28101_Esp">Peter Salovey y John Mayer en 1989</xref>, para quienes consist&#x00ED;a en un conjunto o set hipot&#x00E9;tico de habilidades que permitir&#x00ED;an procesar informaci&#x00F3;n proveniente de las emociones para ser utilizada en la resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas cotidianos.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.28101</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.28101</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Articles</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>EMOTIONAL EDUCATION: PRACTICES AND DISCOURSES OF SUBJECTIVATION<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1_Eng"><sup>1</sup></xref></article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n emocional: pr&#x00E1;cticas y discursos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0001-5655-4668</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>BORNHAUSER</surname>
<given-names>Niklas</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1_Eng"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1_Eng"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4109-9575</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>GARAY RIVERA</surname>
<given-names>Jos&#x00E9; Miguel</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2_Eng"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2_Eng"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1_Eng">
<label><sup>*</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Andr&#x00E9;s Bello. Chile.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Andr&#x00E9;s Bello</institution>
<country country="CL">Chile</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2_Eng">
<label><sup>**</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Santo Tom&#x00E1;s. Chile.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Santo Tom&#x00E1;s</institution>
<country country="CL">Chile</country>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1_Eng"><email>niklas.bornhauser@gmail.com</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2_Eng"><email>psi.garayrivera@gmail.com</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2023</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<fpage>101</fpage>
<lpage>122</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>11</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>01</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2023 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2023</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/" xml:lang="en">

<license-p>Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Education, rather than anonymous, impersonal, and monolithic, is a heterogeneous and overdetermined process in which the learner constructs him/herself from diverse processes of subjectivation. The purpose of this essay is to discuss the critical scope of the notion of subjectivation in light of the introduction of emotional education in the Chilean school context. We argue that it is not only a normative and external discourse (equivalent to the technology of power) but also an effective tool of self-control (technology of the self) that models the emotionality of students, committing them to a particular work on themselves. Thus, from a genealogical perspective, emotional education can be analyzed as an institutionalized and theoretically legitimized operationalization for the instauration of an established order, through the acquisition of certain competences useful not only for the subjects to sustain and adapt to this order, but also to reproduce it (optimism, resilience, tolerance to frustration, flexibility, among others). In conclusion, the importance of thinking education not as a concrete, rational operation, applied to a prefigured object (the learner), but as a complex articulated becoming, composed of different vectors, including the processes of subjectivation that occur within it, is emphasized. From this distinction, emotional education reveals its Janic aspect, being able to be found, on the one hand, at the service of the emancipation of the established order, aiming at the modern ideal of a reflective and sovereign citizen and, on the other hand, contributing precisely to the subjection and subjugation of the learners through certain practices materialized in the educational device.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La educaci&#x00F3;n, m&#x00E1;s que un proceso an&#x00F3;nimo, impersonal y monol&#x00ED;tico, es un proceso heterog&#x00E9;neo y sobredeterminado en donde el educando se construye a s&#x00ED; mismo a partir de diversos procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n. El prop&#x00F3;sito de este ensayo es discutir cr&#x00ED;ticamente los alcances de la noci&#x00F3;n de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n a la luz de la introducci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional en el contexto escolar chileno. Sostenemos que se trata no solo de un discurso normativo y exterior (equivalente a una tecnolog&#x00ED;a de poder), sino tambi&#x00E9;n de una eficaz herramienta de autocontrol (tecnolog&#x00ED;a del yo) que modela la emocionalidad de los educandos comprometi&#x00E9;ndolos en un particular trabajo sobre s&#x00ED; mismos. As&#x00ED;, desde una perspectiva geneal&#x00F3;gica, la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional puede ser examinada como una operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n institucionalizada y te&#x00F3;ricamente legitimada para la instauraci&#x00F3;n de un orden establecido, mediante la adquisici&#x00F3;n de determinadas competencias &#x00FA;tiles no solo para que los sujetos sostengan y se adapten a dicho orden, sino tambi&#x00E9;n para que lo reproduzcan (optimismo, resiliencia, tolerancia a la frustraci&#x00F3;n, flexibilidad, entre otras.). Como conclusi&#x00F3;n, se subraya la importancia de pensar la educaci&#x00F3;n no como una operaci&#x00F3;n concreta, racional, que se aplica a un objeto prefigurado (el educando), sino como un devenir articulado complejo, compuesto por distintos vectores, entre ellos los procesos de subjetivaci&#x00F3;n que se dan en su interior. A partir de esta distinci&#x00F3;n, la educaci&#x00F3;n emocional revela su aspecto j&#x00E1;nico, pudiendo encontrarse, por un lado, al servicio de la emancipaci&#x00F3;n del orden establecido, apuntando al ideal moderno de un ciudadano reflexivo y soberano y, por el otro, contribuyendo precisamente a la sujeci&#x00F3;n y al sometimiento de los educandos a trav&#x00E9;s de determinadas pr&#x00E1;cticas materializadas en el dispositivo educativo.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>Education</kwd>
<kwd>Subject</kwd>
<kwd>Subjectivation</kwd>
<kwd>Emotional education</kwd>
<kwd>Competences</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras claves</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>sujeto</kwd>
<kwd>subjetivaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n emocional</kwd>
<kwd>competencias</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group>
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Fondecyt</institution>
<institution>ANID</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>1210037</award-id>
<award-id>21211050</award-id>
</award-group>
<funding-statement>This work was written within the framework of the Proyecto Fondecyt Regular No. 1210037. We are also grateful to the ANID National Doctoral Grant, page 21211050.</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-28101_Eng" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>The relationship between educational apparatuses and learners has been historically crucial in the field of pedagogical research itself, becoming one of the main issues within the metaphysical tradition of the way of thinking in the Western world. The cross-sectional nature and extension of this problem is due, among others, to the fact that it belongs to an earlier and more extensive discursive plot, resorting to contrapositions such as <italic>the system</italic> and <italic>the individual, the universal, the particular</italic> and <italic>the singular, the abstract</italic> and <italic>the concrete,</italic> and <italic>the superordinate</italic> and <italic>the subordinate</italic> as possible ways of thinking. This entails, first, the complex relationship between the One and the Whole and, second, the educational process in general and its subject in particular. These systematizations, traditionally arranged according to <italic>top&#x2013;down</italic> and <italic>bottom&#x2013;up</italic> models, however productive they were for decades, have proved to be insufficient in light of the emergence and critical establishment of the notion of subjectivation. In turn, this results from recent revisions of one of the pivotal concepts of that discussion and the discourse of Modernity in particular: the notion of subject.</p>
