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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27864</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27864</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>DE LA REALIDAD EXTENDIDA AL METAVERSO: UNA REFLEXI&#x00D3;N CRÍTICA SOBRE LAS APORTACIONES A LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>From Extended Reality to The Metaverse: A Critical Reflection on Contributions to Education</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>ORTEGA-RODR&#x00CD;GUEZ</surname>
<given-names>Pablo Javier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1128-2360">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1128-2360</ext-link>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><email>pabloj.ortega@eduticuam.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>1</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>34</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>20</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>03</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia de Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La realidad extendida, un concepto que abarca la realidad virtual, la realidad aumentada y la realidad mixta, ha experimentado un notable progreso en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os y ha tenido un gran impacto en la comprensi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n. La investigaci&#x00F3;n sobre la realidad extendida ha aportado beneficios en la mejora de la ense&#x00F1;anza y el aprendizaje, a partir de dos conceptos clave: el grado de inmersi&#x00F3;n y la sensaci&#x00F3;n de presencia. Sin embargo, estas aportaciones necesitan una revisi&#x00F3;n desde una metodolog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica fundamentada para evitar caer en la tecnofilia sin evidencias cient&#x00ED;ficas. El objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es conocer y evaluar las aportaciones de la realidad extendida a la educaci&#x00F3;n y los retos que plantea ante el desarrollo del metaverso. Para ello, en primer lugar, se conceptualiza cada tipo de realidad y se eval&#x00FA;an sus aplicaciones en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n desde un punto de vista cr&#x00ED;tico. En segundo lugar, se realiza una argumentaci&#x00F3;n fundamentada sobre las ventajas e inconvenientes de estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa. En tercer lugar, se describen los desaf&#x00ED;os que plantea el metaverso en la educaci&#x00F3;n. Este an&#x00E1;lisis muestra como la realidad extendida ha contribuido al desarrollo de la innovaci&#x00F3;n y la mejora del proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza y aprendizaje, aunque se evidencia la falta de formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado para dise&#x00F1;ar experiencias de aprendizaje basadas en la realidad extendida y una carencia de colaboraci&#x00F3;n interdisciplinar entre los &#x00E1;mbitos de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a y la pedagog&#x00ED;a. Estos resultados influyen en el desarrollo del metaverso, un paso m&#x00E1;s en la evoluci&#x00F3;n de la realidad extendida, que tendr&#x00E1; un gran impacto en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n, lo cual sugiere la necesidad de dise&#x00F1;ar un c&#x00F3;digo &#x00E9;tico, desarrollar una cultura y proteger la identidad de los usuarios.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Extended reality, a concept that encompasses virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality, has seen remarkable progress in recent years and has had a great impact on the understanding of education. Research on extended reality has provided benefits in improving teaching and learning, based on two key concepts: the degree of immersion and the sense of presence. However, these contributions need a review from a critical grounded theory, to avoid falling into a technophilia without scientific evidence. This article aims to know and evaluate the contributions of extended reality to education and the educational challenges it poses before the development of the metaverse. For this reason, first, each type of reality is defined and its applications in the field of education are evaluated from a critical point of view. Secondly, a critical argument is posed about the advantages and disadvantages of these technologies in educational practice. Third, challenges posed by the metaverse in education are described. This analysis shows that extended reality has contributed to the development of innovation and improvement of the teaching and learning process, although there is a lack of teacher training to design learning experiences based on extended reality and a lack of interdisciplinary collaboration between the fields of technology and pedagogy. These results influence the development of the metaverse, one more step in the evolution of extended reality, which will have a great impact in the field of education. Findings suggest the need to design an ethical code, develop a culture and protect identity of users.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave:</italic></title>
<kwd>realidad extendida</kwd>
<kwd>metaverso</kwd>
<kwd>realidad virtual</kwd>
<kwd>realidad aumentada</kwd>
<kwd>realidad mixta</kwd>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>TIC</kwd>
<kwd>aprendizaje</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>extended reality</kwd>
<kwd>metaverse</kwd>
<kwd>virtual reality</kwd>
<kwd>augmented reality</kwd>
<kwd>mixed reality</kwd>
<kwd>education theory</kwd>
<kwd>ICT</kwd>
<kwd>learning</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-27864_es" sec-type="introduction">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>El &#x00E1;mbito educativo est&#x00E1; percibiendo c&#x00F3;mo los adelantos que se producen en el campo de las TIC (Tecnolog&#x00ED;as de la Informaci&#x00F3;n y la Comunicaci&#x00F3;n) le proporcionan nuevas herramientas de aprendizaje, que permiten al alumnado aumentar sus conocimientos m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las barreras temporales y geogr&#x00E1;ficas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27864_es">Cabero, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-27864_es">Cabero <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). La investigaci&#x00F3;n ha demostrado que el impacto de la incorporaci&#x00F3;n de las TIC a las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas se concreta en peque&#x00F1;as innovaciones educativas ad hoc a la metodolog&#x00ED;a del profesorado, dependiendo de su formaci&#x00F3;n y actitudes hacia la ense&#x00F1;anza y el aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27864_es">Area, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27864_es">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Cruz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). Las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes est&#x00E1;n transformando los modos tradicionales de ense&#x00F1;anza, que se aproximan a los escenarios en l&#x00ED;nea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27864_es">Adell, 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27864_es">Area, 2020</xref>). A pesar de los avances realizados en las infraestructuras, los recursos telem&#x00E1;ticos, la formaci&#x00F3;n y la competencia digital del profesorado, la presencia de las TIC ha representado un cambio superficial de las pr&#x00E1;cticas de ense&#x00F1;anza y aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27864_es">Area &#x0026; Adell, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>En la &#x00FA;ltima d&#x00E9;cada, el aprendizaje online se ha extendido al &#x00E1;mbito educativo, de modo que las investigaciones se han centrado en conocer las posibilidades de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes en los entornos virtuales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27864_es">Boulton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-27864_es">Mu&#x00F1;oz-Crist&#x00F3;bal <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-27864_es">Schroeder (1996</xref>, p. 25) define <italic>entorno virtual</italic> como &#x201C;una pantalla generada por ordenador que permite a los usuarios tener la sensaci&#x00F3;n de estar presentes en un entorno diferente al que realmente se encuentra e interactuar con el mismo&#x201D;. Entre las tendencias m&#x00E1;s utilizadas en los entornos virtuales, destaca el <italic>mobile learning</italic>, un enfoque centrado en el aprendizaje de conocimientos mediante el uso de tel&#x00E9;fonos m&#x00F3;viles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-91-27864_es">Yuen &#x0026; Yuen, 2008</xref>). Este enfoque favorece el desarrollo de cuatro tipos de aprendizaje: el aprendizaje individualizado, que permite a los estudiantes aprender a su propio ritmo, el aprendizaje situado, que consiste en el uso de dispositivos m&#x00F3;viles para aprender en un contexto real, el aprendizaje colaborativo, para interactuar y comunicarse f&#x00E1;cilmente con otros estudiantes, y el aprendizaje informal, que tiene lugar cuando los estudiantes aprenden fuera de clase a su propio ritmo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27864_es">Cheon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>). El uso del tel&#x00E9;fono m&#x00F3;vil con fines educativos ha cobrado protagonismo en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27864_es">Briz-Ponce <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). La literatura cient&#x00ED;fica se centra en el impacto del <italic>mobile learning</italic> en el rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico del alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27864_es">Crompton &#x0026; Burke, 2018</xref>).</p>
    <p>La pandemia causada por la COVID-19 ha puesto de relieve el papel que juegan las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes en la educaci&#x00F3;n. Las m&#x00E1;s utilizadas con el m&#x00F3;vil son la realidad virtual (RV), considerada la herramienta de aprendizaje del siglo XX1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-27864_es">Rogers, 2019</xref>), la realidad aumentada (RA) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27864_es">Arici <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>) y la realidad mixta (RM) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-93-27864_es">Zhan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>), que conforman la realidad extendida (XR, <italic>extended reality</italic>) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27864_es">&#x00C7;&#x00F6;ltekin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020a</xref>). Este es un concepto que hace referencia a la combinaci&#x00F3;n de los entornos virtuales y reales, y las interacciones que existen con los usuarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27864_es">Dall&#x2019;Acqua &#x0026; Gironacci, 2019</xref>). Los avances en la realidad extendida permiten la validaci&#x00F3;n de instrumentos que miden el grado de sensaci&#x00F3;n de presencia que proporcionan los entornos virtuales, que abre nuevas posibilidades en la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27864_es">Gandolfi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Desde un punto de vista te&#x00F3;rico, es preciso conocer las aportaciones que ofrece la realidad extendida, que puede ser un remedio, lo cual contribuye a la difusi&#x00F3;n de informaci&#x00F3;n, o algo perjudicial, que puede sustituir al profesorado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-27864_es">Meirieu, 2022</xref>). Asimismo, es necesario reflexionar de manera cr&#x00ED;tica sobre las aportaciones que ofrece la realidad extendida a la educaci&#x00F3;n ante el desarrollo del metaverso, que constituye un reto al que debe enfrentarse la teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>El objetivo general de este art&#x00ED;culo es conocer y evaluar las aportaciones de la realidad extendida (la realidad virtual, la realidad aumentada y la realidad mixta) a la educaci&#x00F3;n y los retos educativos que plantea de cara al desarrollo del metaverso. Desde una metodolog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica fundamentada, es preciso conocer, en primer lugar, el concepto de cada tecnolog&#x00ED;a y sus posibilidades en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n desde un punto de vista cr&#x00ED;tico, evitando caer en la denominada tecnofilia, o entusiasmo sin evidencia cient&#x00ED;fica hacia las posibilidades de las nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as. En segundo lugar, se reflexiona sobre las ventajas e inconvenientes de estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa. En tercer lugar, se describen los retos que plantea el metaverso en la educaci&#x00F3;n del futuro, que abre nuevas l&#x00ED;neas de investigaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-27864_es" sec-type="method">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>M<sc>etodolog&#x00ED;a</sc></bold></title>
