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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27858</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27858</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>LA ESCUELA: LUGAR DE SIGNIFICADO Y COMPROMISO</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>The School: A Place of Meaning and Commitment</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9055-5525</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>IB&#x00C1;&#x00D1;EZ AYUSO</surname>
<given-names>Mar&#x00ED;a Jos&#x00E9;</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9939-4681</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>LIM&#x00D3;N MENDIZ&#x00C1;BAL</surname>
<given-names>M.&#x00AA; Rosario</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4976-5971</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>RUIZ-ALBERDI</surname>
<given-names>Cristina Mar&#x00ED;a</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c3"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label><sup>*</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label><sup>**</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Francisco de Vitoria. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Francisco de Vitoria</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><email>mibanez@ucm.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2"><email>mrlimonm@edu.ucm.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c3"><email>c.ruiz.prof@ufv.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e27858</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>02</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>22</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>Distintos fen&#x00F3;menos sociales relativos a la infancia y la juventud parecen cuestionar la capacidad de la escuela para crear significados comunes y garantizar la preparaci&#x00F3;n de personas capaces de vivir en democracia. El objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es demostrar que la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural que se produce en el seno de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar es la base de los procesos de humanizaci&#x00F3;n que suceden en la escuela al fomentar en los alumnos la construcci&#x00F3;n de una identidad personal s&#x00F3;lida, capaz de encontrar sentido a la propia vida y de comprometerse con la realidad social, cultural, pol&#x00ED;tica y econ&#x00F3;mica de la que forma parte. Para ello, se exponen, en primer lugar, tres presiones a las que se encuentra sometida hoy la escuela para que, en aras del progreso, renuncie a la misi&#x00F3;n que le es propia y sucumba a la tentaci&#x00F3;n de educar en el vac&#x00ED;o cultural. A continuaci&#x00F3;n, se defiende el valor de la escuela como generadora, a trav&#x00E9;s de la cultura, de una realidad significativa, que permite hallar sentido a la propia vida y capacita para el encuentro y compromiso con los otros a trav&#x00E9;s de la creaci&#x00F3;n de significados comunes. Por &#x00FA;ltimo, se muestra c&#x00F3;mo la escuela contribuye a la formaci&#x00F3;n de tres dimensiones (narraci&#x00F3;n, inteligibilidad y responsabilidad) necesarias para vivir en democracia. Como conclusi&#x00F3;n, se reclama la importancia de la reflexi&#x00F3;n teleol&#x00F3;gica como gu&#x00ED;a de la actuaci&#x00F3;n educativa para resistir a una agenda que pone en riesgo la aut&#x00E9;ntica educaci&#x00F3;n en libertad: la de la libertad que trasciende a la mera apetencia para comprometerse con el otro.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Different social phenomena related to child and youth seem to question the school&#x0027;s capacity to create common meanings and ensure the preparation of people who will be capable to accomplish the different requirements needed in order to live in democracy. The aim of this article is to demonstrate that cultural transmission, which takes place within the school institution, is the basis of the humanization processes that take place in the school as they encourage students to build a solid personal identity capable of finding meaning in their own lives and of committing themselves to the social, cultural, political and economic reality of which they are part of. In order to accomplish this goal, we first present three pressures to which the school is subjected today so that, for the sake of progress, it renounces to its own mission and succumbs to the temptation to educate in a cultural vacuum and showing the pernicious effects that it entails. Secondly, the value of the school is defended as a generator, through culture, of a meaningful reality, which allows one to find meaning in one&#x0027;s own life and enables one to meet and commit oneself to others through the creation of common meanings. Finally, it is shown how the school contributes to the formation of three dimensions (narration, intelligibility, and responsibility) necessary for living in democracy. In conclusion, the importance of teleological reflection as a guide for educational action is claimed to resist an agenda that puts at risk the authentic education in freedom: the freedom that transcends mere appetence to engage with the others.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>escuela</kwd>
<kwd>humanidades</kwd>
<kwd>innovaci&#x00F3;n educacional</kwd>
<kwd>cultura</kwd>
<kwd>identidad</kwd>
<kwd>docente</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>schools</kwd>
<kwd>humanities education</kwd>
<kwd>educational innovations</kwd>
<kwd>culture</kwd>
<kwd>identity</kwd>
<kwd>teachers</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro" id="sec-1-27858-Esp">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
    <p>En los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os, se ha cuestionado la capacidad de las instituciones escolares para preparar a los alumnos para un mundo digital e incierto ante la progresi&#x00F3;n geom&#x00E9;trica de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-27858-Esp">OECD, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-27858-Esp">World Economic Forum, 2020</xref>). De hecho, se ha llegado incluso a afirmar que los colegios podr&#x00ED;an estar lastrando la formaci&#x00F3;n de importantes competencias como la creatividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-27858-Esp">Robinson y Aronica, 2016</xref>). Paralelamente, la percepci&#x00F3;n de la escuela por parte de las familias ha empeorado progresivamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27858-Esp">Marchesi <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27858-Esp">Marchesi y P&#x00E9;rez, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-27858-Esp">P&#x00E9;rez-D&#x00ED;az <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-27858-Esp">Orozco-Vargas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). Cuestiones como los deberes escolares o el pin parental han generado recientemente fuertes controversias y han puesto de manifiesto los recelos existentes hacia la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27858-Esp">Contreras Mazar&#x00ED;o, 2021</xref>). Asimismo, los docentes encuentran tambi&#x00E9;n en las escuelas numerosos problemas especialmente relacionados con la inestabilidad normativa y el exceso de burocracia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-27858-Esp">Sanmart&#x00ED;n <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
    <p>Este descr&#x00E9;dito de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar ha ocasionado una creciente popularidad de las corrientes antipedag&#x00F3;gicas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27858-Esp">Gil Cantero, 2018</xref>), que desde hace d&#x00E9;cadas critican las debilidades de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27858-Esp">Holt, 1972</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27858-Esp">1995</xref>). Tal como pone de manifiesto la progresiva demanda de propuestas educativas como el <italic>homeschooling</italic>, el <italic>worldschooling</italic>, el <italic>unschooling</italic> o la ecopedagog&#x00ED;a, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27858-Esp">Morales Valero y Amber Montes, 2021</xref>). Frente a la visi&#x00F3;n reduccionista de que el <italic>homeschooling</italic> impide el correcto desarrollo social de los ni&#x00F1;os, distintas investigaciones han demostrado sus beneficios para la socializaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-27858-Esp">McCabe <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-27858-Esp">Ray, 2021</xref>). Adem&#x00E1;s, se ha demostrado la repercusi&#x00F3;n positiva de las pedagog&#x00ED;as antiautoritarias en aspectos relacionados con la autoestima, la autorregulaci&#x00F3;n emocional o la autoeficacia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-27858-Esp">Ponce-Le&#x00F3;n, 2021</xref><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-27858-Esp">Perpi&#241;&#x00E0; <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). Asimismo, los nuevos escenarios educativos planteados por la Covid-19 han aumentado notablemente el inter&#x00E9;s por la educaci&#x00F3;n en el hogar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-27858-Esp">Portinari, 2020</xref>). Por tanto, &#x201C;lo que se pone en entredicho no es tanto la necesidad de educaci&#x00F3;n, ense&#x00F1;anza, o aprendizaje, sino sus finalidades y, sobre todo, su institucionalizaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27858-Esp">Morales Valero y Amber Montes, 2021</xref>, p. 113).</p>
<p>Junto a este rechazo de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar, ha aparecido tambi&#x00E9;n la fiebre de la innovaci&#x00F3;n como una forma de defender la actualidad de la escuela. Las experiencias exitosas acontecidas en distintas partes del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27858-Esp">Ahmed <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27858-Esp">Lenz <italic>et al</italic>., 2015</xref>) han hecho contemplar las nuevas metodolog&#x00ED;as como la soluci&#x00F3;n a las acuciantes cr&#x00ED;ticas que enfrenta hoy la escuela. Sin embargo, tal como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27858-Esp">Calvo (2015)</xref> el &#x00E9;xito de las escuelas m&#x00E1;s innovadoras del planeta no radica en la simple introducci&#x00F3;n de nuevas metodolog&#x00ED;as, sino en que la innovaci&#x00F3;n es el resultado de un cuestionamiento serio y profundo acerca de &#x201C;qu&#x00E9;, qui&#x00E9;n, c&#x00F3;mo y cu&#x00E1;ndo educar en su realidad&#x201D; (p. 18).</p>
<sec id="sec-2-27858-Esp">
<label>1.1.</label>
<title><italic>J&#x00F3;venes desarraigados ante un mundo l&#x00ED;quido</italic></title>
<p>Distintos datos relacionados con la infancia y la juventud parecen cuestionar el &#x00E9;xito de estos cambios educativos, para cumplir las promesas democratizadoras de la ense&#x00F1;anza formando personas capaces de comprometerse consigo mismas y con las necesidades de su sociedad. Hoy los j&#x00F3;venes se enfrentan a grandes retos antropol&#x00F3;gicos para superar el desarraigo imperante y construir su identidad.</p>