<p>Due to its strategic position as a hinge concept, articulating the different instances mentioned above, any revision or reformulation of this notion immediately affects not only the neighboring or adjacent concepts&#x2014;for example, the terms reason, action, consciousness, and power&#x2014;but also the ways of understanding the relations between them. This essay proposes a discussion on the consequences of the critical reception of a certain aspect of the concept of subjectivation, derived from Michel Foucault&#x0027;s contributions, regarding the way of conceiving the relations between the school system, on the one hand, and the learner, traditionally thought of as a subject (of education), on the other. The following observations, after a brief introduction of the issue in question, will consider in more detail the case of the Chilean educational system and, in particular, a singular strand of its most recent innovations: the incorporation of emotional education.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-28101_Eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>ubjectivation in the school context</sc></bold></title>
<p>Foucault&#x0027;s theoretical developments tend to be placed, rightly or wrongly, in certain lineages or genealogies<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2_Eng"><sup>2</sup></xref> including some of Louis Althusser&#x0027;s works (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-28101_Eng">Le Blanc, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-28101_Eng">Ryder, 2013</xref>)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3_Eng"><sup>3</sup></xref>. At the beginning of the 1970s, Althusser suggested that, beyond the indispensable character of the already classic repressive apparatuses of the State (police and army) and their fundamental influence in disciplinary societies, the ideological apparatuses of the State (the family, the Church, and, mainly, the school) had a productive, pro-positive role, not only in terms of ensuring the status quo but also in terms of its perpetuation through the reproduction of the production relations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-28101_Eng">Althusser, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>Beyond discussing, with the meticulousness and extension that would merit the eventual continuity of Althusserian thought in Foucault, we are particularly interested in reviewing the possible consequences, for the field of education, of the repercussion of some of his works and the evolution of the notion of subjectivation in particular. In this respect, within the wide range of emphases and orientations that are part of his contemporary reception, in relation to the issue in question, it is possible to highlight two traces of the Althusserian approach present, to a certain extent, that is, integrated&#x2014;and, with it, rewritten and transcribed&#x2014;in the respective conceptual space in which Foucault&#x0027;s thought is situated: first, the centrality given to the school and education, two devices that were distinguished in Althusser as the most important apparatuses of domination in any model of government, and second, the need to rethink reproduction not only through the classic &#x0022;repressive&#x0022; route, based on a rapid and superficial assimilation of Freudian approaches and of the notion of repression in particular, but also to make way for the problematization of reproduction by a properly productive route that exceeds any mechanical and stereotyped repetition. Specifically, education, and therefore, its main devices such as kindergarten, school, university, and other related institutions, may be regarded as ideal places to intervene productively in the framework of power relations that runs through and sustains a society, precisely reproducing its (subjects) supports.</p>
<p>These Althusserian scopes become especially visible in Foucault&#x0027;s work once he introduces the notion of <italic>governmentality</italic> into his conceptual framework (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2006</xref>). As already indicated in other occasions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-28101_Eng">Garay, 2022</xref>), this notion will become fundamental in the methodology used by Foucault to continue his work until his death, as it allows him to escape from what <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-28101_Eng">Deleuze (2006)</xref> called &#x0022;his theoretical impasse&#x0022; (p. 49)<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4_Eng"><sup>4</sup></xref> and thus recognize the limitations of his previous conception of power, both sovereign and disciplinary, which made it impossible to escape from it and its purely restrictive and limiting relations. Thus, at the end of the 70s, Foucault will support the thesis that power has changed in its essence, from a power that ensures the reproduction of the relations of production, from its disciplinary exercise, to the form of a <italic>biopower</italic> whose objective is to control the population through what he called <italic>security dispositifs</italic>, placing individuals against a triangle: &#x0022;sovereignty, discipline, and governmental management&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2006</xref>, p. 135). In this way, he introduces the notion of governmentality for the first time, conceptualized as the &#x0022;set constituted by the institutions, procedures, analyses and reflections, calculations, and tactics&#x0022; that manage to impose</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>a type of power that we can call &#x0022;government&#x0022; over all others: sovereignty, discipline, and which induced, on the one hand, the development of a whole series of specific governmental apparatuses and, on the other, the development of a whole set of knowledge (p. 136).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The power of these new <italic>security dispositifs</italic>, Foucault warns, is not exhausted simply in sovereignly managing a collective mass but rather in governing life itself from its most intimate details and as thoroughly as possible. For the same reason, it is a power that is no longer exercised exclusively in a vertical, descending, and repressive manner, but it is rather the population itself that exercises it over itself, bestowing the subjects with a particular responsibility in their own agency. This idea of a productive and not exclusively repressive power forces Foucault to rethink a series of surrounding concepts, for example, a notorious centrality in Foucault&#x0027;s work, the <italic>dispositif</italic>, whose genealogy (in Foucault) refers to his previous notion of <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;</italic>.<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5_Eng"><sup>5</sup></xref></p>
<p>Marking this transition is by no means trivial, as in this exercise undertaken by Foucault, we can see that the productive and not just limiting dimension of power begins to gain a core place in his theoretical architecture. In the specific case of <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;,</italic> we can see how he dislocates a notion that, until then, was exclusively related to the field of the thinkable in a given period&#x2014;in other words, to the field of <italic>knowledge</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6_Eng"><sup>6</sup></xref>&#x2014;to introduce the notion of <italic>dispositif</italic>, which includes the relations of power and the possible changes that these trigger in relation to the subjects themselves. Foucault therefore adds the very transformations that the subject undergoes into the equation as part of the relation between knowledge and power. In other words, unlike the concept of <italic>&#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8;</italic>, the notion of <italic>dispositif</italic> introduces new cleavages that are fundamental, in that 1) it is not only related to <italic>knowledge</italic> but also establishes an intimate connection between knowledge and power: &#x0022;there is neither a relation of power without the relative constitution of a field of knowledge nor knowledge that does not presuppose and does not constitute relations of power at the same time&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2013</xref>, p. 37), 2) it establishes a dispersal of power along a whole multiplicity of elements, and 3) it describes the production of modes of subjectivation, understood as the dispositions that the subject adopts from this particular organization of forces between knowledge and power.</p>