<p>Este trabajo se enmarca en una metodolog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica fundamentada, que parte del paradigma socio-cr&#x00ED;tico, basado en el an&#x00E1;lisis cr&#x00ED;tico de la realidad para transformar las pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27864_es">Bisquerra, 2009</xref>). Esta metodolog&#x00ED;a permite reflexionar sobre las aplicaciones, los pros y los contras de cada tipo de realidad a fin de aportar conocimientos a los investigadores y los profesionales de la educaci&#x00F3;n y aplicarlos en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-27864_es">McMillan &#x0026; Schumacher, 2008</xref>). Se ha realizado un an&#x00E1;lisis de contenido sobre las referencias bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas, con el programa ATLAS.ti, que ha permitido identificar cuatro categor&#x00ED;as: el concepto de cada tipo de realidad, su aplicaci&#x00F3;n en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo, las ventajas y los inconvenientes.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27864_es" sec-type="results">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>R<sc>esultados</sc></bold></title>
<sec id="sec-4-27864_es">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title><italic>Concepto y aportaciones de la realidad virtual a la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic></title>
<p>La realidad virtual (RV) es un entorno simulado, construido en formato digital, que cuenta con efectos visuales y sonoros para hacer creer a los usuarios que se encuentran en un ambiente que existe realmente. Puede aplicarse en el &#x00E1;rea educativa, sumergiendo al alumnado en un espacio creado para hacerle sentir distintas emociones, por ejemplo, pasear por las ciudades del antiguo Egipto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27864_es">G&#x00F3;mez-Garc&#x00ED;a <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). Comprende dos conceptos clave: inmersi&#x00F3;n y presencia. El primero describe la experiencia resultante de usar la tecnolog&#x00ED;a, que nos introduce en un &#x00E1;mbito imaginario y funciona intercambiando informaci&#x00F3;n sensorial de la realidad con otra, generada digitalmente, como im&#x00E1;genes y sonidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-27864_es">Ott &#x0026; Freina, 2015</xref>). El segundo se refiere a la reacci&#x00F3;n subjetiva que experimentan los usuarios al estar inmersos en un entorno virtual, de modo que el cerebro se comporta de manera similar a encontrarse en el mundo real (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-27864_es">Slater, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>La literatura cient&#x00ED;fica pone de relieve el uso de la realidad virtual en la educaci&#x00F3;n y sus posibilidades en el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje. Los laboratorios en realidad virtual para ense&#x00F1;ar contenidos relacionados con las &#x00E1;reas STEM (<italic>Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics</italic>) permiten llevar a cabo simulaciones de experimentos mediante objetos creados en 3D (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-27864_es">Potkonjak <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Son pocos los estudios que han dise&#x00F1;ado aplicaciones de realidad virtual, bas&#x00E1;ndose en una teor&#x00ED;a de aprendizaje espec&#x00ED;fica, y han investigado sobre c&#x00F3;mo se puede integrar en el curr&#x00ED;culum (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-27864_es">Radianti <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Diferentes investigaciones demuestran que las situaciones de realidad virtual producen desde sentimientos leves de inseguridad hasta otros m&#x00E1;s importantes de mareos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27864_es">Jensen y Konradsen, 2017</xref>), que ponen de relieve la importancia de dise&#x00F1;ar situaciones que minimicen las molestias f&#x00ED;sicas. El estudio de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-27864_es">Krokos <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref> muestra que el alumnado retiene m&#x00E1;s informaci&#x00F3;n y aplica mejor lo que ha aprendido tras haber participado en experiencias educativas con realidad virtual.</p>
<sec id="sec-5-27864_es">
<label>3.1.1.</label>
<title>Ventajas e inconvenientes de la realidad virtual</title>
<p>Las ventajas de la RV residen en su capacidad para presenciar una situaci&#x00F3;n. El alumnado siente una mayor sensaci&#x00F3;n de presencia cuando se ve inmerso en una situaci&#x00F3;n de realidad virtual con una HMD (<italic>Head-Mounted Display</italic>) o dispositivo de visualizaci&#x00F3;n similar a un casco, pero aprende menos en comparaci&#x00F3;n con otra situaci&#x00F3;n de baja inmersi&#x00F3;n en un ordenador (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-27864_es">Makransky <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). Los inconvenientes de la RV son las dificultades t&#x00E9;cnicas que conlleva su uso y el alto coste del equipamiento necesario para llevar a cabo experiencias con alto nivel de inmersi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27864_es">Duncan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>), que han dificultado su implementaci&#x00F3;n en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa. En este sentido, los pros relacionados con la realidad virtual en cuanto a la sensaci&#x00F3;n de emociones en el alumnado no se han consolidado en la educaci&#x00F3;n debido a la sofisticaci&#x00F3;n y la inversi&#x00F3;n que exigen los dispositivos necesarios para su implementaci&#x00F3;n en las aulas.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-27864_es">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title><italic>Concepto y aportaciones de la realidad aumentada a la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic></title>
<p>Thomas P. Caudell, investigador y cient&#x00ED;fico, acu&#x00F1;&#x00F3; el t&#x00E9;rmino &#x201C;realidad aumentada&#x201D; (RA) en 1992 para definir una tecnolog&#x00ED;a que permite aumentar el campo visual mediante la visualizaci&#x00F3;n frontal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27864_es">Caudell &#x0026; Mizell, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-27864_es">Lee, 2012</xref>). La realidad aumentada es una tecnolog&#x00ED;a que permite a los usuarios ver una realidad complementada a trav&#x00E9;s de objetos virtuales superpuestos sobre el mundo real (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27864_es">Azuma, 1997</xref>). Es un entorno que incluye elementos de dos mundos (real y virtual), mantiene interacci&#x00F3;n en directo y puede mostrarse en tres dimensiones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27864_es">G&#x00F3;mez-Garc&#x00ED;a &#x0026; Palomo, 2016</xref>, p. 141). A partir del a&#x00F1;o 2010, el n&#x00FA;mero de investigaciones sobre la aplicaci&#x00F3;n de la RA en la educaci&#x00F3;n ha aumentado de manera notable debido a la integraci&#x00F3;n de los sistemas de RA en los <italic>smartphones</italic> y las <italic>tablets,</italic> que destacan entre las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27864_es">Garz&#x00F3;n <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>La aplicaci&#x00F3;n de la RA en la educaci&#x00F3;n permite al profesorado y al alumnado hacer anotaciones en el mundo real, interactuar con objetos reales y virtuales a la vez, y realizar pr&#x00E1;cticas con objetos virtuales en una situaci&#x00F3;n real sin riesgos, por ejemplo, la disecci&#x00F3;n de animales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27864_es">G&#x00F3;mez-Garc&#x00ED;a &#x0026; Palomo, 2016</xref>). En este sentido, uno de los &#x00E1;mbitos en los que la RA tiene mayor impacto es el &#x00E1;mbito STEM, en el que se utilizan herramientas de exploraci&#x00F3;n basadas en la RA, junto a actividades de investigaci&#x00F3;n y simulaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-27864_es">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez &#x0026; Delgado-Kloos, 2018</xref>). En el &#x00E1;rea de Matem&#x00E1;ticas, el uso de la RA en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa tiene un efecto significativo en la comprensi&#x00F3;n de conceptos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27864_es">Boaler <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), la habilidad para resolver problemas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-27864_es">Sollervall, 2012</xref>) y el rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27864_es">Demitriadou <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). Una de las modalidades de RA m&#x00E1;s com&#x00FA;n en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo es la geolocalizaci&#x00F3;n GPS, una tecnolog&#x00ED;a que permite conocer la posici&#x00F3;n geogr&#x00E1;fica en cualquier sitio del mundo, acceder a mapas por geo-posicionamiento y a informaci&#x00F3;n en tiempo real (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27864_es">Brazuelo, 2015</xref>). La geolocalizaci&#x00F3;n y la realidad aumentada contribuyen a la realizaci&#x00F3;n de actividades de exploraci&#x00F3;n del entorno de forma aut&#x00F3;noma y de conceptos geogr&#x00E1;ficos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27864_es">Arango-L&#x00F3;pez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27864_es">Fombona &#x0026; V&#x00E1;zquez-Cano, 2017</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-7-27864_es">
<label>3.2.1.</label>
<title>Ventajas e inconvenientes de la realidad aumentada</title>
<p>Las ventajas de la RA en la educaci&#x00F3;n estriban en su capacidad para aumentar la participaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado en las actividades con tecnolog&#x00ED;as inmersivas y mejorar la experiencia de aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-27864_es">Suh &#x0026; Prophet, 2018</xref>). El uso de la RA en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa tiene un efecto moderado en los resultados acad&#x00E9;micos del alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27864_es">Garz&#x00F3;n &#x0026; Acevedo, 2019</xref>). Los inconvenientes de la RA tienen que ver con su complejidad, que pone de manifiesto la necesidad de formaci&#x00F3;n espec&#x00ED;fica del profesorado a fin de crear contenidos que mejoren el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-27864_es">Pellas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). La RA plantea retos en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa para mejorar el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje: la falta de formaci&#x00F3;n y experiencia del profesorado, la necesidad de m&#x00E1;s tiempo de clase para perfeccionar su uso y su inadecuaci&#x00F3;n en aulas con altas ratios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27864_es">Ackayir &#x0026; Ackayir, 2017</xref>). La RA supone un paso m&#x00E1;s hacia la combinaci&#x00F3;n de la RV y el mundo f&#x00ED;sico, que contribuye a la motivaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado, aunque existen carencias formativas en los planes de estudios universitarios sobre su implementaci&#x00F3;n en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-27864_es">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title><italic>Concepto y aportaciones de la realidad mixta a la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic></title>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-27864_es">Milgram y Kishino (1994)</xref>, dos investigadores pioneros en tecnolog&#x00ED;a explicaron las posibilidades de la RM en la mejora del aprendizaje &#x0022;en cualquier lugar entre los extremos del continuo de virtualidad&#x0022; (p. 1322), en el que los contextos virtuales se extienden de entornos reales a virtuales mediante una tecnolog&#x00ED;a que puede &#x0022;aumentar&#x0022; la experiencia del usuario. En este sentido, acu&#x00F1;aron el t&#x00E9;rmino &#x201C;<italic>reality-virtuality continuum</italic>&#x201D; (v&#x00E9;ase la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-27864_es">Figura 1</xref>), para designar la evoluci&#x00F3;n de la RM.</p>