<p>La omnipresencia de las pantallas ha conducido a una vor&#x00E1;gine sensorial que altera la forma de relaci&#x00F3;n con el mundo y produce un fuerte desasosiego interior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-27858-Esp">Torralba, 2018</xref>). La vista se sustituye por el tacto como veh&#x00ED;culo de acceso a la realidad perdi&#x00E9;ndose la distancia contemplativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27858-Esp">Han, 2015</xref>). La atenci&#x00F3;n se fragmenta y la contemplaci&#x00F3;n se dificulta; y a este desasosiego se une tambi&#x00E9;n la progresiva desaparici&#x00F3;n de elementos de arraigo en un contexto l&#x00ED;quido. La adulteraci&#x00F3;n de los adultos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-27858-Esp">Recalcati, 2015</xref>), la p&#x00E9;rdida de los rituales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27858-Esp">Han, 2020</xref>) o la evaporaci&#x00F3;n de par&#x00E1;metros externos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27858-Esp">Bernal Guerrero, 2011</xref>) dejan a los j&#x00F3;venes sin referencias s&#x00F3;lidas desde las que habitar comprensivamente la realidad.</p>
    <p>La incapacidad de los sistemas educativos para hacer frente a estos retos antropol&#x00F3;gicos se refleja en los preocupantes &#x00ED;ndices de violencia juvenil tanto f&#x00ED;sica como en la red (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27858-Esp">Fundaci&#x00F3;n Amig&#x00F3;, 2019</xref>); en el incremento de los trastornos de depresi&#x00F3;n, ansiedad o estr&#x00E9;s entre los j&#x00F3;venes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27858-Esp">Brown <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-27858-Esp">Wan Ismail <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>); en la tendencia al alza de las adicciones sin sustancia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-27858-Esp">Roberts y David, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-27858-Esp">Vannucci <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>);en el escaso inter&#x00E9;s pol&#x00ED;tico; o en la limitada capacidad cr&#x00ED;tica de los primeros nativos digitales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27858-Esp">Dumitru, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27858-Esp">INJUVE, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-27858-Esp">Pattier y Reyero, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Ante estos datos cabe, por tanto, plantearse qu&#x00E9; ha ocurrido en los sistemas educativos y, especialmente, en la escuela para que una instituci&#x00F3;n que tiene la capacidad de producir las &#x201C;pr&#x00E1;cticas morales generadoras de las experiencias fundantes que habilitan a una vida democr&#x00E1;tica&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-27858-Esp">Thoilliez, 2018</xref>, p. 309), no est&#x00E9; desplegando todo su potencial. Una mirada a los cambios acontecidos en su seno en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas revela el debilitamiento e, incluso, renuncia al papel de la escuela como transmisora de la cultura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Esp">Bellamy, 2018</xref>), generando un fuerte desarraigo en la juventud.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>La Escuela contribuye a la existencia del mundo porque la ense&#x00F1;anza, en particular la que acompa&#x00F1;a al crecimiento (la llamada educaci&#x00F3;n obligatoria), no se mide por la suma nocional de la informaci&#x00F3;n que dispensa, sino por su capacidad de poner a nuestra disposici&#x00F3;n la cultura como un nuevo mundo [&#x2026;] Si todo empuja a nuestros j&#x00F3;venes hacia la ausencia de mundo, hacia el retiro autista, hacia el cultivo de mundos aislados (tecnol&#x00F3;gicos, virtuales, sintom&#x00E1;ticos), la Escuela sigue siendo lo que salvaguarda lo humano, el encuentro, los intercambios, las amistades, los descubrimientos intelectuales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Esp">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 16).</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27858-Esp">
<label>1.2.</label>
<title><italic>La transmisi&#x00F3;n de la cultura frente a la mera ense&#x00F1;anza de productos culturales</italic></title>
<p>Podr&#x00ED;a resultar parad&#x00F3;jico hablar de la p&#x00E9;rdida de la transmisi&#x00F3;n en un momento en el que gracias a las nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as los alumnos tienen un acceso sin precedentes a los productos culturales. Sin embargo, esta aproximaci&#x00F3;n supone olvidar el aspecto educativo m&#x00E1;s importante de la cultura: su dimensi&#x00F3;n subjetiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27858-Esp">Amilburu <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>) y el proceso de interiorizaci&#x00F3;n vital que implica. La cultura desde esta perspectiva supone, ante todo, el cultivo de uno mismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27858-Esp">Llano, 2017</xref>). Este cultivo requiere un proceso de interiorizaci&#x00F3;n que no se da desde la l&#x00F3;gica de la posesi&#x00F3;n (l&#x00F3;gica que puede aplicarse si se reduce la cultura a los productos culturales), sino desde la del encuentro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27858-Esp">L&#x00F3;pez-Quint&#x00E1;s, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Transmitir la cultura en esta doble vertiente, objetiva y subjetiva, permite a la persona gozar de una presencia en el mundo que no simplemente transita, sino que habita comprensivamente la realidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27858-Esp">Mar&#x00ED;n, 2019</xref>). Por ello, la p&#x00E9;rdida de la transmisi&#x00F3;n reduce a la persona de habitante a transe&#x00FA;nte apareciendo como criterios vitales la utilidad y la rentabilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27858-Esp">Bellamy, 2020</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27858-Esp">Hadjadj (2020)</xref> denuncia que la aproximaci&#x00F3;n moderna a la cultura es m&#x00E1;s bien contraria a su verdadera esencia, pues se emplean los productos culturales como una &#x201C;fuga ante el duro trabajo de cultivarse&#x201D; (p. 16). Una ense&#x00F1;anza basada en esta aproximaci&#x00F3;n condena a los alumnos a una aut&#x00E9;ntica &#x201C;anorexia cultural&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Esp">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 15), que genera una fuerte p&#x00E9;rdida de arraigo y sentido.</p>
<p>Por tanto, contemplar la transmisi&#x00F3;n de la cultura como cultivo de uno mismo supone ir m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de la simple erudici&#x00F3;n de productos culturales, pues la transmisi&#x00F3;n interpela al alumno en todas sus dimensiones. Adem&#x00E1;s de conocimientos, implica tambi&#x00E9;n destrezas, experiencias y h&#x00E1;bitos que &#x201C;solo se asumen por el ejercicio de las facultades humanas -sentidos, entendimiento, voluntad- en orden al propio perfeccionamiento&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27858-Esp">Amilburu <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, p. 172). La transmisi&#x00F3;n de la cultura no es una actividad meramente intelectual, sino que se convierte en una experiencia integral e integradora de las distintas dimensiones y facultades humanas que pone a la persona en camino de plenitud y de construcci&#x00F3;n de su identidad personal, pues:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>S&#x00F3;lo si existo en un mundo en el que la historia o las exigencias de la naturaleza, o las necesidades de mi pr&#x00F3;jimo humano, o los deberes ciudadanos, o la llamada de Dios, o alguna otra cosa de ese tenor tiene una importancia que es crucial, puedo yo definir una identidad para m&#x00ED; mismo que no sea trivial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-27858-Esp">Taylor, 2018</xref>, p. 76).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Por ello, el objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es defender que la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural que se produce en la escuela juega un papel fundamental en los procesos de humanizaci&#x00F3;n y de construcci&#x00F3;n de la identidad, necesarios para garantizar la vida en democracia; y que, por tanto, las escuelas y los maestros, a trav&#x00E9;s de la reflexi&#x00F3;n teleol&#x00F3;gica, deben resistir las presiones que abogan por hacer de la transmisi&#x00F3;n un elemento educativo obsoleto, en lugar de un eje central de la acci&#x00F3;n escolar. Para ello se exploran cu&#x00E1;les son las presiones que vive hoy la escuela para abdicar en su misi&#x00F3;n, as&#x00ED; como los riesgos de hacerlo. A continuaci&#x00F3;n, se examina el modo en el que la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural a trav&#x00E9;s de la creaci&#x00F3;n de significados personales y comunes genera sentido y favorece la vida en comunidad.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-27858-Esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>&#x00BF;I<sc>nnovar o perecer</sc>?</bold></title>
<p>Hoy los maestros y las instituciones escolares parecen tener que elegir entre extremos de falsas dicotom&#x00ED;as que, sistem&#x00E1;ticamente, contraponen la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural con los nuevos m&#x00E9;todos de ense&#x00F1;anza. Sin embargo, la &#x201C;transmisi&#x00F3;n no suprime la innovaci&#x00F3;n, el cambio y la creatividad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27858-Esp">Amilburu <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, p. 190). Estas presiones presentan el riesgo de generar tres grandes reduccionismos: limitar al alumno a un mero <italic>homo faber</italic>, ce&#x00F1;ir el rol del maestro al aspecto t&#x00E9;cnico de la ense&#x00F1;anza y restringir el desarrollo de la libertad a la mera capacidad de acci&#x00F3;n. En el fondo, estos tres reduccionismos olvidan que la educaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;no es informar acerca de unos contenidos, ni sobre unos valores, sino conformar el sujeto a partir de una verdad interior&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-27858-Esp">Noriega, 2018</xref>, p. 23).</p>
<sec id="sec-5-27858-Esp">
<label>2.1.</label>
<title><italic>Del conocimiento que libera a la utilidad del conocimiento: la reducci&#x00F3;n del alumno a homo faber</italic></title>
    <p>Durante siglos, ha habido tres palabras que han estado &#x00ED;ntimamente relacionadas: verdad, luz y conocimiento. De hecho, basta con observar algunos lemas de las instituciones universitarias m&#x00E1;s longevas para observar que los vocablos griegos de <italic>veritas, lux</italic> y <italic>sapientia</italic> todav&#x00ED;a est&#x00E1;n presentes; y, es que, durante muchos a&#x00F1;os se entendi&#x00F3; que a trav&#x00E9;s del conocimiento las personas pod&#x00ED;an iluminar la verdad, aunque esta nunca se agote (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27858-Esp">Llano, 2015</xref>). Sin embargo, en la sociedad actual, fruto de un dominio de la raz&#x00F3;n cient&#x00ED;fico-t&#x00E9;cnica como &#x00FA;nico modo seguro de conocer la realidad, la verdad como &#x00E1;mbito y la realidad como misterio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27858-Esp">Marcel, 1969</xref>), han perdido su significado y credibilidad. Nos encontramos en la era de la post-verdad, que entra&#x00F1;a graves consecuencias para la ense&#x00F1;anza, el desarrollo del alumno y el avance social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Esp">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>). Este relativismo imperante ha supuesto la primera manipulaci&#x00F3;n de la escuela, pues ha conducido a un desdibujamiento normativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-27858-Esp">Laudo, 2012</xref>) y a un vaciado moral de sus fines (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-27858-Esp">Gil Cantero, 2008</xref>). Nos encontramos, como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27858-Esp">Enkvist (2009)</xref> inmersos en la dictadura de la opini&#x00F3;n, donde se pierde la importancia de la formaci&#x00F3;n del criterio. &#x201C;La escuela ya no ayuda a los incultos a volverse cultos, sino que les hace creer que ya son cultos. [&#x2026;] Todos deben poder participar en cualquier clase sin conocimientos previos&#x201D; (p. 104).</p>