<p>In this way, dispositifs are nothing but a heterogeneous set of elements, both discursive and non-discursive, established on certain dimensions of life, and turn them into coherent domains and strategic fields that trace these lines of force between knowledge, power, and subjectivity through different <italic>technologies of government</italic>. Hence, Foucault outlines governmentality as the art of governing life in which sovereignty, discipline, and the management of the subject over himself converge. The latter is only possible through the introduction of new control techniques different from the <italic>technologies of power</italic>, exercised from the outside, which are imposed and dominate and objectify the subject from &#x0022;above,&#x0022; as is the case of legal regulations. These are the <italic>technologies of the self,</italic> defined by him as those techniques that &#x0022;allow individuals to carry out, on their own or with the help of others, a certain number of operations on their body and soul, thoughts, behavior, or any form of being, thus obtaining a transformation of themselves&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2008</xref>, p. 48).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7_Eng"><sup>7</sup></xref> Moreover, some years later, Foucault will specify that what he has been thinking of as <italic>governmentality</italic> is precisely the space of contact between the technologies of power and those of oneself. That is, the space between the government itself and the others.</p>
<p>This non-legal conception of power (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-28101_Eng">Foucault, 1996</xref>) is opposed to any vision of the subject conceived: first, as an already armed, pre-constituted entity, which subsequently goes through the process of education undergoing minor or behavioral transformations, and second, as a passive recipient of subjects, values and other contents provided by the educational apparatus. On the contrary, in line with the idea&#x2014;introduced by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Eng">Edgardo Castro (2004)</xref>, which can be traced in <italic>Discipline and Punish&#x2014;</italic>that power, far from obeying merely repressive ends in the privative or negative sense, &#x0022;must be regarded as a positive reality, that is, as a manufacturer or producer of individuality&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Eng">Castro, 2004</xref>, p. 264). This radical change in the liberal and juridical conception of power allows us to remain skeptical of any approach that asserts that the subject is an essence, extra-, pre-, or a-historical substance (or in relation to any &#x0022;anthropological universal&#x0022;). Also, at the same time, it creates the conditions of possibility for a recovery&#x2014;and rewriting in another field of relations of signification&#x2014;of the concept of subject through the subjectivation option [<italic>assujettissement</italic>].</p>
<p>Following <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Eng">Edgardo Castro (2004)</xref>, &#x0022;it is possible to distinguish two senses of the expression &#x0027;modes of subjectivation&#x0027; in Foucault&#x0027;s work: a broad sense [&#x2026;] and a more restricted one, in relation to the Foucauldian concept of ethics&#x0022; (p. 333). Regarding the first, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-28101_Eng">Foucault (1988)</xref>, in a text entitled <italic>The Subject and Power</italic>, notes &#x0022;My aim [during the last 20 years of work], on the contrary, has been to create a history of the different modes of subjectivation of the human being in our culture&#x0022; (p. 3). Regarding these, although it may seem paradoxical, Foucault refers to them as &#x0022;modes of objectification that transform human beings into subjects&#x0022; (p. 3), or as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-28101_Eng">Castro (2004)</xref> specifies, &#x0022;modes in which the subject appears as the object of a given relation of knowledge and power&#x0022; (p. 333). In this text, Foucault provides the keys to distinguish, <italic>apr&#x00E8;s coup</italic>, three modes of subjectivation. First, he talks about modes of objectification that claim access to the status of sciences. Here, Foucault refers, as an example, to linguistics, economics, and biology, suggesting to us to think of the subject, respectively, as the speaking subject, the wealth-producing subject, and the subject bestowed with life. Second, Foucault refers to modes that proceed through divisive practices (both of the subject in relation to him/herself and the subject in relation to others). These practices constitute exclusive pairs, such as the mad and the sane, the sick and the healthy, and the criminal and the probative man. Third and last, he makes reference to modes through which &#x0022;the human being turns himself or herself into a subject&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-28101_Eng">Foucault, 1988</xref>, p. 3).</p>
<p>This third mode has been studied in an exemplary manner in the <italic>History of Sexuality</italic>. The second and more narrowly defined meaning is found in the second volume of the <italic>History of Sexuality</italic> and in an article entitled &#x0027;Ethics&#x0027;. In this context, the modes of subjectivation appear as one of the four elements based on which the concept of ethics is delimited (the other three being ethical substance, the forms of elaboration of ethical work, and the teleology of the moral subject). Broadly speaking, the term &#x0022;ethics&#x0022; refers to the establishment of a relationship with oneself, namely, a link that is not a mere verification of something pre-existent and existing autonomously and previously but a relationship in which the subject is constituted as a moral subject. It specifically indicates that the human being becomes a subject, also alluding to &#x0022;the way in which the individual establishes his or her relationship with that rule and recognizes themself as bound by the obligation to put it into practice&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-28101_Eng">Foucault, 1984</xref>, p. 19). In other words, he becomes aware of and behaves reflexively with respect to his relationships (deterministic, linear, socio-symbolic, coercive, etc.) with the normative set of rules and, as we could Freudianly add, with the law.</p>
<p>Now, specifically in the field of education, we can see how the notion of subjectivation has been used, for instance, to account for the idea that &#x201C;educational subjects are formed through processes of subjectivation of powers, knowledge, and imagined meanings that begin shaping their identity within the educational devices they are part of&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-28101_Eng">Angulo, 2010</xref>, p. 157). Therefore, education is constituted as the space of interest for this reflection, inasmuch as the <italic>school</italic> is understood as not the only (physical, enclosed) place where said mediating and socio-cultural transfer processes take place, as it has been originally and explicitly conceived; neither it is understood as the place destined for transferring knowledge, techniques, and tools inherent to a given discipline. Rather, it is worth conducting a critical reading on the school and its educational practices, considering them not a mere cosmetic or orthopedic operation with an accessory or subsidiary impact on an already shaped subject but as key elements of the constitution itself&#x2014;and de-constitution&#x2014;of a plural, heterogeneous, assembled subject, always under (un)development.</p>