<fig id="fig-1-27864_es">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>E<sc>voluci&#x00F3;n de la realidad mixta</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-27864_es.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: Traducido de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-27864_es">Pellas <italic>et al</italic>. (2019)</xref></attrib>
</fig>
    <p>La RM es una combinaci&#x00F3;n de la RA y la RV, que ofrece la posibilidad de interactuar f&#x00ED;sicamente con objetos virtuales en el mundo real (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-27864_es">Yusoff <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Se puede utilizar para el desarrollo de entornos &#x0022;aumentados&#x0022; dentro de otros pertenecientes al mundo real, en los que los usuarios pueden agregar o integrar informaci&#x00F3;n virtual dentro de ella (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-27864_es">Tamura <italic>et al.</italic>, 2001</xref>). En los entornos de RM, los datos se procesan a trav&#x00E9;s de varios dispositivos de entrada diferentes, como gafas inteligentes, tabletas, sensores o computadoras personales (PC), que se combinan con dispositivos de salida, como proyectores, paredes interactivas o monitores de PC que muestran los resultados del procesamiento. Todos los dispositivos de entrada y salida deben integrarse dentro de un entorno f&#x00ED;sico que mejore la sensaci&#x00F3;n de &#x0022;presencia&#x0022; del usuario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-27864_es">Ponto <italic>et al.</italic>, 2006</xref>). La principal diferencia entre la RA y la RM estriba en que la primera permite la superposici&#x00F3;n de un objeto virtual en el mundo real, mientras que la segunda es un medio que incorpora un conjunto de elementos virtuales y reales a trav&#x00E9;s de un continuo de la realidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-27864_es">Lindgren &#x0026; Johnson-Glenberg, 2013</xref>). La investigaci&#x00F3;n ha demostrado que el uso de la RM resulta eficaz en el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-27864_es">Ke <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-27864_es">Tang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Los principales retos que plantean la RV, la RA y la RM son la personalizaci&#x00F3;n del aprendizaje y la inteligencia educativa. La personalizaci&#x00F3;n del aprendizaje conlleva crear e implementar experiencias de aprendizaje basadas en las necesidades educativas y caracter&#x00ED;sticas del alumnado (conocimientos previos sobre un tema, intereses y estilos de aprendizaje). La inteligencia educativa es la aplicaci&#x00F3;n de las nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as y los m&#x00E9;todos inteligentes que mejoran el aprendizaje del alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-27864_es">Kurilovas, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>La aplicaci&#x00F3;n de la RM en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo ha sido un tema estudiado en profundidad en muchas investigaciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-27864_es">Johnson-Glenberg <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-88-27864_es">Tscholl &#x0026; Lindgren, 2016</xref>). La aplicaci&#x00F3;n de la realidad mixta en la educaci&#x00F3;n ha dado lugar a un enfoque denominado MRLE (Mixed Reality Learning Environment) o entorno de aprendizaje basado en la realidad mixta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27864_es">Chang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). Una de las aplicaciones del MRLE que ha tenido mayor impacto en el aprendizaje es el uso de los m&#x00F3;viles en el &#x00E1;rea de ciencias, mediante el dise&#x00F1;o de laboratorios en realidad mixta, que permiten a los usuarios enfocar las pruebas del laboratorio, aumentar los gr&#x00E1;ficos, modificarlos y realizar experimentos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27864_es">Frank &#x0026; Kapila, 2017</xref>). Tambi&#x00E9;n se ha utilizado en el &#x00E1;rea de astronom&#x00ED;a para ense&#x00F1;ar conocimientos sobre el espacio exterior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-27864_es">Lindgren <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>).</p>
    <p>La motivaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado es un factor importante en el rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-27864_es">Trowler, 2010</xref>). Tanto el uso de la RV como de la RM tiene m&#x00E1;s impacto en la motivaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado que los m&#x00E9;todos tradicionales, lo cual influye en la mejora del rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27864_es">Allcoat <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-27864_es">Leonard &#x0026; Fitzgerald, 2018</xref>). El uso de la RM en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa mejora el rendimiento acad&#x00E9;mico del alumnado, en particular aquel que tiene baja habilidades espaciales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-90-27864_es">Weng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-9-27864_es">
<label>3.3.1.</label>
<title>Ventajas e inconvenientes de la realidad mixta</title>
<p>Las ventajas de la RM guardan relaci&#x00F3;n con sus m&#x00FA;ltiples aplicaciones desde un punto de vista metodol&#x00F3;gico, en tanto que combina las posibilidades de la RV y RA en un mismo enfoque, dando lugar al dise&#x00F1;o y desarrollo de experiencias de aprendizaje que otorgan relevancia, inter&#x00E9;s y significancia al aprendizaje del alumnado. Uno de los enfoques en los que la RM destaca es el <italic>serious game</italic>, que consiste en un juego digital cuyo objetivo es entretener y alcanzar, al menos, un objetivo educativo, promoviendo la resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27864_es">D&#x00F6;rner <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). En este sentido, los <italic>serious games</italic> basados en la RM contribuyen a que los alumnos resuelvan un problema significativo de forma colaborativa, aprovechando las posibilidades que ofrecen ambas realidades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-27864_es">Lee <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Los inconvenientes derivados de la aplicaci&#x00F3;n de la RM en la educaci&#x00F3;n tienen que ver con la carencia de colaboraci&#x00F3;n interdisciplinar entre la investigaci&#x00F3;n tecnol&#x00F3;gica de los soportes utilizados en la RM (por ejemplo: las gafas inteligentes) y la pedag&#x00F3;gica sobre su aplicaci&#x00F3;n en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa. La creaci&#x00F3;n de experiencias basadas en la RM que resulten eficientes s&#x00F3;lo puede lograrse mediante la colaboraci&#x00F3;n interdisciplinar, consolidando y aceptando los avances de diferentes disciplinas, como la tecnolog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n, de modo que el avance de las disciplinas por separado conlleva el riesgo de hacer suposiciones unidireccionales sobre el uso de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27864_es">&#x00C7;oltekin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020b</xref>). En este sentido, el avance en el conocimiento sobre estas nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as impulsa enfoques interdisciplinares con un gran potencial que permiten todo tipo de metodolog&#x00ED;as y aplicaciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-27864_es">Prendes &#x0026; Cerd&#x00E1;n, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>La revisi&#x00F3;n de la literatura ha demostrado que existe una carencia de estudios sobre el uso de la RA y la RV con fines educativos debido a tres factores: 1. El acceso a estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as mediante los <italic>smartphones,</italic> cuyo uso no ha llegado a consolidarse en el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje, 2. La falta de contenidos sobre la utilizaci&#x00F3;n de estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as en los centros educativos y 3. La brecha digital en pa&#x00ED;ses y escuelas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27864_es">Maas &#x0026; Hughes, 2020</xref>). Las experiencias de RM en el metaverso requerir&#x00E1;n de interacci&#x00F3;n verbal con objetos virtuales y recibir un feedback o retroalimentaci&#x00F3;n, de modo que la interacci&#x00F3;n de voz es el reto principal para pasar de la RM al desarrollo del metaverso en la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-27864_es">Siyaev &#x0026; Jo, 2021</xref>). Para ello, es preciso perfeccionar el desarrollo de las gafas empleadas en la RM, que funcionan con comandos de voz est&#x00E1;ticos y predefinidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27864_es">Eschen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>), e incluir otros flexibles que se adapten al feedback de los usuarios.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-27864_es">
<label>3.4.</label>
<title><italic>Concepto y aportaciones del metaverso a la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic></title>
<p>Mark Zuckerberg anunci&#x00F3; en octubre de 2021 la llegada del metaverso en un plazo de 5 a 10 a&#x00F1;os, defini&#x00E9;ndolo como una realidad digital alternativa en la que la gente trabaja, juega y socializa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27864_es">Gonzalo, 2021</xref>). Desde entonces, han proliferado art&#x00ED;culos de opini&#x00F3;n sobre las posibles consecuencias del metaverso en la sociedad y su impacto en el <italic>e-learning</italic>, poniendo de relieve la importancia y vigencia del tema. Para conocer los retos que plantea el metaverso en los escenarios digitales del futuro, procede partir del concepto y las experiencias que se han aproximado a esta nueva realidad, publicadas en revistas cient&#x00ED;ficas. Los conceptos que aluden al metaverso son &#x201C;mundo espejo&#x201D; o &#x201C;internet espacial&#x201D;, de modo que puede entenderse como &#x201C;una realidad f&#x00ED;sica virtualmente mejorada&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-27864_es">Ribeiro, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>El metaverso es un acr&#x00F3;nimo formado por el prefijo &#x201C;meta&#x201D; (m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1;) y la contracci&#x00F3;n del t&#x00E9;rmino universo -&#x201C;verso&#x201D;-, que se refiere a un mundo virtual en 3D que es inmersivo, interactivo y colaborativo. Constituye una nueva dimensi&#x00F3;n en Internet, con gran impacto en la educaci&#x00F3;n del futuro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-27864_es">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>). Fue el novelista americano Neal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-27864_es">Stephenson (1992)</xref> quien utiliz&#x00F3; este t&#x00E9;rmino por primera vez en su novela Snow Crash para referirse a una nueva versi&#x00F3;n de Internet. Esto permite que diferentes miembros de un grupo puedan trabajar juntos en un espacio virtual mediante avatares que interact&#x00FA;an cara a cara y crean objetos tridimensionales que representan ideas, valores o sentimientos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27864_es">Davis <italic>et al.