<p>En medio de este panorama relativista, en el que desaparecen los puntos de anclaje, aparece como sost&#x00E9;n la idolatr&#x00ED;a de la t&#x00E9;cnica. La sociedad ha dejado de ser una sociedad basada en el rendimiento para convertirse en una sociedad basada en la autoexplotaci&#x00F3;n. Las personas alentadas por un exceso de positividad, han encumbrando el trabajo como absoluto y se han convertido en <italic>animal laborans</italic>, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27858-Esp">Han, 2017</xref>). Esta primac&#x00ED;a de la t&#x00E9;cnica y de la raz&#x00F3;n cientificista se ha introducido en la escuela a trav&#x00E9;s de la educaci&#x00F3;n en competencias. Cuando las competencias se desligan de la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural, se corre el riesgo de convertir la educaci&#x00F3;n en un mero ense&#x00F1;ar a hacer, reduciendo al alumno a su condici&#x00F3;n de <italic>homo faber</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27858-Esp">Luri, 2020</xref>) y olvidando que el alumno es ante todo un <italic>homo quaerens</italic>: un buscador de sentido. La imposibilidad de educar en competencias en un vac&#x00ED;o cultural puede ilustrarse tomando como ejemplo el reduccionismo que supone &#x201C;aprender a aprender&#x201D;, si se despoja esta competencia de la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27858-Esp">Crato, 2020</xref>). Aunque las nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as ofrezcan la posibilidad de acceder con tan solo un clic a una cantidad ingente de informaci&#x00F3;n, &#x201C;se necesita conocimiento tanto para buscar conocimiento como para juzgar el valor del conocimiento encontrado. Y, sobre todo, se necesita conocimiento de calidad para producir conocimiento de calidad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27858-Esp">Luri, 2020</xref>, p. 31).</p>
<p>He aqu&#x00ED;, por tanto, la primera presi&#x00F3;n a la que de forma inconsciente se ven sometidos los maestros: tras la m&#x00E1;scara de una educaci&#x00F3;n competencial se corre el riesgo de reducir al alumno a la mera capacidad t&#x00E9;cnica, lo que supone obviar que el alumno &#x201C;busca trascenderse y superarse, est&#x00E1; llamado a ir siempre plus ultra. Olvidar esa vocaci&#x00F3;n, renunciar a ella, mutila su humanidad y frustra su existencia&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27858-Esp">Abell&#x00E1;n-Garc&#x00ED;a <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, p. 800). Por ello, es necesario que las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas no reduzcan la noci&#x00F3;n de competencia a un saber hacer, sino que reafirmen la visi&#x00F3;n humanista e integral de la misma. Distintos organismos internacionales han subrayado la importancia de que la educaci&#x00F3;n no desarrolle simplemente aptitudes, sino que realmente potencie &#x201C;las capacidades necesarias para que las personas puedan llevar una vida con sentido y dignificada&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-27858-Esp">UNESCO, 2015</xref>, p. 37).</p>
<p>Desde esta perspectiva, la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural lejos de constre&#x00F1;ir la educaci&#x00F3;n en competencias, permite dotar a este t&#x00E9;rmino educativo de un sentido mucho m&#x00E1;s profundo e integral (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27858-Esp">Cresp&#x00ED; y Garc&#x00ED;a-Ramos, 2020</xref>). La transmisi&#x00F3;n pone en relaci&#x00F3;n las competencias con las grandes preguntas de la existencia entre las que se encuentra la cuesti&#x00F3;n del sentido.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-27858-Esp">
<label>2.2.</label>
<title><italic>Del maestro transmisor al profesor como facilitador: el auge de la horizontalidad de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa</italic></title>
    <p>En los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os, el fen&#x00F3;meno del <italic>burnout</italic> ha recibido numerosa atenci&#x00F3;n. Una revisi&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica reciente observ&#x00F3; que la mayor&#x00ED;a de investigaciones se han centrado en esclarecer la correlaci&#x00F3;n entre este s&#x00ED;ndrome con variables sociodemogr&#x00E1;ficas, acad&#x00E9;micas, profesionales, psicol&#x00F3;gicas, as&#x00ED; como de salud del docente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-27858-Esp">Pinel Mart&#x00ED;nez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-27858-Esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Gil <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). En este sentido, la profesora <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-27858-Esp">Santoro (2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-27858-Esp">2019</xref>) ha puesto de manifiesto la importancia de contemplar este fen&#x00F3;meno desde el car&#x00E1;cter moral de la profesi&#x00F3;n docente. Seg&#x00FA;n sus investigaciones, cuando la integridad moral de los alumnos, de los profesores o de la propia educaci&#x00F3;n se percibe como amenazada es frecuente que los maestros abandonen la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar. A la luz de sus estudios, conviene plantearse si los cambios acontecidos en la naturaleza de la labor docente, en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os, guardan relaci&#x00F3;n con el fuerte incremento de este s&#x00ED;ndrome.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>El problema de la educaci&#x00F3;n en el mundo moderno se centra en el hecho de que, por su propia naturaleza, no puede renunciar a la autoridad ni a la tradici&#x00F3;n, y aun as&#x00ED; debe desarrollarse en un mundo que ya no se estructura gracias a la autoridad ni se mantiene unido gracias a la tradici&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27858-Esp">Arendt, 1996</xref>, p. 207).</p>
</disp-quote>
    <p>Consideramos que el paso del profesor transmisor al profesor facilitador tiene tres grandes consecuencias: el malestar docente, el incremento de los comportamientos disruptivos en el aula y la p&#x00E9;rdida de referencias. En primer lugar, las nuevas metodolog&#x00ED;as abogan por dar el mayor protagonismo posible al alumno. A trav&#x00E9;s del cambio de las palabras transmisor por facilitador, el maestro renuncia a la que hasta entonces hab&#x00ED;a sido la respuesta m&#x00E1;s l&#x00F3;gica a la pregunta por su quehacer educativo. Como apunta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Esp">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n (2015)</xref>: &#x201C;Lo que vengo es, en primer lugar, a ense&#x00F1;ar una materia. Me encuentro aqu&#x00ED; porque he sido nombrado para ense&#x00F1;ar unos saberes&#x201D; (p. 35). Ante una sociedad que demanda educar sin transmitir, los maestros se enfrentan a sus alumnos sintiendo una &#x201C;angustiosa sensaci&#x00F3;n de desarme intelectual y moral&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-27858-Esp">Barrio Maestre, 2008</xref>, p. 85). Bajo una supuesta adaptaci&#x00F3;n a las necesidades de los nativos digitales, hoy se pide &#x201C;a los ense&#x00F1;antes que no ense&#x00F1;en m&#x00E1;s, que se contenten con organizar las condiciones del aprendizaje de sus alumnos&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Esp">Bellamy, 2018</xref>, p. 122). Cabe preguntarse si las necesidades de estos supuestos nativos digitales son tan diferentes a las de los alumnos de generaciones anteriores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27858-Esp">Judd, 2018</xref>), pues ellos, al igual que sus predecesores, deben hacer frente al uso de su libertad y cuando la libertad se despoja de conocimientos se corre el riesgo de que conduzca a cualquier parte (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27858-Esp">Luri, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Este cambio de rol en los maestros ha erosionado su autoridad ante los alumnos, ante los padres y ante la sociedad. La autoridad docente reside en el hecho de que el profesor es reconocido como aquella persona, gracias a la cual el alumno recibe la cultura y la humanizaci&#x00F3;n que ello conlleva. Despojado de la autoridad moral que le confiere la transmisi&#x00F3;n, el profesor se ve obligado ahora a ganarse el respeto a trav&#x00E9;s de la continua implementaci&#x00F3;n de refuerzos positivos, foment&#x00E1;ndose as&#x00ED; la horizontalidad de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa y la p&#x00E9;rdida de la diferencia simb&#x00F3;lica entre generaciones. Esto supone &#x201C;la ausencia de adultos capaces de ejercer funciones educativas y de establecer la alteridad que hace posible el choque que se halla en la base de todo proceso de formaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Esp">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 42). Adem&#x00E1;s, al renunciar a su rol como transmisor, el maestro sumerge a los alumnos en un mundo sin referencias, en medio del cual y, bas&#x00E1;ndose en un constructivismo vaciado de realidades significativas, los estudiantes deben enfrentar el reto de construir su identidad.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Una narrativa pedag&#x00F3;gica centrada en la identidad aspira a proporcionar, si no luz, al menos algo de calor humano y vitalidad para la comprensi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n como ayuda a cada persona a que encuentre su camino en la cultura, en un contexto que, despu&#x00E9;s de la cr&#x00ED;tica postmoderna, asume la contingencia y la incertidumbre en el mundo de la vida, ante la amenaza progresivamente m&#x00E1;s sutil de una convergencia universal hacia una narrativa uniforme y colectiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27858-Esp">Bernal Guerrero, 2011</xref>, p. 299).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Al igual que suced&#x00ED;a con las competencias, bajo el prisma de la innovaci&#x00F3;n se pretende hacer renunciar a los maestros a su esencia m&#x00E1;s profunda: ser maestros de humanidad, tarea que no puede darse sin la transmisi&#x00F3;n. Sin embargo, las nuevas metodolog&#x00ED;as y la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural no son, per se, realidades antag&#x00F3;nicas. Ambas pueden llegar a ser complementarias; siempre que se realice una reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica para elegir aquellas que permitan al maestro realizar su verdadera misi&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-27858-Esp">
<label>2.3.</label>
<title><italic>De la autonom&#x00ED;a como meta a la autonom&#x00ED;a como premisa: los l&#x00ED;mites como descubrimiento de la libertad interior</italic></title>