<p>In the Chilean educational context, its convoluted and long history that dates back to around the so-called <italic>founding years</italic>, focus will be placed on the last decade of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, specifically in the years during which the first references to the concept of <italic>emotional education</italic> in the modern sense have been made. The analysis conducted on the experience of recent education reforms in Chile reflects the efforts to attempt to turn the comprehensive training process [<italic>Bildung</italic>]<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8_Eng"><sup>8</sup></xref> of individuals (inspired by illustrated ideas, derived from the <italic>Aufkl&#x00E4;rung or the les Lumi&#x00E8;res)</italic> into a sort of industrial, technical, mass production, aimed at fulfilling international performance standards, in which goals and teaching actions themselves have become sidelined (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-28101_Eng">Bustamante, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>This way, in neoliberal times, educational public policies were conceived as alternative ways to maintain and perpetuate the ruling order, not exclusively by means of the timely removal of any potentially rebel grounds, but also through the active exercise of power understood as productive force. Under the &#x0022;<italic>New Public Management</italic>,&#x0022; a series of approaches and measures have been brought together, which of an unappealable imposition of a privatizing view of the public through the implementation of changes, both sudden and irreversible. These are mostly linked to marketization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-28101_Eng">Hall &#x0026; McGinity, 2015</xref>), measurement and management (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-28101_Eng">Grinberg, 2006</xref>), in addition to the growing importance of performativity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-28101_Eng">Soto, Mera, N&#x00FA;&#x00F1;ez, Sisto &#x0026; Fardella, 2016</xref>). Overall, beyond its specific differences, this type of control seeks to establish a set of management dynamics that are characterized by their plasticity and malleability. whose aspirations with regards to power management issues are not only legitimized from the invocation of given theoretical models but, alongside the interventions in question, they bring along a set of apparatus of objectivation and measurement of effects, no matter how variable and questionable they may be.</p>
<p>The following section proposes an analysis of a specific <italic>subjectivation dispositif</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9_Eng"><sup>9</sup></xref>, which illustrates the aforementioned and allows for testing how certain concepts, originally shaped under the wing of disciplinary fields other than education, are assimilated and adapted, not for purely pedagogical purposes, but with a view to enhance the effectiveness of the ongoing subjectivation practices. We specifically refer to the progressive and silent incorporation of the so-called <italic>emotional education</italic> into curricula, in the case of Chile.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-28101_Eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>motional education</sc></bold></title>
<p>On the basis of the alleged antagonism between the rational and emotional, which in educational terms would entail a historic privilege to the first to the detriment of the second, a&#x2014;reactive, controversial, and compensatory&#x2014;movement has developed, reclaiming and reassessing the emotional aspects related to education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-28101_Eng">Extremera &#x0026; Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Berrocal, 2004</xref>). The said trend has been strengthened, not merely in the Chilean case, owing to its mutual understanding with the so-called <italic>positive psychology</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-28101_Eng">Cabanas &#x0026; Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2021</xref>). The said movement is supported by an idea, which at this point, recalls the emergence of the <italic>third party force</italic> in the field of psychology at the beginning of the second half of the last century. This idea affirms that emotions, which may have been historically neglected by the traditional school education, must imperatively become an explicit part of education for the training of holistic, competent individuals, provided with the necessary skills to face the challenges of modern living, whatever they may be.</p>
<p>The main difference concerning the emergence and spread of humanism in the 1960s is that said hypothesis, far from remaining within a conceptual or theoretical sphere, has been brought to life in a great number of instructions, handbooks, and even governmental programs (such as the HPV&#x2014;the Spanish acronym of Skills for Life&#x2014;program), geared toward developing emotional skills, either in the field of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-28101_Eng">Bisquerra, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-28101_Eng">2011</xref>) or business (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-28101_Eng">Rodr&#x00ED;guez &#x0026; Sanz, 2013</xref>). Another difference of the celebrated boom of humanism in the psychology area which, at the time, reported the discursive and practical hegemony of psychoanalysis and behaviorism has to do with the fact that said emphasis on the emotional and the positive, far from being revolutionary, radical, and isolated, proposing the subversion of the established devices and the collapse of hegemonic power relations, offers the subject a set of techniques to better adjust to the pre-established order and, in the best of cases, to positively stand out in a presumably legitimate environment. In fact, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-28101_Eng">Cabanas &#x0026; S&#x00E1;nchez (2016)</xref> suggest that positive psychology, by disregarding the whole questioning of established practices, precisely functions by taking the baton of the humanist movement, although reversing its logic. The success and school achievements no longer define the happiness of the student; in fact, it is quite the opposite case: Their happiness is what will determine their success.</p>
<p>In order to tackle the emergency of this phenomenon, although superficially, it would be useful to refer to the so-called &#x0022;affective turn&#x0022; in social and human sciences. This is a set of reconceptualizations on the emotionalization of public life, which began to affect the academic sphere by the end of the 20<sup>th</sup> century. &#x0022;Affective turn&#x0022; directly refers to &#x0022;the growing and crucial role of emotions in the transformation of the sphere of public life, such as the media, health, or the legal field, among others&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-28101_Eng">Lara and Enciso, 2013</xref>, p. 102).<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10_Eng"><sup>10</sup></xref> In this vein, with contributions, particularly from anthropology and sociology, the idea that emotions are mainly of a socio&#x2013;cultural character (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-28101_Eng">Illouz, 2007</xref>) is strongly founded, despite its biological component. This implies that the emotional and affective experience varies in function of the different cultural repertoires, and thus, it would depend on specific power mechanisms and structures. For <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-28101_Eng">Luna and Mantilla (2018)</xref>, for instance, emotions can be conceived as prescriptions created by the social system, which takes us to its clear political and regulatory component that evinces the disciplinary overflow that is necessary to deal with the complexity of this dimension of life and that may make us pass through emotional forms of exclusion and control and even affective possibilities of resistance, and vice versa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-28101_Eng">Cordero, Moscoso &#x0026; Viu, 2018</xref>). In other words, the emotional aspect of education may take shape based on &#x0022;experiences in which subjects feel recognized or, otherwise, as experiences of social invisibility&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-28101_Eng">Nobile, 2019</xref>, p. 10).</p>
<p>Hence, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-28101_Eng">Nobile (2019)</xref> insists on retrieving these deepest aspects of the affective turn at the moment of speaking of educational phenomena; this is essential inasmuch as it allows for problematizing the <italic>education-emotions</italic> relationship from its intertwining with processes of production and reproduction of social-educational inequalities and, above all, with the manners in which the school gives rise to subjectivities. The shape taken by this relationship between emotions and education in the educational practice is, therefore, fundamental in a series of levels, especially due to their practical implications. Nonetheless, in the last decades, we have witnessed the growth of an emotional speech within the educational scope, that do not necessarily respond to the same logic of problematizations that the affective turn of social and human sciences seemed to offer us. This is a trend to promote a systematic and structured management of the subjects themselves on their emotions which, this century, have become a new actual paradigm to rethink education.</p>