</italic>, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>El metaverso re&#x00FA;ne una serie de caracter&#x00ED;sticas que superan a la realidad extendida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27864_es">Ball, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-27864_es">Mart&#x00ED;n-Ramallal &#x0026; Merch&#x00E1;n-Murillo, 2019</xref>):</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><p>- Es persistente. No se reinicia ni se pausa, sino que contin&#x00FA;a indefinidamente.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- Favorece la proactividad de los usuarios, que toman el control, adoptan decisiones y se anticipan a posibles acontecimientos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- Es sincr&#x00F3;nico y existe en tiempo real.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- No tiene l&#x00ED;mites para la simultaneidad de usuarios en una actividad.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- Brinda una experiencia que abarca el mundo digital y el real, la relaci&#x00F3;n entre redes privadas y p&#x00FA;blicas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- Ofrece interoperabilidad de datos y elementos digitales, por ejemplo, un objeto virtual de un videojuego puede ser regalado a un amigo a trav&#x00E9;s de Facebook.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Una de las posibilidades educativas del metaverso est&#x00E1; relacionada con la creaci&#x00F3;n de museos, que albergan exposiciones de temas especiales y proporcionan contenidos experienciales a los visitantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27864_es">Choi &#x0026; Kim, 2017</xref>). Otras guardan relaci&#x00F3;n con el dise&#x00F1;o de experiencias de aprendizaje basadas en el metaverso, que exigen la creaci&#x00F3;n de un avatar, un alter ego del usuario que puede interactuar con otros avatares en un mundo virtual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27864_es">Bailenson &#x0026; Yee, 2005</xref>). El Informe Horizon Report 2021 destaca el uso de avatares para practicar un idioma en un entorno virtual. El avatar est&#x00E1; conectado con un chatbot, que ofrece respuestas a las dudas del alumnado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-27864_es">Pelletier <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). Un estudio pionero evalu&#x00F3; la percepci&#x00F3;n social de las personas a partir de la creaci&#x00F3;n de dos avatares, uno tiene la misma apariencia facial que los usuarios y el otro, la misma expresi&#x00F3;n de sus gestos. Los resultados muestran que los participantes no se identificaban con la apariencia de su avatar, mientras que s&#x00ED; se reconocieron en los avatares que realizaban los mismos gestos que ellos. Por tanto, este realismo conductual juega un papel importante en el dise&#x00F1;o de avatares para la implementaci&#x00F3;n del metaverso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-27864_es">Park <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-11-27864_es">
<label>3.4.1.</label>
<title>Retos del metaverso en la educaci&#x00F3;n</title>
<p>El principal reto estriba en pasar de un entorno en realidad virtual, sofisticado, pero independiente, a una red integrada de mundos virtuales en 3D o metaverso, que pone de relieve la necesidad de avanzar en el conocimiento sobre cuatro aspectos que tienen un impacto en la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27864_es">Dionisio <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>): 1. Realismo (hacer sentir a los usuarios que est&#x00E1;n inmersos en una dimensi&#x00F3;n alternativa), 2. Ubicuidad (establecer el acceso al sistema a trav&#x00E9;s de los dispositivos digitales y mantener la identidad virtual de los usuarios dentro del sistema), 3. Interoperabilidad (permitir la creaci&#x00F3;n y movimiento de objetos en 3D fuera del sistema), y 4. Escalabilidad (permitir un uso eficiente del sistema con cantidades masivas de usuarios conectados a la vez). Desde un punto de vista pr&#x00E1;ctico, las primeras experiencias que se han aproximado al metaverso se han centrado en la comprensi&#x00F3;n escrita y oral de idiomas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27864_es">Garrido-&#x00CD;&#x00F1;igo &#x0026; Rodr&#x00ED;guez-Moreno, 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>El metaverso ofrece muchas posibilidades educativas relacionadas con la adquisici&#x00F3;n de conocimientos culturales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-94-27864_es">Zheng, 2020</xref>). En este sentido, uno de los conceptos clave en el desarrollo del metaverso es la cultura, que se refiere a los antecedentes y experiencias de las personas que forman parte de esta dimensi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27864_es">Han, 2015</xref>) y abarca dos conceptos relacionados: qui&#x00E9;nes somos y c&#x00F3;mo vivimos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-89-27864_es">Wang, 2001</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27864_es">Castells (2005</xref>, p. 405) afirma que es precisa una cultura en la sociedad del conocimiento, a partir del establecimiento de ciertas normas. El autor se&#x00F1;ala que esta cultura forma parte de un sistema de virtualidad real, en el que la misma realidad (la existencia de las personas) es sumergida en un escenario de im&#x00E1;genes virtuales, en el que las apariencias no est&#x00E1;n solamente en la pantalla a trav&#x00E9;s de la que se comunica la experiencia, sino que se convierten en la experiencia. En este sentido, resulta fundamental construir una cultura o conjunto de normas y valores de base para comunicarse, trabajar y ser en el metaverso, una realidad alternativa en la que las fronteras entre lo f&#x00ED;sico y lo virtual resultan a&#x00FA;n difusas y necesitan ser delimitadas con precisi&#x00F3;n para salvaguardar la identidad de los usuarios. En este sentido, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-27864_es">Smithson (2022)</xref> sugiere la necesidad de un c&#x00F3;digo &#x00E9;tico para desarrollar la cultura del metaverso, que se sustenta en cinco aspectos:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>La transparencia de conocimientos y opiniones entre los consumidores y los creadores de productos basados en el metaverso contribuyen a la mejora de su funcionamiento.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Una escala de valores que favorezca la convivencia y las relaciones entre los usuarios.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>El principio de inclusi&#x00F3;n es fundamental. El metaverso debe ser accesible y f&#x00E1;cil de utilizar para todas las personas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Los avatares (o alter ego) son personas reales, de modo que las actitudes de acoso y fraudulentas ser&#x00E1;n sancionadas con la eliminaci&#x00F3;n temporal de los usuarios en este espacio.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>La &#x00E9;tica es la piedra angular, que se traduce en el dise&#x00F1;o de programas y experiencias de aprendizaje que aseguren la confidencialidad de los consumidores.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-27864_es" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></bold></title>
<p>La pandemia originada por la COVID-19 supuso el traslado de la docencia a las plataformas digitales, que marca un punto de inflexi&#x00F3;n sobre la implementaci&#x00F3;n de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes en la educaci&#x00F3;n del futuro, en la que la realidad extendida y el metaverso destacan por su relevancia, inter&#x00E9;s e impacto en el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje. Por ello, el objetivo fundamental de este estudio era conocer y evaluar las aportaciones cient&#x00ED;ficas de la realidad extendida (la realidad virtual, la realidad aumentada y la realidad mixta) al &#x00E1;mbito educativo, as&#x00ED; como los retos que plantea el metaverso en la educaci&#x00F3;n del futuro.</p>
<p>En cuanto al concepto de los tres tipos de realidades que conforman la realidad extendida, la RV incorpora efectos visuales y sonoros para hacer creer a los usuarios que est&#x00E1;n en un ambiente que existe en la realidad. El objetivo fundamental de esta realidad es abordar la inmersi&#x00F3;n en un &#x00E1;mbito virtual sin renunciar a la presencia ni a la reacci&#x00F3;n subjetiva de los usuarios. Ambos conceptos, inmersi&#x00F3;n y presencia, han guiado los estudios posteriores sobre la realidad aumentada, que brinda la posibilidad de interactuar f&#x00ED;sicamente con objetos virtuales en el mundo real. La RA se ha visto reforzada por los <italic>smartphones</italic> y las <italic>tablets</italic>, que han facilitado su desarrollo en la educaci&#x00F3;n. En un intento por aumentar el grado de inmersi&#x00F3;n y presencia, surge la realidad mixta, que incorpora elementos virtuales y reales a trav&#x00E9;s de un continuo de la realidad y constituye un antecedente importante para el desarroll&#x00F3; del metaverso, un mundo virtual en 3D que requiere la creaci&#x00F3;n de un avatar para interactuar con otros avatares en un mundo virtual.</p>
<p>En lo que concierne a la aplicaci&#x00F3;n en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo, la RV se ha centrado en el dise&#x00F1;o de laboratorios sobre las &#x00E1;reas STEM para llevar a cabo simulaciones de experimentos sin riesgo alguno. La aplicaci&#x00F3;n de la RA se ha extendido al &#x00E1;rea de las matem&#x00E1;ticas, para la explicaci&#x00F3;n de conceptos, y de la geograf&#x00ED;a, para la exploraci&#x00F3;n de entornos geogr&#x00E1;ficos mediante la geolocalizaci&#x00F3;n. La implementaci&#x00F3;n de la realidad mixta ha supuesto el perfeccionamiento de las pruebas de laboratorio en el &#x00E1;rea de ciencias, mediante la modificaci&#x00F3;n y el aumento de gr&#x00E1;ficos, as&#x00ED; como la ense&#x00F1;anza de conceptos sobre el espacio exterior en el &#x00E1;rea de astronom&#x00ED;a. Asimismo, ha supuesto un avance notable en el desarrollo de nuevas propuestas metodol&#x00F3;gicas, como los <italic>serious games.</italic></p>
<p>En lo tocante a las ventajas e inconvenientes de la realidad extendida, la realidad virtual ofrece mayor sensaci&#x00F3;n de inmersi&#x00F3;n y presencia que las metodolog&#x00ED;as tradicionales, pero el coste del equipamiento necesario para desarrollar experiencias de calidad en los centros educativos es alto. La realidad aumentada favorece la motivaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado hacia el aprendizaje, aunque el profesorado no cuenta con la formaci&#x00F3;n necesaria para implementarla en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa. Por su parte, la realidad mixta promueve el desarrollo de estrategias metodol&#x00F3;gicas diversas, aunque los avances en los campos de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a y la pedagog&#x00ED;a han discurrido por cauces paralelos, sin que exista una colaboraci&#x00F3;n interdisciplinar para avanzar en el conocimiento sobre las posibilidades educativas de la RM en la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Cuatro son los grandes retos que afronta la educaci&#x00F3;n para desarrollar la realidad extendida en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27864_es">Fern&#x00E1;ndez, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-27864_es">L&#x00F3;pez- Rup&#x00E9;rez, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-27864_es">NEPT., 2017</xref>):</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><p>- La alta inversi&#x00F3;n que han de realizar los centros para poner en pr&#x00E1;ctica la RV y la RA, que permiten crear nuevas experiencias de aprendizaje en laboratorios digitales.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- La personalizaci&#x00F3;n de la formaci&#x00F3;n, que tiene en cuenta el punto de partida del alumnado, de modo que el ritmo de aprendizaje y el enfoque de la ense&#x00F1;anza est&#x00E1;n organizados seg&#x00FA;n las necesidades de cada estudiante.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- La integraci&#x00F3;n de metodolog&#x00ED;as activas y las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes, que implica el desarrollo de metodolog&#x00ED;as, como la clase invertida o <italic>flipped classroom,</italic> en la que los alumnos preparan el temario antes de una clase y dedican el tiempo en el aula a poner en pr&#x00E1;ctica tales contenidos.