<p>La &#x00FA;ltima de las presiones, que aqueja a la escuela, tiene que ver con la concepci&#x00F3;n de la autonom&#x00ED;a del alumno. El ni&#x00F1;o debe ser aut&#x00F3;nomo para as&#x00ED; descubrir y formar su propio conocimiento. Este &#x00E9;nfasis de la autonom&#x00ED;a como premisa olvida que la verdadera autonom&#x00ED;a es ante todo una meta educativa para lograr el se&#x00F1;or&#x00ED;o de uno mismo, condici&#x00F3;n necesaria para la madurez personal y la vida en democracia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-27858-Esp">Ruiz Corbella <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). Una meta para cuya consecuci&#x00F3;n la transmisi&#x00F3;n de la cultura y el papel del maestro en la misma resultan decisivas, pues &#x201C;la educaci&#x00F3;n es esencialmente, una luz sobre la nueva generaci&#x00F3;n, dentro de la tragedia de una vida que como dec&#x00ED;a Ortega, se nos da, pero no se nos da hecha&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Esp">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>, p. 63).</p>
<p>Resulta significativo que, en la era del consumo, se pretenda olvidar la importancia de situar la autonom&#x00ED;a y la responsabilidad como metas fundamentales de la acci&#x00F3;n educativa; ambas permiten trascender la libertad basada en la mera apetencia para lograr cultivar la aut&#x00E9;ntica libertad humana: la libertad interior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-27858-Esp">Frankl, 2016</xref>). Como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27858-Esp">Han (2020)</xref>, las empresas han revestido el consumo de emociones por lo que interesa que se muevan por sus apetencias; y, para ello, se intenta que la escuela renuncie a una formaci&#x00F3;n de la voluntad que capacita, frente al tener para el tenerse. La educaci&#x00F3;n de la voluntad resulta muy dif&#x00ED;cilmente realizable si se elimina algo consubstancial a la persona: los l&#x00ED;mites. Si bien los l&#x00ED;mites se presentan muchas veces como elementos externos impuestos de forma arbitraria por instituciones como la escuela, la realidad es que &#x00E9;stos se encuentran inscritos en nuestra condici&#x00F3;n ontol&#x00F3;gica y constituyen una oportunidad &#x00FA;nica para la apertura a las &#x201C;preguntas y aspiraciones m&#x00E1;s profundas del hombre; a la necesidad de salvaci&#x00F3;n; al deseo de buscar una existencia lograda y feliz y una respuesta a las cuestiones del sentido de la vida y el origen de la realidad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27858-Esp">Larr&#x00FA;, 2018</xref>, p. 155). Por tanto, los l&#x00ED;mites lejos de constre&#x00F1;ir la autonom&#x00ED;a del alumno son una ocasi&#x00F3;n id&#x00F3;nea para su crecimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-27858-Esp">Reyero y Gil Cantero, 2019</xref>), especialmente, cuando se realizan procesos de reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica con los alumnos que les permitan entender y asimilar justificadamente las normas.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Educar en libertad es educar en la responsabilidad: un ciudadano culto es el que, antes de actuar, puede medir el alcance de sus actos. [&#x2026;] La democracia se basa en la fuerza de unos ciudadanos libres y cultos que entienden los valores que defienden y el largo y penoso proceso hist&#x00F3;rico que ha costado conseguir una sociedad basada en la justicia, la democracia y la libertad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27858-Esp">Esteve, 2010</xref>, pp. 182-183).</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-27858-Esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a escuela: un baluarte de significado</sc></bold></title>
<p>Las tres presiones anteriormente descritas muestran los peligros de intercambiar la teleolog&#x00ED;a por la metodolog&#x00ED;a como norte de la acci&#x00F3;n educativa. Por ello, ante generaciones, que claman a trav&#x00E9;s de la violencia hacia s&#x00ED; mismos o hacia los otros, significado para su vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-27858-Esp">Rest&#x00E1;n, 2016</xref>), la gran pregunta que deben enfrentar hoy docentes y escuelas no es metodol&#x00F3;gica, sino de sentido.</p>
<sec id="sec-9-27858-Esp">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title><italic>La escuela: lugar para encontrar el significado a la propia vida a trav&#x00E9;s del encuentro con la cultura</italic></title>
<p>La gran meta de la escuela es ayudar a los alumnos a ser verdaderamente ellos mismos. &#x201C;El camino entre yo y yo mismo pasa, necesariamente, por la intermediaci&#x00F3;n del otro, por la mediaci&#x00F3;n de esta herencia que nos transmite una humanidad que, en el trabajo de civilizaciones, se encamina tambi&#x00E9;n hacia ella misma&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Esp">Bellamy, 2018</xref>, p. 102). Por tanto, la misi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n se encuentra intr&#x00ED;nsecamente unida a la transmisi&#x00F3;n de la cultura. Esta transmisi&#x00F3;n posibilita que la persona ampl&#x00ED;e la mirada sobre s&#x00ED; misma para construir su identidad personal de una manera mucho m&#x00E1;s profunda permiti&#x00E9;ndole descubrir sus distintas dimensiones; y es en este proceso de humanizaci&#x00F3;n donde residen las promesas democratizadoras de la ense&#x00F1;anza.</p>
<p>La persona, aunque vive en un mundo exterior, realmente habita un mundo interior. Contemplar al alumno como <italic>homo viator;</italic> supone reconocer que &#x201C;la competencia para construir narraciones y para entenderlas sea fundamental para el descubrimiento de un mundo personal dentro del mundo de la vida&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27858-Esp">Bernal Guerrero, 2011</xref>, p. 294). La escuela contribuye, a trav&#x00E9;s de la cultura, a la construcci&#x00F3;n de estas narraciones a trav&#x00E9;s de la comprensi&#x00F3;n del mundo, de la ense&#x00F1;anza del lenguaje y de la contemplaci&#x00F3;n. Primero, la cultura proporciona los conocimientos necesarios para poder situarse y habitar humanamente la realidad hist&#x00F3;rica en la que vive. &#x201C;Estar en el mundo requiere comprenderlo, tal vez parcial y fragmentariamente, pero el hombre necesita habitar comprensivamente lo que vive para vivirlo humanamente: nadie est&#x00E1; propiamente en un lugar (ni en una &#x00E9;poca) si no sabe d&#x00F3;nde est&#x00E1;&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27858-Esp">Mar&#x00ED;n, 2019</xref>, p. 12). En segundo lugar, gracias al lenguaje la persona no solo puede comunicarse con el otro, sino que puede tambi&#x00E9;n asomarse a su propia interioridad. Al ser el lenguaje veh&#x00ED;culo de pensamiento y de reflexi&#x00F3;n cuanto m&#x00E1;s crece el vocabulario de una persona, mejor puede no solo expresar sus opiniones, sentimientos o juicios; sino ante todo discernirlos en su propio interior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27858-Esp">Llano, 1999</xref>, p. 151). Los maestros al ense&#x00F1;ar gram&#x00E1;tica, al cultivar el dominio de la ortograf&#x00ED;a o al fomentar la lectura, abren las puertas a un aut&#x00E9;ntico pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico y brindan las herramientas necesarias para poder dialogar con uno mismo y reflexionar sobre la propia vida. Sin embargo, en un mundo donde el ruido es constante debido a la sobreestimulaci&#x00F3;n producida por las nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as, la escuela permite descubrir, un elemento a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s poderoso que las palabras: el silencio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-27858-Esp">Torralba, 2005</xref>). El silencio abre a los alumnos a las grandes preguntas acerca de su identidad personal, su vida y su sentido.</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, la escuela permite al alumno descubrirse como un ser de encuentro. &#x201C;El hombre es, por naturaleza, un ser necesitado; y, en la primera l&#x00ED;nea de las necesidades que le afligen, se encuentra la cultura&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Esp">Bellamy, 2018</xref>, p. 99). El descubrimiento del car&#x00E1;cter relacional que vive la persona constituye uno de los fundamentos para el compromiso de la vida en democracia, pues permite transformar &#x201C;lo que se desea de facto en lo que se puede desear justificadamente -una transformaci&#x00F3;n que nunca puede basarse en la visi&#x00F3;n y los deseos propios, sino que exige la participaci&#x00F3;n de qu&#x00E9; es o qui&#x00E9;nes son los otros&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27858-Esp">Biesta, 2017</xref>, p. 21). Esta transformaci&#x00F3;n del deseo es la pieza clave para poder comprometerse con los requerimientos de una ciudadan&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica. Por &#x00FA;ltimo, la cultura abre tambi&#x00E9;n al descubrimiento de la propia dimensi&#x00F3;n biogr&#x00E1;fica comprendi&#x00E9;ndose como un ser con su propia historia en la historia. Este encuentro con la tradici&#x00F3;n proporciona un elemento de gran relevancia para la construcci&#x00F3;n de la propia identidad personal: referentes.</p>
<p>Hoy en medio de un mundo l&#x00ED;quido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27858-Esp">Bauman, 2005</xref>), la misi&#x00F3;n de la escuela como transmisora de la cultura sigue gozando de la misma vigencia que en &#x00E9;pocas anteriores, pues es a trav&#x00E9;s de ella como las personas pueden vivir de la manera m&#x00E1;s propiamente humana: habitando el mundo y dej&#x00E1;ndose habitar.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-27858-Esp">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title><italic>La escuela: lugar para la formaci&#x00F3;n de significados comunes</italic></title>
<p>Define <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27858-Esp">Lipovetsky (1993)</xref> la era actual con la palabra vac&#x00ED;o; una de las esferas que m&#x00E1;s ha sufrido este vac&#x00ED;o es la del lenguaje, lo que explica la dificultad actual para generar espacios comunes.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Faltando un lenguaje adecuado, no podemos pensar sobre nosotros mismos ni sobre nuestra sociedad si no es con los conceptos insuficientes que nos suministra una cultura construida en medida substancial con los par&#x00E1;metros del &#x201C;quantum&#x201D; y del &#x2018;ludens&#x2019;, es decir de la realidad mec&#x00E1;nico-cuantificable y l&#x00FA;dica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-27858-Esp">Navarro-Valls, 2005</xref>, p. 5).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>El desvanecimiento de marcos de referencia comunes, en los que las palabras cobran sentido, unido a la dictadura de la opini&#x00F3;n conlleva una dificultad para reconocerse a uno mismo, as&#x00ED; como para el di&#x00E1;logo y el encuentro con los otros. Los maestros pueden devolver al lenguaje su capacidad para establecer marcos comunes de referencias, ya que la escuela est&#x00E1; llamada a mostrar que, las experiencias m&#x00E1;s propiamente humanas como el sufrimiento, el amor, la libertad, la justicia&#x2026; no son realidades relativas, sino que son cognoscibles a trav&#x00E9;s de una raz&#x00F3;n que supera la mera raz&#x00F3;n t&#x00E9;cnica. &#x201C;La historia, la tradici&#x00F3;n, la observaci&#x00F3;n, la confianza, incluso la poes&#x00ED;a y la literatura nos pueden proporcionar evidencias relevantes&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Esp">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>, p. 41) en este sentido. A trav&#x00E9;s de la ense&#x00F1;anza de las Humanidades, la escuela abre la posibilidad de construir significados comunes, porque ayuda a descubrir la existencia de una verdad sobre el concepto de humanidad a trav&#x00E9;s de la ley natural; y que por tanto, cuestiones como lo que supone una vida digna o una vida lograda, no son relativas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Esp">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>), pudi&#x00E9;ndose dialogar a este respecto desde un marco de referencia com&#x00FA;n. Por ello, se puede afirmar que, ante un mundo dominado por la l&#x00F3;gica pragm&#x00E1;tica de la t&#x00E9;cnica, la escuela salvaguarda la utilidad de lo aparentemente in&#x00FA;til: &#x201C;El saber constituye por s&#x00ED; mismo un obst&#x00E1;culo contra el delirio de omnipotencia del dinero y el utilitarismo&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-27858-Esp">Ordine, 2013</xref>, p. 15).</p>