<p>This new starting point, however, seems not to stop, neither in the specificity of daily experiences within the educational space which, explicitly and implicitly, overwhelm our affective world, nor in the possibility of subverting the order established it offers to us. Far from that, it deals with a proposal that is rather focused on the urge to train emotional <italic>skills and abilities</italic> in the classroom, with which students would be better prepared to face the world and integrate into a society commonly described as <italic>changing, challenging</italic>, and <italic>complex</italic> and which, in the Chilean case, responds to a deeply neoliberal type of society&#x2014;in other words, to better adjust to a given order. This way, the <italic>education&#x2013;emotions</italic> relationship has limited itself to the mere need to work with content associated with, above all, positive emotions within the educational space (i.e., optimism, resilience, frustration, tolerance, impulse control, happiness, etc.), thus resorting to a diverse set of techniques and tools, often originated in worlds other than the educational one (such as mindfulness or yoga). In this sense, these are exploited partially or completely ignoring the fact that, before adapting and consolidating the <italic>status quo</italic>, what the affective turn promotes is a deeply critical and emancipator exercise from the questioning of the power relations shaped on the <italic>emotional&#x2013;affective</italic>.</p>
<p>This way, emotions currently turn into this new educational paradigm that has been widely disseminated and materialized under the <italic>Emotional Education</italic> label (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-28101_Eng">Bisquerra, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-28101_Eng">2009</xref>). Nonetheless, however accepted and widespread it may be today, its sudden emergence, distanced from the problematizations of the affective turn in the social sciences, as well as its rapid and uncritical expansion, invites us to be cautious and undertake a critical exercise aimed at revealing what determines its articulation in greater depth.</p>
<p>In this sense, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-28101_Eng">Nobile (2019)</xref> points out, despite the fact that it is possible to identify nuances today within Emotional Education (hereinafter, EE), the contributions under its name tend to share a clear discursive matrix that is nourished both by positive psychology and the developments of the acclaimed <italic>emotional intelligence</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-28101_Eng">Goleman, 1995</xref>), which have been articulated, both explicitly and implicitly, in a <italic>dominant discourse</italic> within the educational field (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-28101_Eng">&#x00C1;lvarez, 2018</xref>). This brings particular ways of understanding, managing, and modeling emotions into life, over other possible ways.</p>
<p>Thus, one of the aspects that characterizes the aforementioned conceptualities is that, instead of unveiling and opposing the tyranny of end-oriented rationalities, it considers and incorporates the field of intelligence in its argumentation: first, in order to understand emotions in principle alien to rational understanding, and second, to elaborate, on the basis of that understanding, strategies and behaviors conducive to successfully deal and self-manage those aspects of the self which are traditionally resistant to rational management. It is decisive that, with respect to this reconceptualization of emotions, the more global and transversal spheres, such as the WHO, have considered them as <italic>life skills</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-28101_Eng">World Health Organization, 1993</xref>). In this position, the apparent understandability of a term as catchy as misleading masks its radical indeterminacy, since by linguistically and conceptually reducing the plurality inherent to the notion of life(s), it evades and leaves in suspense an essential question: for which kind of life(s)?<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn11_Eng"><sup>11</sup></xref></p>
    <p>It is not surprising that EI, endorsed by global health and mental health organizations in particular, has come to be assumed without inconvenience in the current paradigms of education, consolidating itself as a central element of the EE, which seeks the development of certain strategies that allow them to go in search&#x2014;or, rather, in the hunt&#x2014;for maximum well-being and happiness. The search for and, of course, the attainment, not only of happiness and fulfillment but also of the maximum possible of both, forms the horizon of expectations to which current educational practices belong. In this manner, EE proposes&#x2014;or rather, imposes&#x2014;not only the development but also the production of emotionally competent subjects by promoting certain qualities, traits, capacities, and knowledge that are particularly useful in the capitalist context we live in (e.g., frustration tolerance, stress management, resilience, flexibility to adapt to change, and uncertainty, among others), thus playing a part in the pressures currently exerted on the educational system to adjust to the needs of the economic world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-28101_Eng">Sol&#x00E9; Blanch, 2020</xref>).</p>
    <p>It is striking that, among well-intentioned education professionals, there is a frequent appeal to neuro-educational innovation as a justification for the implementation of these discourses and practices. Especially because this revaluation of emotions in general, and of positive emotions in particular, has been the object of important conceptual, epistemic and historical criticisms. This is the case of the very concept of <italic>emotional intelligence</italic> (EI) which, despite its strong questioning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-28101_Eng">Geher, 2004</xref>), has overcome all resistance, permeating the educational space to its remotest corners. Objections such as those of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-28101_Eng">Barraza (2018)</xref>, which are part of a critique of the biased interpretation of neuroscientific facts in education, known as <italic>neuromyths</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-28101_Eng">Pallar&#x00E9;s-Dom&#x00ED;nguez, 2021</xref>), and where he states that neither multiple intelligences nor EI are theories based on scientific evidence have also been disregarded. Likewise, it has been warned that the concept of EI is neither well defined nor agreed upon, and its critical reception within the field has been denounced early on (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-28101_Eng">Hughes, 2005</xref>), nor can it be clearly differentiated from the combination of personality variables and aspects of cognitive ability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-28101_Eng">Humphrey, Curran, Morris, Farrell &#x0026; Woods, 2007</xref>). Additionally, it has been shown that neither EI has incremental predictive validity for academic performance, either above or below the personality and IQ variables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-28101_Eng">Barchard, 2003</xref>)&#x2014;two ambiguous and polyvalent concepts, which have historically resisted any binding conceptual definition&#x2014;nor that the presumed relationship between EI and school performance is as its founder claims (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-28101_Eng">Barraza, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Therefore, in spite of the numerous and worthy criticisms, the domination exerted by the meaning of EI that Goleman ascribes<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn12_Eng"><sup>12</sup></xref> to it has led to it being thought of as nothing less than <italic>the best predictor of success in life</italic> and as an element not only vital for school performance but also for work success, marital happiness, and physical health, being also capable of predicting no less than up to 80% of success in life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-28101_Eng">Pool, 1997</xref>). This establishes all kinds of links with notions belonging to a domain that is not only proto- or per-scientific, but also frankly ideological, as occurs, in fact, with the idea of <italic>success in life</italic>, thus revealing the simultaneous presence of a double bias: both ideological and scientific (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-28101_Eng">Cabanas, and Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2021</xref>). In other words, and paraphrasing <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-28101_Eng">Meirieu (2022)</xref>, these pedagogical trends that uncritically pretend and shield themselves in scientism, often hide the social, philosophical, and normative theories and purposes that encourage them from us.</p>