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- La b&#x00FA;squeda de un aprendizaje significativo, que no conciba las tecnolog&#x00ED;as emergentes s&#x00F3;lo como un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo, sino tambi&#x00E9;n como herramientas al servicio del profesorado y del alumnado para lograr una mejora del proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Estos desaf&#x00ED;os influyen en el desarrollo del metaverso, que est&#x00E1; llamado a ser una revoluci&#x00F3;n en los &#x00E1;mbitos de las nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as, la comunicaci&#x00F3;n y la educaci&#x00F3;n. En esta nueva realidad es preciso dise&#x00F1;ar un avatar, que represente al usuario e interact&#x00FA;a con otros avatares para comunicarse, trabajar y colaborar, lo cual abre muchas posibilidades en el <italic>e-learning</italic>, trascendiendo las barreras temporales y geogr&#x00E1;ficas. Existen tres aspectos que cobran importancia en las futuras investigaciones:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>El desarrollo del metaverso puede difuminar las fronteras entre el mundo real y el virtual, que sugiere la necesidad de dise&#x00F1;ar y desarrollar un c&#x00F3;digo &#x00E9;tico que sirva de gu&#x00ED;a para desenvolverse de manera segura. No se trata de que esta realidad &#x201C;alternativa&#x201D; suplante a la realidad en s&#x00ED; misma, sino que se perciba como un nuevo continuo de la realidad virtualmente mejorada, lo cual abre nuevas posibilidades en el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Este c&#x00F3;digo &#x00E9;tico favorece el desarrollo de una cultura, que consiste en el dise&#x00F1;o e implantaci&#x00F3;n de normas que cobran un sentido en el metaverso y se consolidan con la experiencia. Dos aspectos fundamentales de este c&#x00F3;digo &#x00E9;tico son el principio de inclusi&#x00F3;n y los valores, que favorecen el desarrollo de las relaciones entre los usuarios.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>La protecci&#x00F3;n de la identidad de los usuarios. La creaci&#x00F3;n de un avatar implica definir un <italic>alter ego,</italic> que re&#x00FA;ne una serie de rasgos f&#x00ED;sicos y/o de personalidad que nos definen como individuos en el metaverso y nos diferencian del resto de avatares. Esta situaci&#x00F3;n exige la necesidad de garantizar la confidencialidad de los datos personales.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>A modo de conclusi&#x00F3;n, se puede afirmar que el traspaso de la realidad extendida al metaverso en el <italic>e-learning</italic> conlleva un planteamiento diferente, en tanto que la inmersi&#x00F3;n y la presencia constitu&#x00ED;an un medio para mejorar el proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje, mientras que en el metaverso representan un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo, en una realidad virtualmente mejorada. Resulta necesario una mayor colaboraci&#x00F3;n interdisciplinar entre los campos de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a y la investigaci&#x00F3;n en educaci&#x00F3;n a fin de que la implantaci&#x00F3;n del metaverso en el <italic>e-learning</italic> conduzca a una mejora de la ense&#x00F1;anza y el aprendizaje.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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<mixed-citation>Yuen, S. C., &#x0026; Yuen, P. K. (2008). Mobile learning. In L. A. Tomei (Ed.), <italic>Encyclopedia of information technology curriculum integration</italic> (pp. 95-99). Idea Group.</mixed-citation>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27864</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27864</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>FROM EXTENDED REALITY TO THE METAVERSE: A CRITICAL REFLECTION ON CONTRIBUTIONS TO EDUCATION</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>De la realidad extendida al metaverso: una reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica sobre las aportaciones a la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" equal-contrib="yes" corresp="yes">
<name>
<surname>ORTEGA-RODR&#x00CD;GUEZ</surname>
<given-names>Pablo Javier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Aut&#x00F3;noma de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1128-2360">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1128-2360</ext-link>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c2"><email>pabloj.ortega@eduticuam.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>03</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>34</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>19</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>03</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia de Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Extended reality, a concept that encompasses virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality, has seen remarkable progress in recent years and has had a great impact on the understanding of education. Research on extended reality has provided benefits in improving teaching and learning, based on two key concepts: the degree of immersion and the sense of presence. However, these contributions need to be reviewed using a grounded critical methodology to avoid falling into a technophilia without scientific evidence. This article aims to establish and evaluate the contributions extended reality makes to education and the educational challenges it poses in light of the development of the metaverse. For this purpose, firstly, each type of reality is defined and its applications in the field of education are evaluated from a critical point of view. Secondly, a critical argument is posed about the advantages and disadvantages of these technologies in educational practice. Thirdly, the challenges posed by the metaverse in education are described. This analysis shows how extended reality has contributed to the development of innovation and improvements in the teaching and learning process, although a lack of training for teachers who design learning experiences based on extended reality and a lack of interdisciplinary collaboration between the fields of technology and pedagogy are apparent. These results influence the development of the metaverse, which is another step in the evolution of extended reality that will have a great impact in the field of education. Our findings suggest there is a need to design an ethical code, develop a culture and protect the identity of users.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La realidad extendida, un concepto que abarca la realidad virtual, la realidad aumentada y la realidad mixta, ha experimentado un notable progreso en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os y ha tenido un gran impacto en la comprensi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n. La investigaci&#x00F3;n sobre la realidad extendida ha aportado beneficios en la mejora de la ense&#x00F1;anza y el aprendizaje, a partir de dos conceptos clave: el grado de inmersi&#x00F3;n y la sensaci&#x00F3;n de presencia. Sin embargo, estas aportaciones necesitan una revisi&#x00F3;n desde una metodolog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica fundamentada para evitar caer en la tecnofilia sin evidencias cient&#x00ED;ficas. El objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es conocer y evaluar las aportaciones de la realidad extendida a la educaci&#x00F3;n y los retos que plantea ante el desarrollo del metaverso. Para ello, en primer lugar, se conceptualiza cada tipo de realidad y se eval&#x00FA;an sus aplicaciones en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n desde un punto de vista cr&#x00ED;tico. En segundo lugar, se realiza una argumentaci&#x00F3;n fundamentada sobre las ventajas e inconvenientes de estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa. En tercer lugar, se describen los desaf&#x00ED;os que plantea el metaverso en la educaci&#x00F3;n. Este an&#x00E1;lisis muestra como la realidad extendida ha contribuido al desarrollo de la innovaci&#x00F3;n y la mejora del proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza y aprendizaje, aunque se evidencia la falta de formaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado para dise&#x00F1;ar experiencias de aprendizaje basadas en la realidad extendida y una carencia de colaboraci&#x00F3;n interdisciplinar entre los &#x00E1;mbitos de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a y la pedagog&#x00ED;a. Estos resultados influyen en el desarrollo del metaverso, un paso m&#x00E1;s en la evoluci&#x00F3;n de la realidad extendida, que tendr&#x00E1; un gran impacto en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n, lo cual sugiere la necesidad de dise&#x00F1;ar un c&#x00F3;digo &#x00E9;tico, desarrollar una cultura y proteger la identidad de los usuarios.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>extended reality</kwd>
<kwd>metaverse</kwd>
<kwd>virtual reality</kwd>
<kwd>augmented reality</kwd>
<kwd>mixed reality</kwd>
<kwd>education theory</kwd>
<kwd>ICT</kwd>
<kwd>learning</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras Clave:</italic></title>
<kwd>realidad extendida</kwd>
<kwd>metaverso</kwd>
<kwd>realidad virtual</kwd>
<kwd>realidad aumentada</kwd>
<kwd>realidad mixta</kwd>
<kwd>teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>TIC</kwd>
<kwd>aprendizaje</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-27864_en" sec-type="introduction">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>The field of education is seeing how advances in the field of ICT (Information and Communication Technology) are providing new learning tools, allowing students to increase their knowledge beyond temporal and geographic barriers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27864_en">Cabero, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-27864_en">Cabero <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). Research has shown that the incorporation of ICT into educational practices has had an impact through small ad hoc educational innovations in teachers&#x2019; methodology, depending on their training and attitudes towards teaching and learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27864_en">Area, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27864_en">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Cruz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). Emerging technologies are transforming traditional modes of teaching, which are becoming more closely linked to online scenarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27864_en">Adell, 1997</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27864_en">Area, 2020</xref>). Despite advances in infrastructure, electronic resources and teachers&#x2019; training and digital competence, ICT has so far only resulted in a superficial change to teaching and learning practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27864_en">Area &#x0026; Adell, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Over the last decade, online learning has extended to the field of formal education and so research has centred on discovering the possibilities of emerging technologies in virtual settings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27864_en">Boulton <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-27864_en">Mu&#x00F1;oz-Crist&#x00F3;bal <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-27864_en">Schroeder (1996</xref>, p. 25) defines a virtual environment as &#x201C;a computer-generated display that allows users to have a sense of being present in an environment other than the one they are actually in, and to interact with that environment&#x201D;. Mobile learning - a focus centred on the learning of knowledge through the use of mobile telephones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-91-27864_en">Yuen &#x0026; Yuen, 2008</xref>) - stands out among the most widely used trends in virtual environments. This focus favours the development of four types of learning: individualised learning, which allows students to learn at their own pace; situated learning, which involves the use of mobile devices to learn in a real context; collaborative learning, to interact and communicate easily with other students; and informal learning, which happens when students