    <p>Por tanto, la escuela genera marcos de referencia, donde no solo cobran sentido y significado las palabras, sino sobre todo los valores y las virtudes. El cultivo de las Humanidades, denostadas por el cientifismo salvaje, guarda la capacidad de mostrar que existen fines vitales m&#x00E1;s elevados que otros, que existen derechos inalienables por la condici&#x00F3;n de ser persona y que la libertad humana no se reduce a la mera apetencia, sino que cobra su pleno sentido al ponerla en relaci&#x00F3;n con el bien com&#x00FA;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27858-Esp">Larr&#x00FA;, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-27858-Esp">Brown e Ion, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Por otro lado, la escuela contribuye tambi&#x00E9;n a la formaci&#x00F3;n de estos significados gracias a su capacidad para proporcionar un conocimiento que permite superar la clase social de origen y dialogar con personas de or&#x00ED;genes familiares muy diversos. Esta es una de las grandes promesas democratizadoras de la educaci&#x00F3;n, la posibilidad de ofrecer un conocimiento poderoso, liberador. La escuela guarda la &#x201C;capacidad de poner a nuestra disposici&#x00F3;n la cultura como un nuevo mundo, un mundo diferente a aquel del que se alimenta el v&#x00ED;nculo familiar&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Esp">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 16). Por ello, la educaci&#x00F3;n brinda la posibilidad de que, a pesar de la humildad de los or&#x00ED;genes de cada alumno, &#x00E9;ste pueda desarrollar su potencial y ejercer su libertad de forma profunda. Por tanto, la escuela no debe caer en la &#x201C;falsa democracia de la mediocridad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-27858-Esp">Steiner y Ladjali, 2016</xref>, p. 119), sino que debe recordar que en la transmisi&#x00F3;n de la cultura reside la aut&#x00E9;ntica fuerza de la igualdad social y del compromiso con los valores que permiten la compasi&#x00F3;n, el cuidado del otro, la tolerancia y la convivencia pac&#x00ED;fica.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec-11-27858-Esp">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusi&#x00F3;n: la escuela como lugar de sentido</sc></bold></title>
<p>Una de las tareas psicoevolutivas m&#x00E1;s importantes de la etapa de la juventud es la construcci&#x00F3;n de la identidad personal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27858-Esp">Guardini, 2015</xref>). Responder a la pregunta acerca de qui&#x00E9;n se es resulta una tarea de suma importancia, pues de su respuesta depender&#x00E1; en gran medida las m&#x00FA;ltiples decisiones vitales que la persona tomar&#x00E1; en las etapas siguientes de su vida. La tecnolog&#x00ED;a, la producci&#x00F3;n en masa o la facilidad para el consumo han exaltado la libertad como absoluto y, ante lo que podr&#x00ED;a parecer a simple vista como una gran ventaja: la posibilidad de elegir sin l&#x00ED;mites; aparece el riesgo de la indeterminaci&#x00F3;n. La sensaci&#x00F3;n de liquidez que rodea la vida diaria de las personas dificulta su capacidad para comprometerse y realizar opciones de vida significativas y permanentes; poniendo en riesgo tambi&#x00E9;n nuestros sistemas democr&#x00E1;ticos. Como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27858-Esp">Esteve (2010)</xref>:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>En el momento en que, por un descuido de nuestra educaci&#x00F3;n, formemos a personas incapaces de defender sus valores para no tener problemas; a personas incapaces de autocontrol y proclives a manifestaciones agresivas; a personas que se crean con derechos para decidir sobre la vida de otros, a los que consideran inferiores las masas exigir&#x00E1;n el retroceso de las libertades civiles para aumentar el control sobre los individuos (pp. 182-183).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Hoy la escuela y los maestros luchan por resistir una agenda que pretende sustituir la reflexi&#x00F3;n teleol&#x00F3;gica como gu&#x00ED;a de los actos educativos por cambios metodol&#x00F3;gicos basados en criterios de eficacia. En aras de una supuesta adaptaci&#x00F3;n de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar a los retos tecnol&#x00F3;gicos del nuevo milenio, se intenta presionar a la escuela a incurrir en tres reduccionismos que, disfrazados de innovaci&#x00F3;n, ocultan el peligro de formar personas manipulables que gozando de una gran libertad de acci&#x00F3;n sean, en el fondo, esclavas de la tiran&#x00ED;a de sus apetencias.</p>
    <p>Sin embargo, tal como se ha se&#x00F1;alado en este art&#x00ED;culo, la innovaci&#x00F3;n y la transmisi&#x00F3;n no son realidades opuestas, sino complementarias; ya que los nuevos m&#x00E9;todos pedag&#x00F3;gicos pueden contribuir positivamente a la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural. La verdadera dicotom&#x00ED;a se encuentra entre aquellos cambios metodol&#x00F3;gicos que acontecen como fruto de una seria reflexi&#x00F3;n teleol&#x00F3;gica y aquellos que esconden, bajo promesas innovadoras, pedagog&#x00ED;as relativistas. Por tanto, en este panorama educativo, urge recuperar el cuestionamiento acerca del sentido de la educaci&#x00F3;n para lo que resulta imprescindible la formaci&#x00F3;n de los docentes en aquellas disciplinas que les permiten esgrimir mejor estos fines (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-27858-Esp">Garc&#x00ED;a-Mart&#x00ED;nez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). As&#x00ED;, la Filosof&#x00ED;a, la Historia, la Antropolog&#x00ED;a o la Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n deben tener un papel clave en los programas de formaci&#x00F3;n inicial y de actualizaci&#x00F3;n de los docentes, pues estos saberes permiten resistir los intentos con los que se trata de evitar que la escuela acometa su verdadero sentido: formar personas libres capaces de comprometerse consigo mismas, con los otros y con su tiempo.</p>
    <p>Para acometer dicha meta resulta fundamental que las personas construyan una identidad personal s&#x00F3;lida y profunda. Para ello, la narraci&#x00F3;n, la inteligibilidad y la responsabilidad resultan elementos imprescindibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27858-Esp">MacIntyre, 2013</xref>) y, por ende, han de estar presentes en el curr&#x00ED;culo escolar. Sin embargo, estas tres dimensiones necesitan de la cultura para ser educadas. En primer lugar, la cultura desempe&#x00F1;a un papel primordial en la competencia narrativa del alumno, porque es &#x201C;la memoria, finalmente, construida con materiales de la propia experiencia y de la que incorpora de la colectiva, la que nos sujeta a nuestra biograf&#x00ED;a, a nuestra historia, a nuestra identidad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-27858-Esp">Bernal Guerrero, 2009</xref>, p. 138); y, en segundo lugar, la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural permite hacer inteligible la realidad, al permitir a los alumnos realizar la actividad m&#x00E1;s propiamente humana: la contemplaci&#x00F3;n. A trav&#x00E9;s de la cultura, la escuela abre en un mundo cientificista nuevas v&#x00ED;as para abordar las grandes preguntas de la existencia.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Una sabidur&#x00ED;a que trata de construirse a s&#x00ED; misma usando solo de la raz&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica, no es capaz de dar una respuesta suficiente a las grandes preguntas existenciales, para cuyo estudio es preciso acudir a ese caudal de experiencias &#x00E9;ticas que configura una sabidur&#x00ED;a hist&#x00F3;rica que acoge, de forma cr&#x00ED;tica y a la vez d&#x00F3;cil, un variado conjunto de aportaciones que los hombres han alcanzado a trav&#x00E9;s de todas las fuentes de conocimiento que poseemos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27858-Esp">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2021</xref>, p. 40).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, la cultura permite al alumno descubrirse como un ser contingente y necesitado de los otros: de los que le precedieron y de los que convive. As&#x00ED;, la persona descubre su dimensi&#x00F3;n relacional, la importancia de la comunidad y la responsabilidad que ello conlleva. Por ello, el descubrimiento de la condici&#x00F3;n dial&#x00F3;gica de la persona (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-27858-Esp">Yepes y Aranguren, 2003</xref>) es clave para remediar muchos de los fen&#x00F3;menos sociales de violencia, radicalizaci&#x00F3;n y extremismo.</p>
<p>En una era donde con tan solo un clic de ordenador los j&#x00F3;venes tienen acceso a numerosas informaciones, juegos online, compras en la red o relaciones virtuales, educar en y para la libertad es, sin duda, el gran reto del nuevo milenio. Por ello, la educaci&#x00F3;n no puede reducirse a una mera &#x201C;tarea t&#x00E9;cnica o a una actividad fundada en recetas que buscan resultados prestablecidos, y no el logro de una plenitud y perfecci&#x00F3;n personales&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27858-Esp">Larr&#x00FA;, 2018</xref>, p. 158). De esta forma, defendemos la escuela como transmisora de la cultura, lo que supone defender una educaci&#x00F3;n que no solo reconoce el inmenso valor de dar respuestas a los estudiantes, sino que entiende que la cultura -en tanto que cultivo del esp&#x00ED;ritu- es capaz de suscitar en los alumnos -a trav&#x00E9;s del contacto con el bien, la verdad y la belleza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27858-Esp">Llano, 1985</xref>)- las grandes preguntas de la existencia. La escuela, por tanto, a trav&#x00E9;s de la cultura genera significado para la propia vida y significados comunes que habilitan la vida en democracia.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27858</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27858</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Articles</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>THE SCHOOL: A PLACE OF MEANING AND COMMITMENT</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>La escuela: lugar de significado y compromiso</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0001-9055-5525</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>IB&#x00C1;&#x00D1;EZ AYUSO</surname>
<given-names>Mar&#x00ED;a Jos&#x00E9;</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0002-9939-4681</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>LIM&#x00D3;N MENDIZABAL</surname>
<given-names>M.&#x00AA; Rosario</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-4976-5971</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>RUIZ-ALBERDI</surname>