<p>Nevertheless, the advance of EI, and above all the naturalness with which it has been adopted in the current educational paradigm, seems irreversible. This, as the success of EI in particular and of EE in general has been consolidated by other means, outside the scientific debate and the validity of its concepts, but no less efficient for that reason. When consulting the official website of the Chilean Ministry of Education, for example, one can see this naturalness reflected in the mission that this entity proposes for basic education (primary), where it states that &#x0022;during basic education, students develop positive self-esteem and self-awareness, learn to work individually and in teams, and develop responsibility and tolerance to frustration&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-28101_Eng">Ministry of Education, n.d.</xref>, para. 3). The same emphasis can be observed in secondary education, where, in addition, the urgency for students to be able to &#x0022;<italic>fully integrate into society</italic>&#x0022; is added. Again: what kind of society should we fully integrate into? To a neoliberal, prefigured society, endorsed by tradition and customs, in whose design its actors have no influence whatsoever? And, what does full integration into this society imply?</p>
<p>Considering the complexity and preponderance of the problem, that the existence of several angles from which the critique for the spread of EI in the different levels of educational projects can be outlined is not surprising, among them, the rise of the emotional in the curricula. In this case, in accordance with what was initially stated, we are interested in highlighting how these modifications establish and promote the forging of practices of domination that the subjects in the process of constitution not only suffer but also constantly exert on themselves. Thus, unlike what happened in the main classical models, this way of subjection requires neither repression in the classical sense, nor sanction or punishment, nor a resignation of self, since it is based on generating <italic>skills</italic> and <italic>attitudes</italic>, which, as Foucault would say, seek a change in oneself &#x0022;in order to achieve a certain state of happiness, purity, or wisdom&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2008</xref>, p. 48)&#x2014;a change that is not only circumscribed to the behavioral sphere and goes beyond the contingent and transitory, materializing in the configuration of an <italic>ethos</italic>.</p>
<p>As a consequence of the above, it is possible to appreciate how emotionality, first, is revalued and conceptually introduced in the formative projects, and then, in a second step, is left in the hands of the subjects to be educated, instead of operating from the outside; it becomes a tool of (self-)control. Unlike what happens in classical emancipatory practices, this control does not seek autonomy with respect to the institutional, socioeconomic, and cultural conditions that created the conditions of possibility of such a mode of subjectivation but rather contributes, from this sort of <italic>inner foreignness</italic>, to the consolidation of said conditions. They shape people&#x0027;s emotionality, leaving the weight of the issue itself on the individual. By leaving the responsibility in the hands of the subject himself, it is possible not to cease in the enunciation of the need for change, emphasizing the urgency of developing, in each individual, emotional competences to face the situations in which he is immersed, without questioning the legitimacy of these situations.</p>
<p>As already highlighted by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-28101_Eng">Pons (2008)</xref>, one of the main roles of this type of psychologization precisely consists of enabling the preparation of a politically correct discourse that exonerates the constitutive fundamentals of the economic&#x2013;political&#x2013;social system, identifying those who are socially disadvantaged, such as victims of either a given malfunction, shortage, psychological dysfunction, or of a poor learning or socialization, or, in more extreme cases, but no less frequent, subjects who are not only responsible but also blamable of a <italic>fate</italic> they had sought by themselves&#x2014;either consciously or not. What remains, out of the scope of any critical exam, are the structural conditions that set the internal framework from which the respective processes of subjectivation shall be developed, with the greatest possible success. This is where the <italic>quid</italic> of the subjectivation process lies, interpreted from emotional education: the goal is not to achieve traditional illustrated ideals, linked to the emancipation and attainment of legal age [<italic>M&#x00FC;ndigkeit</italic>], and, in the end, to the autonomous and critical use of one&#x2019;s own capacity for understanding, against said presumably invariable determinations, capable of questioning its alleged naturalness. It rather seeks to promote the creation of a sort of subjectivation in which all types of resistance are displaced from the critical opposition that defends the right to think and be&#x2014;not just questioning what is already known but attempting to &#x0022;get to understand how and to which degree it would be possible to think differently&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2003</xref>, p. 8), unlike the domesticated, calm exercise of adaptive (pseudo)resistance to secondary political&#x2013;social adversities but, especially, to hardships considered <italic>their own.</italic></p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-28101_Eng" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscussion</sc></bold></title>
<p>As a matter of fact, the evaluation of the current dissemination and prominence of emotional education in the educational projects in general and curricula in particular provides a set of elements to critically think about the present and question the apparent enforceability of things to be, and continue being, in a given way&#x2014;and not others. Thus, curriculum innovations, based on the acritical promotion of certain seemingly unquestionable values&#x2014;in this case, EI and the conceptual framework it brings along&#x2014;translate into technologies that, through the legitimacy acquired as scientific laws and guarantors of progress, end up producing at least double the effects on the subjects to be trained. On the one hand, these are presented as regulatory or penalizing discourses that, according to the <italic>top&#x2013;down</italic> logic, are executed <italic>from the top</italic>, for the purposes of objectifying the subjects. Their way of action can be characterized as coercive, restrictive modes of subjection that set, constrain, and chain subjects through the channeled deployment of a set of power relations geared toward establishing and consolidating a certain dominant relationship. On the other hand, according to what has been suggested by Michel Foucault&#x2019;s work, and particularly by his reflections on ethics, when present in practice as ways of establishing conditions of possibility for the subjects to think, judge, manage and dominate themselves, these are revealed, at least conditionally, as forms of influencing precisely what they presuppose&#x2014;in other words, as forms of power not only exercised by another (abstract, social, symbolic, external, etc.) <italic>over</italic> one&#x0027;s everyday life and body but also as reflective practices, i.e., capable of considering themselves as objects, therefore going through life and the body itself, and finally becoming a possibility of their existence and transformation.</p>