learn outside class at their own pace (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27864_en">Cheon <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>). Use of mobile telephones for educational purposes has increased in prominence in recent years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27864_en">Briz-Ponce <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). Academic literature has centred on mobile learning&#x2019;s impact on students&#x2019; academic performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27864_en">Crompton &#x0026; Burke, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>The Covid-19 pandemic has highlighted the role of emerging technologies in education. The technologies used most widely with mobile phones are virtual reality (VR), considered to be the learning tool of the twenty-first century (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-27864_en">Rogers, 2019</xref>), augmented reality (AR) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27864_en">Arici <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>) and mixed reality (MR) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-93-27864_en">Zhan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>), which together comprise extended reality (XR) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27864_en">&#x00C7;&#x00F6;ltekin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020a</xref>). This concept refers to the combination of virtual and real settings, and how users interact with them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27864_en">Dall&#x2019; Acqua &#x0026; Gironacci, 2019</xref>). Advances in extended reality enable the validation of instruments that measure the degree of the sensation of presence that virtual settings provide, opening up new possibilities in education (Gandolfi <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021).</p>
<p>From a theoretical perspective, it is necessary to establish what contributions are offered by extended reality, which can be beneficial by contributing to the circulation of information, or be something damaging that might replace teachers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-27864_en">Meirieu, 2022</xref>). Similarly, it is necessary to reflect critically on the contributions extended reality offers to education given the development of the metaverse, which is a challenge the theory of education must confront.</p>
<p>The aim of this article is to establish and evaluate the contributions to education of extended reality (virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality) and the educational challenges it poses in view of the development of the metaverse. Starting from a grounded critical methodology, it is first necessary to establish the conceptual basis of each technology and its possibilities in the field of education from a critical perspective, avoiding technophilia or excess enthusiasm without scientific evidence for the possibilities of the new technologies. This article then reflects on the advantages and disadvantages of these technologies in educational practice. Thirdly, it describes the challenges of the metaverse in the education of the future, which open up new lines of research.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-27864_en" sec-type="method">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>M<sc>ethodology</sc></bold></title>
<p>This work is based around a grounded critical methodology, which starts from a critical social paradigm, based on critical analysis of reality to transform educational practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27864_en">Bisquerra, 2009</xref>). This methodology makes it possible to reflect on the applications and pros and cons of each type of reality in order to provide knowledge for educational researchers and professionals and apply them in the field of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-27864_en">McMillan &#x0026; Schumacher, 2008</xref>). A content analysis of the bibliographical references was carried out using the ATLAS.ti program. This enabled the identification of four categories: the concept of each type of reality, its application in the field of education, its advantages and its disadvantages.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27864_en" sec-type="results">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>R<sc>esults</sc></bold></title>
<sec id="sec-4-27864_en">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title><italic>Concept and contributions to education of virtual reality</italic></title>
<p>Virtual reality (VR) is a digitally constructed simulated environment, which features visual and sound effects that make users believe that they are in an environment that really exists. It can be used in the field of education, immersing students in a space created to make them feel different emotions, for example walking around the cities of ancient Egypt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27864_en">G&#x00F3;mez-Garc&#x00ED;a <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). It comprises two key concepts: immersion and presence. The former describes the experience of using technology that introduces us into an imaginary realm and works by interchanging sensory information about reality with other digitally created information, such as images and sounds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-27864_en">Ott &#x0026; Freina, 2015</xref>). The latter refers to the subjective reaction users experience when immersed in a virtual environment, so that the brain behaves in a similar way to when it is in the real world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-27864_en">Slater, 2003</xref>).</p>
<p>Academic literature has highlighted the use of virtual reality in education and its possibilities in the teaching-learning process. Virtual reality laboratories for teaching STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics) content make it possible to carry out simulations of experiments using objects created in 3D (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-27864_en">Potkonjak <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Few studies have designed virtual reality applications, based on a specific theory of learning and researched how it can be integrated into the curriculum (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-27864_en">Radianti <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Research has found that virtual reality situations can produce mild feelings of unsafety up to other more serious cases of cybersickness (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27864_en">Jensen &#x0026; Konradsen, 2017</xref>), underlining the importance of designing situations that minimise physical discomfort. The study by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-27864_en">Krokos <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref> found that students retain more information and apply what they have learnt better after participating in educational experiences using virtual reality.</p>
<sec id="sec-5-27864_en">
<label>3.1.1.</label>
<title>Advantages and disadvantages of virtual reality</title>
<p>The advantages of VR derive from its capacity to make users feel present in a situation. Students feel a greater sensation of presence when immersed in a virtual reality situation with an HMD (Head-Mounted Display), a display unit that is similar to a helmet, but they learn less in comparison to other low-immersion situations using a computer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-27864_en">Makransky <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). The drawbacks of VR are the technical difficulties of using it and the high cost of the equipment needed to carry out experiences with a high level of immersion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27864_en">Duncan <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>), which have hampered its implementation in educational practice. Consequently, the advantages of virtual reality with regards to students&#x2019; sensation of emotions have not been consolidated in education owing to the sophistication and investment required for the devices needed to implement it in the classroom.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-27864_en">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title><italic>Concept and contributions of augmented reality in education</italic></title>
<p>The researcher and scientist Thomas P. Caudell coined the term &#x201C;augmented reality&#x201D; (AR) in 1992 to define a technology that makes it possible to augment the field of vision through head-up displays (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27864_en">Caudell &#x0026; Mizell, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-27864_en">Lee, 2012</xref>). Augmented reality is a technology that enables users to see a reality complemented by superimposing virtual objects on the real world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27864_en">Azuma, 1997</xref>). It is a setting that includes elements of two worlds (real and virtual), maintains interaction in real time and can be shown in three dimensions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27864_en">G&#x00F3;mez &#x0026; Palomo, 2016</xref>, p. 141). Since 2010, research into the application of AR in education has increased noticeably owing to the integration of AR systems in smartphones and tablets, which stand out among emerging technologies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27864_en">Garz&#x00F3;n <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>The use of AR in education allows teachers and students to take notes in the real world, simultaneously interact with real and virtual objects and do practical work with virtual objects in a real situation, for example dissecting animals, without risk (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27864_en">G&#x00F3;mez-Garc&#x00ED;a &#x0026; Palomo, 2016</xref>). Accordingly, one of the fields where AR has the greatest impact is the STEM, where AR-based exploration tools are used, alongside research and simulation activities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-27864_en">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez &#x0026; Delgado-Kloos, 2018</xref>). In mathematics, use of AR in educational practice has a significant effect on students&#x2019; understanding of concepts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27864_en">Boaler <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), problem-solving ability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-27864_en">Sollervall, 2012</xref>) and academic performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27864_en">Demitriadou <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>). One of the most common types of AR in the educational sphere is GPS geolocation, a technology that makes it possible to find one&#x2019;s geographical position anywhere on earth and access maps through geo-positioning and real-time information (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27864_en">Brazuelo, 2015</xref>). Geolocation and augmented reality contribute to carrying out activities for exploring the environment and of geographical concepts independently (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27864_en">Arango-L&#x00F3;pez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27864_en">Fombona &#x0026; V&#x00E1;zquez-Cano, 2017</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-7-27864_en">
<label>3.2.1.</label>
<title>Advantages and disadvantages of augmented reality</title>