<given-names>Cristina Mar&#x00ED;a</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c03"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff01">
<label><sup>*</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff02">
<label><sup>**</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Francisco de Vitoria. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Francisco de Vitoria</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c01"><email>mibanez@ucm.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c02"><email>mrlimonm@edu.ucm.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c03"><email>c.ruiz.prof@ufv.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e27858</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>02</day>
<month>12</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>22</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Current social phenomena related to children and young people have led to a growing scepticism of the capacity of schools to construct common meanings and to prepare students to participate in a democratic society. The aim of this article is to show how cultural transmission within schools is the basis of the humanisation process by which students are able to construct their own personal identity on solid foundations and to find meaning within their own lives through commitment to the social, cultural, political and economic realities of which they are part. We will present three pressures to which schools are currently subjected, driving them to renounce their true mission and provide an education emptied of cultural references with all the pernicious effects this entails. Secondly, we will explain how schools can, through cultural transmission, create meaning and enable students to find meaning within their own lives and engage with others within a common space of understanding. Finally, the paper will show how schools foment three dimensions (narration, intelligibility, and responsibility) necessary to live in a democratic society. To conclude, we will stress the fundamental importance of teleological reflection as a guide for educational action, resisting an agenda that undermines the true purpose of education: to instil the kind of freedom that enables individuals to transcend mere appetite and engage in a genuine encounter with others.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>Distintos fen&#x00F3;menos sociales relativos a la infancia y la juventud parecen cuestionar la capacidad de la escuela para crear significados comunes y garantizar la preparaci&#x00F3;n de personas capaces de vivir en democracia. El objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es demostrar que la transmisi&#x00F3;n cultural que se produce en el seno de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar es la base de los procesos de humanizaci&#x00F3;n que suceden en la escuela al fomentar en los alumnos la construcci&#x00F3;n de una identidad personal s&#x00F3;lida, capaz de encontrar sentido a la propia vida y de comprometerse con la realidad social, cultural, pol&#x00ED;tica y econ&#x00F3;mica de la que forma parte. Para ello, se exponen, en primer lugar, tres presiones a las que se encuentra sometida hoy la escuela para que, en aras del progreso, renuncie a la misi&#x00F3;n que le es propia y sucumba a la tentaci&#x00F3;n de educar en el vac&#x00ED;o cultural. A continuaci&#x00F3;n, se defiende el valor de la escuela como generadora, a trav&#x00E9;s de la cultura, de una realidad significativa, que permite hallar sentido a la propia vida y capacita para el encuentro y compromiso con los otros a trav&#x00E9;s de la creaci&#x00F3;n de significados comunes. Por &#x00FA;ltimo, se muestra c&#x00F3;mo la escuela contribuye a la formaci&#x00F3;n de tres dimensiones (narraci&#x00F3;n, inteligibilidad y responsabilidad) necesarias para vivir en democracia. Como conclusi&#x00F3;n, se reclama la importancia de la reflexi&#x00F3;n teleol&#x00F3;gica como gu&#x00ED;a de la actuaci&#x00F3;n educativa para resistir a una agenda que pone en riesgo la aut&#x00E9;ntica educaci&#x00F3;n en libertad: la de la libertad que trasciende a la mera apetencia para comprometerse con el otro.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>schools</kwd>
<kwd>humanities education</kwd>
<kwd>educational innovations</kwd>
<kwd>culture</kwd>
<kwd>identity</kwd>
<kwd>teachers</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>escuela</kwd>
<kwd>humanidades</kwd>
<kwd>innovaci&#x00F3;n educacional</kwd>
<kwd>cultura</kwd>
<kwd>identidad</kwd>
<kwd>docente</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec sec-type="intro" id="sec-1-27858-Eng">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
    <p>In recent years, there has been growing scepticism of the capacity of educational institutions to prepare young people for the increasingly digital and uncertain world brought on by the exponential development of technology (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-27858-Eng">OECD, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-27858-Eng">World Economic Forum, 2020</xref>). In fact, some have come to affirm that schools may in fact be hindering the learning of essential competences, such as creativity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-27858-Eng">Robinson &#x0026; Aronica, 2016</xref>). In parallel, the perception of the quality of schools among families has progressively declined (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27858-Eng">Marchesi <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27858-Eng">Marchesi &#x0026; P&#x00E9;rez, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-27858-Eng">P&#x00E9;rez-D&#x00ED;az <italic>et al</italic>., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-27858-Eng">Orozco-Vargas <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). Questions about school assignments or the parental PIN have been the subject of intense controversy, revealing the growing public mistrust of educational institutions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27858-Eng">Contreras Mazar&#x00ED;o, 2021</xref>). Additionally, teachers are facing numerous problems within schools themselves, especially regarding regulatory instability and excessive bureaucracy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-27858-Eng">Sanmart&#x00ED;n <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>).</p>
    <p>This pervasive discrediting of educational institutions has led to a growing popularity of anti-pedagogical trends (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27858-Eng">Gil Cantero, 2018</xref>), which for decades have denounced the failings of educational institutions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27858-Eng">Holt, 1972</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27858-Eng">1995</xref>), and ever greater interest in alternative education practices such as <italic>home-schooling, world-schooling, unschooling</italic> or eco-pedagogy, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27858-Eng">Morales Valero &#x0026; Amber Montes, 2021</xref>). Although the reductionist view of <italic>home-schooling</italic> insists that it impedes healthy social development of children, a number of studies have found <italic>home-schooling</italic> to be beneficial for socialisation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-27858-Eng">McCabe <italic>et al</italic>., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-27858-Eng">Ray, 2021</xref>) and that anti-authoritarian pedagogies have a positive impact on aspects related to self-esteem, emotional self-regulation or self-effectiveness (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-27858-Eng">Ponce-Le&#x00F3;n, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-27858-Eng">Perpi&#241;&#x00E0; <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). Furthermore, the Covid-19 pandemic has led to educational scenarios that have stimulated a great deal of interest in <italic>home-schooling</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-27858-Eng">Portinari, 2020</xref>). Thus, &#x201C;what is questioned is not the need for education, teaching or learning but its purposes, and, above all, its institutionalisation&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27858-Eng">Morales Valero &#x0026; Amber Montes, 2021</xref>, p. 113).</p>
<p>In parallel to a growing mistrust of educational institutions, a fever of pedagogical innovation has arisen as a way to defend and reaffirm the relevance of schools. Successful educational experiences in different parts of the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27858-Eng">Ahmed <italic>et al</italic>., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27858-Eng">Lenz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>) have suggested that new methodologies offer the solution to the pressing problems facing schools today. However, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27858-Eng">Calvo (2015)</xref> has pointed out, the success of the most innovative schools does not lie in the simple introduction of new methodologies, but rather that this innovation is the result of a serious and profound consideration of &#x201C;what, who, how and when to educate&#x201D; (p. 18).</p>
<sec id="sec-2-27858-Eng">
<label>1.1.</label>
<title><italic>Youth disorientation in a liquid world</italic></title>
<p>A number of studies have revealed data on children and young people which appear to question the success of these educational innovations in fulfilling their democratising goals in educating young people able to commit to themselves and actively engage in society. Today, young people face formidable anthropological challenges to overcome a pervasive sense of disorientation and to construct their own personal identity.</p>
<p>The omnipresence of screens has led to a form of sensorial overload that distorts the relationship with the real world and produces a profound disquiet (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-27858-Eng">Torralba, 2018</xref>). Vision substitutes touch as a vehicle to apprehend reality, losing the distance necessary for contemplation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27858-Eng">Han, 2015</xref>). Attention is fragmented and the capacity for contemplation is obstructed; to this pervasive feeling of disquiet is added the progressive disappearance of solid anchors in an increasingly liquid context. The adulteration of adults (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-27858-Eng">Recalcati, 2015</xref>), the loss of rituals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27858-Eng">Han, 2020</xref>) or the evaporation of external parameters (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27858-Eng">Bernal Guerrero, 2011</xref>) leave young people at a loss, without references for which to live fully in reality.</p>