<p>This double-faced character of subjectivation processes is, in turn, replicated in the Foucauldian reception of Enlightment [<italic>Aufkl&#x00E4;rung</italic>] and of the possibilities of breaking free from guardianships (authoritarian, doctrinaire, and dogmatic) of others and thus giving up the under-age status [<italic>Unm&#x00FC;ndigkeit</italic>], also translated as emancipation. In this sense, Foucault&#x2019;s attitude toward the Enlightenment Project, paraphrasing <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-28101_Eng">Francisco V&#x00E1;zquez (1993)</xref>, cannot be limited to the exclusive binomial between rejection or continuation of illustrated rationality. Following Vazquez&#x2019;s reasoning,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>the subject is not a prefigured instance that should be disclosed through the phenomenological or critical monitoring of ideologies [Althusser&#x2019;s option, as could be added]. This is a space to build within a precise cultural context, which should be created as a nucleus of resistance and assertion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-28101_Eng">V&#x00E1;zquez, 1993</xref>, p. 144).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Specifically in the case of the processes of subjectivation in the field of education, this does not simply entail the denial of determinations (structural, historical, materials, etc.) that position the resulting subject, always transitory, preliminary, and fleeting, in its corresponding plexus of relationships. Rather, it critically takes over said subjectivating determinations in order to open the space for the deployment of strengths tending toward emancipation as the outlook resulting from their efforts. Said emancipation, in analogy to what is pointed out by the Foucauldian interpretation of Kant&#x0027;s text &#x201C;In response to the question &#x0027;What is Enlightment?&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-28101_Eng">2004</xref>), far from being a single, irreversible, and resulting act, is an attitude and movement. It is precisely about claiming and exercising the right to question the truth regarding its power effects, and vice versa, making up the knowledge-ability binomial, the power in terms of discourses of truth. Said emancipator sign, which always involves a certain display of the subject, some kind of getting out from the family, and safe territory, is closely related to the Foucauldian notion of &#x0022;critique,&#x0022; emerging in the immediate vicinity of &#x0022;the art of voluntary inservitude, of reflective indocility&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-28101_Eng">Foucault, 1995</xref>, p. 8). Paraphrasing Foucault, said emancipation would mainly serve as a de-subjection, in other words, not only resistant (diametrical, reactive, and antagonistic) to subjection forces but also to the release or removal of (self)productive forces, constituting itself, in the game of what Foucault calls the &#x0022;politics of truth.&#x0022; In that regard, as shown, for instance, by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-28101_Eng">Silvana Vignale (2013)</xref>, the critical review of the idea of (the art of) voluntary inservitude alongside that of reflective indocility opens up a possible way of thinking, outside the already beaten main paths, potential drifts of the problem of subjectivation that go beyond the traditional binomial solutions already shaped. Specifically, more than implementing universal emancipator programs, they are based on the problematization of the potential of the subjectivation modes, and their transformation with regard to a regulation, a standard, or a law, exploring to which extent and how far it is possible to implement certain practices that may be called &#x0022;freedom practices.&#x0022; This way, resistance, (de)subjectivation and critique are brought together as a thread, toward an ethical-political axis that aims at emancipation, understood not as the unimpeded and unconditional release <italic>of</italic> power relationships and actual discourses (perhaps through the transcendence means) that define our historical context, but as the possibility for re-signifying and subverting those networks from the inside. The field of education, inasmuch as it is conceived as the transmission of specialized knowledge, learning of skills, values, beliefs and habits and, on the other hand, the development of an attitude, an <italic>&#x00E9;thos</italic> toward oneself, the other and the world, is a privileged place to diagnose, research and monitor these processes.</p>
<p>It is thus essential to bear in mind, in said place, the considerations made by Foucault in <italic>The Birth of the Clinic</italic> on how certain biopsychosocial practices constituted the body that the clinical view focuses on, through a set of onthological, epistemological, and technical changes that, by the beginning of the 19<sup>th</sup> century, translated into specific laws and assistance practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2004</xref>). Once the close intertwining of the power relationships and body is uncovered, brought together by the concept of subjectivation, keeping and caring for a healthy body becomes the responsibility of the individuals and their families and, with regard to the problem that concerns us here, the above has to do with developing a regulated, malleable, and efficient body that not only integrates the values of emotional education but also practices them on a daily basis, by which it relates to other bodies.</p>
<p>For this reason, it is worth highlighting, just like Foucault did, that this does not involve fitting a set of practices into a rationality that would allow to appreciate them as forms of said rationality but rather &#x0022;examining how these inscribe themselves in practices, or systems of practices, or ways of rationalizations, and what role they play within them&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-28101_Eng">Foucault, 1982</xref>, p. 66). In other words, although the rationality based on which certain specific measurements are justified in the field of education must be examined in pursuit of consistency and systematicity, these should not lead us to neglect the least visible effects, although more sustainable over time, which are generated when certain forms of rationality are part of given practices. Paraphrasing <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-28101_Eng">Moscoso-Flores (2011)</xref>, pedagogy is perceived as a completely fractured discourse, with gaps to be filled and indeterminations, where an affirmative functionality linked to the orders of a liberal rationality of the market is inscribed. That is to say, regardless the expected rational coherence of a specific discourse&#x2014;as in the case of the educational discourse and, more specifically, of the discourse of emotions in education&#x2014;it should not be ignored that it is precisely in its cracks and gaps where the articulated power is exercised with a different rationality. Consequently, it is necessary to <italic>de-sediment</italic> certain discourses and practices that have been developed and set as indisputable social phenomena within the neoliberal way of living and, from there, make a different criticism that allows for the reappropriation of the concept of subjectivation that involves not only a sporadic adjustment of the subject to the demands of the context&#x2014;as in the case of the educational environment&#x2014;but also other ways of subjectivation as an opening to other forms of existence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-28101_Eng">Oliverio, 2022</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1_Eng" fn-type="financial-disclosure"><label>1.</label> <p>This work was written within the framework of the Proyecto Fondecyt Regular No. 1210037. We are also grateful to the ANID National Doctoral Grant, page 21211050.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn2_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>2.</label> <p>The idea of genealogy is considered with the purpose of disassociating oneself from any idea of &#x0022;antecedent&#x0022; or &#x0022;precursor&#x0022; (cf. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-28101_Eng">Saar, 2007</xref>). Precisely, it is the reference to this notion, of Nietzschean roots, that allows us to clarify, in principle, the nature of the relationship between Foucault and Althusser. Although, in general terms, both have been considered among the &#x0022;post&#x0022; or, in the case of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-28101_Eng">Manfred Frank (1984)</xref>, &#x0022;neo-structuralist&#x0022; authors, beyond this general and descriptive label and certain common references (including Freud and Marx), are a series of differences, precisely with regard to the supposed similarities in terms of references that define their respective positions. We would like to mention at least three of these differences. First, while Althusser assumes an &#x0022;epistemological rupture&#x0022; with Marx and enrolls himself in a certain tradition of Marxism, Foucault&#x0027;s relationship with Marx can be characterized through the following two quotations: &#x0022;As far as I&#x0027;m concerned, Marx doesn&#x0027;t exist&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-28101_Eng">Foucault, 1979a</xref>, p. 122) and &#x0022;but there is also a sort of game that I play with this. I often quote concepts, texts and phrases from Marx, but without feeling obliged to add the authenticating label of a footnote with a laudatory phrase to accompany the quotation. (&#x2026;) But I quote Marx without saying so&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-28101_Eng">1979b</xref>, p. 100). Second, while the Althusserian interpretation of Freud, especially in the compendium of texts published in Spanish under the title <italic>Structuralism and Psychoanalysis</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-28101_Eng">1970</xref>) is schematic, or almost stereotyped, imposed by the post-structuralist method, in the case of Foucault, it is a much more detailed, more <italic>&#x00E9;n detail</italic>, more meticulous, and more dynamic relation&#x2014;more volatile in time as well. This allows for an effective use of Freud, an &#x0022;application&#x0022; to problems not thought of by him, respectively, makes it possible for the readings of Freud to be of emancipatory nature, leaning toward the detachment of any relation of subjection on the part of the reader or of subjugation of the author read. See, in this regard: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-28101_Eng">Birman (2008)</xref> <italic>Foucault and Psychoanalysis.