<p>The advantages of AR in education lie in its capacity to increase student participation in activities through immersive technologies and improve the learning experience (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-27864_en">Suh &#x0026; Prophet, 2018</xref>). Use of AR in educational practice has a moderate effect on students&#x2019; academic results (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27864_en">Garz&#x00F3;n &#x0026; Acevedo, 2019</xref>). AR&#x2019;s drawbacks relate to its complexity, which underlines the need for specific training for teachers to create content that improves the teaching-learning process (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-27864_en">Pellas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>). AR poses challenges for improving the teaching-learning process in educational practice: teachers&#x2019; lack of training and experience, the need for more class time to perfect its use and its unsuitability in classes with high ratios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27864_en">Ackayir &#x0026; Ackayir, 2017</xref>). AR involves another step towards combining VR and the physical world, which contributes to student motivation even if there are training shortfalls in university curriculums relating to its implementation in educational practice.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-27864_en">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title><italic>Concept and contributions to education of mixed reality</italic></title>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-27864_en">Milgram and Kishino (1994)</xref>, two pioneering technology researchers, explained the possibilities of MR for improving learning &#x201C;anywhere between the extrema of the virtuality continuum&#x201D; (p. 1322), in which virtual contexts extend from real settings to virtual ones through technology that can &#x201C;augment&#x201D; the user&#x2019;s experience. Accordingly, they coined the term &#x201C;reality-virtuality continuum&#x201D; (see <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-27864_en">Figure 1</xref>), to describe the development of MR.</p>
<fig id="fig-1-27864_en">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>E<sc>volution of mixed reality</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-27864_en.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-27864_en">Pellas <italic>et al.</italic> (2019)</xref></attrib>
</fig>
<p>MR is a combination of AR and VR, and offers the possibility of interacting physically with virtual objects in the real world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-27864_en">Yusoff <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). It can be used to develop &#x201C;augmented&#x201D; settings within real-world settings in which users can aggregate or integrate virtual information (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-27864_en">Tamura <italic>et al.</italic>, 2001</xref>). In MR scenarios, data are processed through a variety of different input devices, such as smart glasses, tablets, sensors or personal computers (PC), which are connected to output devices such as projectors, interactive walls or computer monitors that show the results of the processing. The input and output devices must all be integrated into a physical environment that improves the user&#x2019;s feeling of &#x201C;presence&#x201D; (Ponto <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016). The principal difference between AR and MR is that the former allows virtual objects to be superimposed in the real world, while the latter is a medium that incorporates a set of virtual and real elements through a continuum of reality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-27864_en">Lindgren &#x0026; Johnson-Glenberg, 2013</xref>). Research has shown that use of MR is effective in the teaching-learning process (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-27864_en">Ke <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-27864_en">Tang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>The principal challenges that VR, AR and MR pose are personalisation of learning and educational intelligence. Personalisation of learning involves creating and implementing learning experiences based on the educational needs and characteristics of the students (prior knowledge of a topic, interests and learning styles). Educational intelligence is the application of new technologies and smart methods that improve students&#x2019; learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-27864_en">Kurilovas, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>The application of MR in the educational sphere is a topic that has been considered in depth in much research (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-27864_en">Johnson-Glenberg <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-88-27864_en">Tscholl &#x0026; Lindgren, 2016</xref>). The application of mixed reality to education has given rise to a focus called MRLE (Mixed Reality Learning Environment) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27864_en">Chang <italic>et al.</italic>, 2010</xref>). One of the applications of MRLE that has had the biggest impact in learning is the use of mobile phones in the sciences, through the design of mixed-reality laboratories that allow users to focus on laboratory tests, augment graphics, modify them and perform experiments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27864_en">Frank &#x0026; Kapila, 2017</xref>). This has also been used in the field of astronomy for teaching about outer space (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-27864_en">Lindgren <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Student motivation is an important factor in academic performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-27864_en">Trowler, 2010</xref>). Use of both VR and MR has more impact on student motivation than traditional methods, and so have an influence on improving academic performance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27864_en">Allcoat <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-27864_en">Leonard &#x0026; Fitzgerald, 2018</xref>). Use of MR in educational practice improves students&#x2019; academic performance, in particular those who have low spatial abilities (Weng <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020).</p>
<sec id="sec-9-27864_en">
<label>3.3.1.</label>
<title>Advantages and disadvantages of mixed reality</title>
<p>The advantages of MR relate to its multiple applications from a methodological perspective, as it combines the possibilities of VR and AR into one focus, leading to the design and development of learning experiences that provide relevance, interest and significance to students&#x2019; learning. One of the focuses where MR stands out is the <italic>serious game</italic>. This consists of a digital game intended to entertain while achieving at least one educational objective, thus promoting problem solving (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27864_en">D&#x00F6;rner <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). Accordingly, MR-based serious games contribute to students resolving a meaningful problem collaboratively, making use of the possibilities that both realities offer (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-27864_en">Lee <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>). The drawbacks of using MR in education relate to the lack of interdisciplinary collaboration between technological research into the devices used in MR (for example, smart glasses) and pedagogical research regarding its application in educational practice. Effective MR-based experiences can only be created through interdisciplinary collaboration, consolidating and accepting advances from different disciplines such as technology and education, given that separate advance of the disciplines entails the risk of making one-way suppositions about the use of technologies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27864_en">&#x00C7;oltekin <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020b</xref>). In this way, advances in knowledge about these new technologies encourages interdisciplinary focuses with great potential, enabling all sorts of methodologies and applications (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-27864_en">Prendes &#x0026; Cerd&#x00E1;n, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Our literature review has shown a lack of studies on the use of AR and VR for educational purposes owing to three factors: 1. Access to these technologies through smartphones, use of which has not yet become consolidated in the teaching-learning process; 2. The lack of content relating to the use of these technologies in educational institutions; and 3. The digital divide within countries and schools (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27864_en">Maas &#x0026; Hughes, 2020</xref>). MR experiences in the metaverse require verbal interaction with virtual objects and receiving feedback, and so voice interaction is the principal challenge in moving from MR to the development of the metaverse in education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-27864_en">Siyaev &#x0026; Jo, 2021</xref>). To do so, it is necessary to perfect development of the glasses used in MR, which function with static and predefined voice commands (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27864_en">Eschen <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>), and include other flexible ones that adapt to feedback from users.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-27864_en">
<label>3.4.</label>
<title><italic>Concept and contributions of the metaverse to education</italic></title>
<p>In 2021, Mark Zuckerberg announced that the metaverse would arrive within five to ten years, describing it as an alternative digital reality in which people work, play and socialise (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27864_en">Gonzalo, 2021</xref>). Since then, opinion pieces on the possible social consequences of the metaverse and its impact on e-learning have proliferated, underlining the importance and currency of the matter. To establish what challenges the metaverse poses for future digital scenarios, it is best to start from its concept and works published in academic journals that have considered this new reality. The concepts that relate to the metaverse are &#x201C;mirror world&#x201D; or &#x201C;spacial internet&#x201D;, and so it can be understood as &#x201C;a virtually enhanced physical reality&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-27864_en">Ribeiro, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>The metaverse is an acronym formed by the prefix &#x201C;meta&#x201D; (of a higher kind) and a contraction of the term universe - &#x201C;verse&#x201D; - referring to an immersive, interactive and collaborative virtual 3D world. It represents a new dimension in the internet that will have a significant impact on education in the future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-27864_en">Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>). The US novelist Neal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-27864_en">Stephenson (1992)</xref> was the first person to use this term in his novel <italic>Snow Crash</italic> to refer to a new version of the internet. It makes it possible for different members of a group to work together in a virtual space through avatars that interact face to face and create three-dimensional objects that represent ideas, values or feelings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27864_en">Davis <italic>et al.</italic>, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>The metaverse combines a series of characteristics that go beyond extended reality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27864_en">Ball, 2020; Mart&#x00ED;n-Ramallal &#x0026; Merch&#x00E1;n-Murillo, 2019</xref>):</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><p>- It is persistent. It does not restart or pause, but instead continues indefinitely.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- It favours proactivity by users, who take control, make decisions and anticipate possible events.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- It is synchronous and exists in real time.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- It does not place limits on simultaneous users in an activity.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- It offers an experience that encompasses the digital and the real worlds, the relationship between private and public networks.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- It offers interoperability of data and digital elements, for example, a virtual object from a video game can be given to a friend via Facebook.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>One educational possibility of the metaverse is the creation of museums that house exhibitions on special topics and provide experiential content to visitors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27864_en">Choi &#x0026; Kim, 2017</xref>). Others relate to the design of learning experiences based in the metaverse. These require the creation of an avatar, an alter ego of the user that can interact with other avatars in a virtual world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27864_en">Bailenson &#x0026; Yee, 2005</xref>). The Horizon Report 2021 highlights the use of avatars for practising languages in a virtual environment. The avatar is connected to a chatbot, which provides answers to the students&#x2019; doubts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-27864_en">Pelletier <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>). One pioneering study evaluated the social perception of people based on creating two avatars, one with the same facial appearance as the users and another with the same facial expressions and gestures. The results show that participants did not identify with the appearance of their avatar, while they did recognise themselves in the avatars that made the same facial expressions and gestures as them. Therefore, this behavioural realism plays an important role in the design of avatars to implement the metaverse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-27864_en">Park <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-11-27864_en">