    <p>The failure of education systems to address these anthropological challenges is reflected in the indices of youth violence both physical and online (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27858-Eng">Fundaci&#x00F3;n Amig&#x00F3;, 2019</xref>); the increasing prevalence of mental disorders such as depression, anxiety or stress among young people (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27858-Eng">Brown <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-27858-Eng">Wan Ismail <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>); the rising trends in non-substance addiction (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-27858-Eng">Roberts &#x0026; David, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-27858-Eng">Vannucci <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>); political apathy; or limited capacity for critical thinking among digital natives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27858-Eng">Dumitru, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27858-Eng">INJUVE, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-27858-Eng">Pattier y Reyero, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>In the face of this data, one may ask what has happened to education systems and, especially, why an institution that has the capacity to produce the &#x201C;moral practices that generate the foundational experiences that make possible a democratic life&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-27858-Eng">Thoilliez, 2018</xref>, p. 309) has failed to perform to its full potential. A look at the changes which have taken place in the last decades show a progressive weakening and even abandonment of the role of schools in the transmission of culture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Eng">Bellamy, 2018</xref>), generating a profound disorientation among today&#x2019;s youth.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>School contributes to the existence of the world because education, particularly during the period of physical maturation (so-called obligatory education), is not measured by the sum total of notional information it dispenses but rather by opening the door to culture as if a new world [&#x2026;] If everything is driving our young people to be absent from the world, in an autistic retreat into isolated worlds (technological, virtual, symptomatic), schools remain a bulwark, safeguarding the human, encounter, exchange, friendships and intellectual discovery (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Eng">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 16).</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27858-Eng">
<label>1.2.</label>
<title><italic>The transmission of culture versus the mere teaching of cultural products</italic></title>
<p>It may seem paradoxical to speak of the loss of transmission at a moment when, thanks to new technologies, students enjoy unprecedented access to cultural products. However, this overlooks the most important aspect of culture: its subjective dimension (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27858-Eng">Amilburu <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>) and the process of interiorisation it involves. Culture from this perspective supposes, above all, the cultivation of the self (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27858-Eng">Llano, 2017</xref>). This requires an interiorisation of culture that goes far beyond the logic of possession (a logic that can be applied if culture is reduced merely to cultural products), and lies in the encounter with others (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27858-Eng">L&#x00F3;pez-Quint&#x00E1;s, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Transmitting culture in this dual sense, objective and subjective, enables the individual to enjoy presence in the world, comprehensively inhabiting reality rather than being merely in transit (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27858-Eng">Mar&#x00ED;n, 2019</xref>). Thus, the loss of cultural transmission reduces the person from inhabitant to a passer-by where the only criteria are utility and profitability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27858-Eng">Bellamy, 2020</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27858-Eng">Hadjadj (2020)</xref> maintains that the modern approach to culture is in fact contrary to its true essence, and that cultural products are used to &#x201C;flee from the hard work of education&#x201D; (p. 16). An education based on this approach to culture condemns students to a form of &#x201C;cultural anorexia&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Eng">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 15), resulting in a loss of meaning and rootedness.</p>
<p>The transmission of culture as a form of self-cultivation supposes going beyond a mere knowledge of cultural products, involving the students in all of their dimensions. In addition to knowledge, transmission implies skills, experiences and habits that &#x201C;are only assumed through the exercise of human faculties - feelings, understanding, will - towards one&#x2019;s own perfection&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27858-Eng">Amilburu <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, p. 172). Cultural transmission is not only an intellectual exercise but is also an integral and integrating experience of various human dimensions and faculties that sets the individual on the path to plenitude and the construction of their personal identity:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Only if I in a world in which history, or the demands of nature, or the needs of my fellow human beings, or the duties of citizenship, or the call of God, or something else of this order matters crucially, can I define an identity for myself that is not trivial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-27858-Eng">Taylor, 2018</xref>, p. 76).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The aim of this article is to defend the principle of cultural transmission which takes place when school plays a fundamental role in the process of humanisation and construction of individual identity, a necessary pillar of democratic society. Thus, schools and teachers, through a profound teleological reflection, must resist the pressure of those who insist transmission is obsolete rather than the fundamental purpose of education. This article will explore the current pressures for schools to abdicate their mission and the risks should this take place. We will examine the manner in which cultural transmission through the creation of personal and common meaning is essential to both personal fulfilment and life in community.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-27858-Eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>nnovate or perish</sc>?</bold></title>
<p>Today, teachers and schools appear to be presented with a false dichotomy which systematically counterposes cultural transmission with new teaching methodologies. However, &#x201C;transmission does not preclude innovation, change and creativity&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27858-Eng">Amilburu <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, p. 190). These pressures present the risk of three great reductionisms: limit the student to a mere <italic>homo faber</italic>, shrink the role of the teacher to a merely technical function and inhibit the development of human freedom to a mere capacity for action. At heart, these three reductionisms overlook the fact that education &#x201C;is not to inform about certain content or certain values but rather to create the subject from an interior truth&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-27858-Eng">Noriega, 2018</xref>, p. 23).</p>
<sec id="sec-5-27858-Eng">
<label>2.1.</label>
<title><italic>From knowledge that liberates to the utility of knowledge: the reduction of the student to homo faber</italic></title>
    <p>For centuries, three words have been closely related: truth, light and knowledge. In fact, many of the mottos of the oldest universities in the world continue to include the Greek words <italic>veritas, lux</italic> and <italic>sapientia</italic>; for centuries it has been understood that through knowledge people could illuminate the truth and that this was inexhaustible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27858-Eng">Llano, 2015</xref>). However, in contemporary society, where technical-scientific knowledge is regarded as the only manner to comprehend reality, notions of the truth as a domain and reality as a mystery (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27858-Eng">Marcel, 1969</xref>) have lost their meaning and their credibility. We find ourselves in an era of post-truth, bringing with it grave consequences for learning, the education of young people and social progress (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Eng">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>). The reigning relativism has resulted in the blurring of rules and regulations and the manipulation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-27858-Eng">Laudo, 2012</xref>) of education vacated of all moral purpose (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-27858-Eng">Gil Cantero, 2008</xref>). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27858-Eng">Enkvist (2009)</xref>, we are subject to a dictatorship of opinion, where the substantive criteria have lost all importance. &#x201C;Schools no longer there to educate the uneducated, but rather to make the uneducated believe they are educated. [&#x2026;] Everyone should be able to take part in any class without any prior knowledge&#x201D; (p. 104).</p>
<p>In the midst of this relativist scenario, where all anchor points have vanished, an idolatry of technology has taken hold. Society has ceased to be based on performance, becoming one based on self-exploitation. Propelled on a wave of excessive positivity, many people have raised up work as an absolute value, becoming the <italic>animal laborans</italic>, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27858-Eng">Han, 2017</xref>). This primacy of technology and scientific reasoning has entered schools through education in competences. When competences are decoupled from cultural transmission there is the risk that education becomes a mere acquisition of skills, reducing the student to the condition of <italic>homo faber</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27858-Eng">Luri, 2020</xref>) and dismissing the notion of the student as being, above all, <italic>homo quaerens</italic>: a seeker of meaning. The impossibility of imparting competences within a cultural vacuum is illustrated by the reductionism embedded in the term &#x201C;learning to learn&#x201D;, if competences are stripped of cultural transmission (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27858-Eng">Crato, 2020</xref>). Although new technologies offer the possibility of accessing vast stores of information with a simple click, &#x201C;knowledge is required both to search for knowledge and to judge the value of the knowledge found. Above all, true knowledge is necessary to produce true knowledge&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27858-Eng">Luri, 2020</xref>, p. 31).</p>
<p>Here then is the first pressure to which teachers are unconsciously subjected: behind the fa&#x00E7;ade of teaching competences lies the risk of reducing the student to mere technical capacity, ignoring a fundamental aspect of the students as one &#x201C;seeking transcendence and fulfilment, called always to go further beyond. To dismiss or to renounce this vocation is to mutilate their humanity and to frustrate their existence&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27858-Eng">Abell&#x00E1;n-Garc&#x00ED;a <italic>et al</italic>., 2018</xref>, p. 800). It is essential that education policies do not reduce the notion of competences to a mere set of skills, but rather to reaffirm the humanistic and integral vision of the person. A number of international organisations have highlighted the importance that education does not simply develop a set of aptitudes but truly fosters &#x201C;the capacities necessary for individuals to lead a life of dignity and meaning&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-27858-Eng">UNESCO, 2015</xref>, p. 37).</p>