</italic> Third, while for Althusser focus is placed on the analysis and weakening of the notion of ideology, in the case of Foucault, possibly as an effect of the first two differences highlighted, the purpose, apart from the emphasis on power relations, is to discuss the scope of the notion of knowledge and, on that basis, to test the concept of subjectivation as a movement in two moments, two directions and two dynamics. For this last reason in particular, we are interested in Foucault&#x0027;s problematization of a field in whose introduction Louis Althusser was engaged in (as shown, for example, in the discussion in the collective book <italic>Psychology, Ideology and Science</italic>, published in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-28101_Eng">1975</xref>, by N. Braunstein et al.), but of which he remained a prisoner in a way that does not translate into a contribution to the problem under discussion.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn3_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>3.</label> <p>In addition to Althusser, Foucault has also been associated with Nietzsche (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-28101_Eng">Cortez, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-28101_Eng">Rosenberg &#x0026; Westfall, 2018</xref>), as a &#x0022;reader&#x0022; of Kant (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-28101_Eng">Gros &#x0026; D&#x00E1;vila, 1998</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-28101_Eng">Moro, 2003</xref>) and Marx (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-28101_Eng">Castro-G&#x00F3;mez, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-28101_Eng">Diaz Bernal, 2018</xref>). Exercises that, beyond the evaluative judgements about their success or otherwise, are interesting because they open up possible relationships.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn4_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>4.</label> <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-28101_Eng">Deleuze (2015)</xref>, reading Foucault, asks: &#x0022;is there nothing &#x0027;beyond&#x2019; power? Was he [Foucault] not locking himself into power relations as in a dead end? For Deleuze, in fact, this theoretical impasse into which Foucault would have entered by conceptualising power relations in such an overwhelmingly totalising way would explain the eight-year pause after the publication of the first volume of Histoire de la sexualit&#x00E9; in 1976, even though volumes II and III were already programmed. It would be a pause in which Foucault tries to think about how to &#x0022;cross that line, to go over to the other side, to go beyond power-knowledge&#x0022;, thus opening up the third axis of his work: subjectivation (or ethics). Understood as the line of the outside, the axis of our confrontation with the absolute outside, in which - and by which - we become subjects.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn5_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>5.</label> <p>In this regard, volume I of History of Sexuality almost serves as an introduction to this new reconceptualization of power. There, Foucault begins to rethink questions such as those of the <italic>dispositif</italic>, making it clear that he undertakes a strong turn from his earlier works.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn6_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>6.</label> <p>For Foucault, &#x00E9;pist&#x00E9;m&#x00E8; constitutes an intermediate region formed by the ordering codes of a culture (language, perceptual schemes, etc.), and the reflective apparatus on this order (sciences and philosophy), and which allows establishing the limits of knowledge or, in other words, the field of what is thinkable for a given epoch.</p></fn>
<fn id="fn7_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>7.</label> <p>He also affirms the existence of technologies of production, &#x0022;which make it possible to produce, transform or manipulate things&#x0022; and of &#x0022;technologies of sign systems, which make it possible to use signs, senses, symbols or significations&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-28101_Eng">Foucault, 2008</xref>, p. 48).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn8_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>8.</label> <p>The concept of <italic>Bildung</italic>, untranslatable into English and whose genealogy far exceeds what could be suggested here, has its antecedents in the Greek concept of paideia and is probably due to Meister Eckhart (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-28101_Eng">Herdt, 2019</xref>). Its entry into pedagogy was effected through Johann Amos Comenius and his use of the notion of eruditus (enlightened, &#x0027;elder-of-age&#x0027;), which literally meant to remove or eliminate the quality of crude, brutish, unwrought, uncultivated, uncultured, coarse, clumsy. The secularization of the concept took place in the 18th century through Pestalozzi, Herder, Schiller, Goethe and Kant, and took on the meaning of perfecting the human being. During German idealism, it experienced a turn towards the subjective, until W. von Humboldt finally turned the idea into a program.</p></fn>
    <fn id="fn9_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>9.</label> <p>To go deeper into the notion of dispositif, we suggest <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-28101_Eng">Foucault (1985</xref>, pp. 127-162), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-28101_Eng">Deleuze (1990</xref>, pp. 155-163).</p></fn>
<fn id="fn10_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>10.</label> <p>The authors themselves consider the studies of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-28101_Eng">Massumi (1995)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-28101_Eng">Sedgwick &#x0026; Frank (1995)</xref> to be the pioneers in marking this affective turn in the human sciences, using both Spinoza and Deleuze and their cartographies to propose the capacity of bodies to affect and be affected.</p></fn>
    <fn id="fn11_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>11.</label> <p>Leaving that question open-ended for the ways of life (highlighting their plurality and irreducibility) constitutes a critical and profoundly counter-hegemonic gesture. When attention is paid to contemporary technologies of governance, there is no doubt about the centrality of the need to produce a certain type of subjectivity in accordance with the needs of the market (competitive, individualistic, efficient, optimistic and resilient). As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-28101_Eng">Laval and Dardot (2015)</xref> would say, what is at stake in neoliberalism is not, but the very form of our existence. Hence <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-28101_Eng">Sztulwark (2020)</xref>, for example, following very closely what Suely Rolnik developed in Brazil, proposes a distinction between <italic>modes and forms</italic> of life; <italic>modes of life</italic> being the way of living as suggested by the structures of power, while <italic>forms of life</italic> imply a questioning of the automatisms and linearities that the dominant rationality proposes. For this reason, in the context of emotional education, to speak of it as a life skill in a generic way, supposes an adaptation to the neo-liberal way of life, rather than an opening with emancipatory potential as it could be thought from the <italic>affective turn.</italic></p></fn>
<fn id="fn12_Eng" fn-type="other"><label>12.</label> <p>It is important to mention that the first to use the notion of emotional intelligence as a defined construct were <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-28101_Eng">Peter Salovey and John Mayer in 1989</xref>, for whom it consisted of a hypothetical set of skills that would allow processing information coming from emotions to be used in the resolution of everyday problems.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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