<label>3.4.1.</label>
<title>Challenges of the metaverse in education</title>
<p>The principal challenge lies in moving from a sophisticated but independent virtual reality environment to an integrated network of 3D virtual worlds or metaverse. This challenge underlines the need to progress in understanding of four areas that have an impact on education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27864_en">Dionisio <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>): 1. Realism (making users feel that they are immersed in an alternative dimension); 2. Ubiquity (establishing access to the system through digital devices and maintaining users&#x2019; virtual identities within the system); 3. Interoperability (allowing the creation and movement of 3D objects outside the system); and 4. Scalability (enabling efficient use of the system with massive numbers of users connected at once). From a practical viewpoint, the first experiments that have approached the metaverse have centred on reading and listening comprehension and written expression in languages (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27864_en">Garrido-&#x00CD;&#x00F1;igo &#x0026; Rodr&#x00ED;guez-Moreno, 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>The metaverse offers many educational possibilities relating to the acquisition of cultural knowledge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-94-27864_en">Zheng, 2020</xref>). Accordingly, one key concept in the development of the metaverse is culture, which refers to the background and experiences of the people who form part of this dimension (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27864_en">Han, 2015</xref>) and encompasses two related concepts: who we are and how we live (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-89-27864_en">Wang, 2001</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27864_en">Castells (2005</xref>, p. 405) argues for the necessity of a culture in the knowledge society based on establishing certain norms. He observes that this culture forms part of a system of real virtuality in which reality itself (the existence of people) is submerged in a scenario of virtual images, where appearances are not only on the screen through which the experience is communicated, but also become the experience. In this sense, it is fundamental to construct a culture or set of norms and values as a basis for communicating, working and being in the metaverse, an alternative reality in which the boundaries between the physical and the virtual are still vague and must be delineated with precision to protect users&#x2019; identities. Accordingly, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-27864_en">Smithson (2022)</xref> suggests the need for an ethical code to develop the culture of the metaverse, based on five aspects:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Transparency of knowledge and opinions between consumers and creators of products based in the metaverse will help improve its functioning.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>A scale of values that favours coexistence and relations between users.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The principle of inclusion is fundamental. The metaverse must be accessible and easy to use for everyone.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The avatars (or alter egos) are real people, and so harassment or fraudulent behaviour will be punished with temporary suspension of users from this space.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Ethics are the cornerstone that results in the design of programs and learning experiences that guarantee the confidentiality of the consumers.</p></list-item>
</list>
</sec>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-27864_en" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusions</sc></bold></title>
<p>The Covid-19 pandemic resulted in teaching moving onto digital platforms, marking a turning point in the implementation of emerging technologies in the education of the future, where extended reality and the metaverse stand out for their relevance, interest and impact on the teaching-learning process. Therefore, the fundamental aim of this study was to establish and evaluate the scientific contributions of extended reality (virtual reality, augmented reality and mixed reality) to the field of education, as well as the challenges the metaverse poses in the education of the future.</p>
<p>Regarding the concept of the three types of realities that make up extended reality, VR combines visual and sound effects to make users believe that they are in an environment that exists in reality. The fundamental objective of this reality is to address immersion in a virtual setting without foregoing presence or the subjective reaction of the users. These two concepts - immersion and presence - have guided later studies on augmented reality, which offers the possibility of physical interaction with virtual objects in the real world. AR has been bolstered by smartphones and tablets, which have facilitated its development in education. Mixed reality has emerged in an attempt to increase the degree of immersion and presence, incorporating virtual and real elements through a continuum of reality and providing an important precursor to the development of the metaverse, a 3D virtual world, that requires the creation of an avatar to interact with other avatars in a virtual world.</p>
<p>Regarding its application in the educational sphere, VR has centred on the design of laboratories in STEM subjects for carrying out simulations of experiments without any risk. Use of AR has spread to the area of mathematics, in order to explain concepts, and geography, to explore geographical settings through geolocation. The implementation of mixed reality has involved refining laboratory tests in the sciences through modifying and augmenting graphics, as well as teaching concepts about outer space in the field of astronomy. It has also involved a notable advance in the development of new methodological proposals, such as serious games.</p>
<p>With regards to the advantages and disadvantages of extended reality, virtual reality offers a greater sensation of immersion and presence than traditional methodologies, but the cost of the equipment needed to implement quality experiences in educational centres is high. Augmented reality favours students&#x2019; motivation towards learning, even though teachers do not have the necessary training to implement it in educational practice. Mixed reality, for its part, promotes the development of diverse methodological strategies, even though advances in the fields of technology and pedagogy have followed parallel courses without interdisciplinary collaboration to progress in knowledge about the possibilities of MR in education.</p>
<p>There are four major challenges to develop extended reality in the educational sphere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27864_en">Fern&#x00E1;ndez, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-27864_en">L&#x00F3;pez-Rup&#x00E9;rez, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-27864_en">NEPT., 2017</xref>):</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><p>- The major investment centres need to make to implement VR and AR to enable the creation of new learning experiences in digital laboratories.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- Personalised education, which takes into account the starting point of each student so that the pace of learning and the focus of the teaching are organised in accordance with the students&#x2019; individual needs.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- Integration of active methodologies and emerging technologies, which entails the development of methodologies such as flipped classroom in which students prepare the lesson plan before a class and spend class time delivering this content.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>- The search for meaningful learning, that does not regard emerging technologies as an end in themselves but also as a tool in the service of teachers and students to improve the teaching-learning process.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>These challenges affect the development of the metaverse, which is destined to be revolutionary in the fields of new technologies, communication and education. In this new reality, it is necessary to design an avatar, which represents the user and interacts with other avatars to communicate, work and collaborate, thus opening up many possibilities in e-learning and transcending temporal and geographical barriers. Three aspects will be important in future research:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>Development of the metaverse could blur the boundaries between the real and virtual worlds. This suggests there is a need to design and develop an ethical code to acts as a guide to using the metaverse with greater safely. It is not a matter of this &#x201C;alternative&#x201D; reality supplanting reality itself. Instead it is perceived as a new continuum of the virtually improved reality, which opens new possibilities in the teaching-learning process.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>This ethical code favours the development of a culture, that involves designing and implementing norms that acquire a meaning in the metaverse and become consolidated with experience. Two fundamental aspects of this ethical code are the principle of inclusivity and values that favour the development of relationships between users.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Protecting users&#x2019; identities. Creating an avatar involves defining an alter ego, which combines a series of physical and/or personality features that define us as individuals in the metaverse and differentiate us from other avatars. This situation imposes a need to guarantee the confidentiality of personal data.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>In conclusion, it can be asserted that the shift from extended reality to the metaverse in e-learning involves a different approach, insofar as immersion and presence comprise a means of improving the teaching-learning process, while in the metaverse they represent an end in themselves, in a virtually improved reality. Greater interdisciplinary collaboration between the fields of technology and research in education is needed to ensure that the implementation of the metaverse in e-learning results in improvements to teaching and learning.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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