<p>From this perspective, cultural transmission, far from being a constraint on acquiring competences, gives this type of education a much more profound and coherent meaning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27858-Eng">Cresp&#x00ED; &#x0026; Garc&#x00ED;a-Ramos, 2020</xref>). Cultural transmission constructs the relation between competences and the great questions of existence which is where true meaning can only be found.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-27858-Eng">
<label>2.2.</label>
<title><italic>From teacher as transmitter to teacher as facilitator: horizontality in the education relationship</italic></title>
    <p>In recent years, the phenomenon of <italic>burnout</italic> has received ample attention. A systematic review of existing scholarship recently found that the majority of research has focused primarily on identifying a correlation between <italic>burnout</italic> and a number of socio-demographic, academic, professional, psychological and physical health variables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-27858-Eng">Pinel Mart&#x00ED;nez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-27858-Eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Gil <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). Professor <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-27858-Eng">Santoro (2013</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-27858-Eng">2019</xref>) has highlighted the importance of regarding this phenomenon by considering the moral character of the teaching profession itself. According to her research, when the moral integrity of students, of teachers, or of education itself is perceived as under threat, teachers will often chose to abandon the profession. In light of these studies, it may be instructive to consider if the changes in the nature of the teaching profession in recent years is related to the significant growth of the <italic>burnout</italic> syndrome.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The problem of education in the modern world lies in the fact that by its nature it cannot forgo either authority or tradition, and yet must proceed in a world that is neither structured by authority nor held together by tradition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27858-Eng">Arendt, 1996</xref>, p. 207).</p>
</disp-quote>
    <p>The transition of teacher as transmitter to teacher as facilitator has three broad consequences: the distress of teachers, the increase in disruptive behaviour in classrooms and the loss of references. Firstly, new methodologies are oriented towards giving the greatest protagonism possible to the student. In the transition from transmitter to facilitator, the teacher gives up what had been the most logical answer to the question of their educational role. According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Eng">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n (2015)</xref> this answer is: &#x201C;My role is firstly to teach a subject. I am here because I have been charged with teaching certain knowledge&#x201D; (p. 35). In a society which demands teachers educate without transmitting, teachers stand before their students with an &#x201C;anguishing sensation of intellectual and moral defencelessness&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-27858-Eng">Barrio Maestre, 2008</xref>, p. 85). Under the guise of adapting to the needs of digital natives, &#x201C;teachers are asked not to teach but to merely organise the conditions of their students&#x2019; learning&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Eng">Bellamy, 2018</xref>, p. 122). One may ask if the needs of these digital natives are so different from those of previous generations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27858-Eng">Judd, 2018</xref>), since they, as with their predecessors, must make use of their freedom and when this freedom is drained of knowledge there is the risk this can lead anywhere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27858-Eng">Luri, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>This change in the role of teachers has undermined their authority in the eyes of their students, of parents and of society. The authority of the educator lies in the fact that the teacher is recognised as the person from whom the student will receive culture and the humanisation that it brings. Stripped of the moral authority transmission confers, the teacher is now obliged to win the respect of the student through the continuous dispensing of positive reinforcements, resulting in a horizontalization of the educational relationship and the loss of the symbolic difference between generations. This supposes &#x201C;the absence of adults able to exercise their educational function and to present alternatives which is the basis of all education processes&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Eng">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 42). Furthermore, by renouncing their role as transmitter, the teacher leaves the student adrift in a world without references, where students, subject to a constructivism emptied of any meaningful references, faces the challenge of constructing their own individual identity.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>A pedagogical narrative centred on identity aspires to provide, if not light, then at least some human warmth and vitality; understanding of education as a pathway for each individual to find culture, within a context, in the wake of the Post-modernist critique, that assumes contingency and uncertainty of life in the world, and the increasingly subtle threat of convergence into a uniform and collective narrative (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27858-Eng">Bernal Guerrero, 2011</xref>, p. 299).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>As is the case with competences, through the prism of innovation, teachers give up the essence of their role: to be teachers of humanity, a task which requires cultural transmission. However, the new methodologies and cultural transmission are not per se mutually exclusive. They can in fact be complementary, providing there is critical refection on the aspects which allow the teacher to perform their true mission.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-27858-Eng">
<label>2.3.</label>
<title><italic>From autonomy as goal to autonomy as premise: limits as discovery of interior freedom</italic></title>
<p>The third pressure schools are subjected to are those associated with the notion of student autonomy. The child must have autonomy to discover the world and learn for themselves. The emphasis on student autonomy overlooks the fact that genuine autonomy is above all the ultimate goal of education, that is, to achieve self-mastery, necessary for personal maturity and the foundation of a democratic society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-27858-Eng">Ruiz Corbella <italic>et al</italic>., 2013</xref>). To achieve this goal the transmission of culture and the central role of the teacher is paramount since &#x201C;education is essentially a light on the next generation, within the tragedy of a life which, as Ortega said, is given to us but not ready-made&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Eng">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>, p. 63).</p>
<p>It is significant that, in an age of mass consumption, we dismiss the importance of making responsibility and autonomy the fundamental goals of education; both of which permit individuals to transcend mere appetite and to cultivate genuine human freedom: interior freedom (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-27858-Eng">Frankl, 2016</xref>). According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27858-Eng">Han (2020)</xref>, companies have wrapped up consumption in emotion, and encourage us to indulge our appetites; for this, schools must renounce educating responsibility and discipline in favour of encouraging a mere desire to have. Educating the will is very difficult if an essential and co-substantial element of the person is lacking: limits. While limits can often appear as external, arbitrary restrictions imposed by institutions, such as schools, in reality these are inscribed in our ontological condition and constitute a unique opportunity to engage with the &#x201C;most profound questions and aspirations of man, the need for salvation, the desire for a full and happy life and a response to the questions of the meaning of life and the origin of reality&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27858-Eng">Larr&#x00FA;, 2018</xref>, p. 155). Thus, far from constraining the autonomy of the student, limits represent an ideal opportunity for their personal growth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-27858-Eng">Reyero &#x0026; Gil Cantero, 2019</xref>), especially when accompanied by critical reflection in which they can understand and internalise certain norms.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>To educate in freedom is to educate in responsibility: an educated citizen is one who, before acting, considers the consequences of their actions [&#x2026;] Democracy is based on the strength of free and educated citizens who understand the values they defend and the long and arduous historic struggle it took to achieve a society based on justice, democracy and freedom (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27858-Eng">Esteve, 2010</xref>, pp. 182-183).</p>
</disp-quote>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-27858-Eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>chool: a bastion of meaning</sc></bold></title>
<p>The three pressures described above demonstrate the dangers of exchanging teleology for methodology as the guiding light of education action. Thus, as the new generation, through self-harm and violence, cries out for meaning in their lives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-27858-Eng">Rest&#x00E1;n, 2016</xref>), the great question facing teachers and schools is not methodology but rather meaning.</p>
<sec id="sec-9-27858-Eng">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title><italic>School: a place to find the meaning of life through engagement with culture</italic></title>
<p>The principal challenge of schools is to help students to become truly themselves. &#x201C;The path between myself and my true self leads necessarily through the intermediation of others, through the mediation of the inheritance handed down by humanity which, in the work of civilisations, also leads towards others&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Eng">Bellamy, 2018</xref>, p. 102). Thus, the mission of education is intrinsically united to the transmission of culture, allowing the individual to expand their vision of themselves and construct their personal identity on solid foundations and in its various dimensions; and it is in this process of humanisation where the promises of the democratisation of education reside.</p>
<p>The person, although they live in the exterior world, in reality inhabits an interior world. Regarding the student as <italic>homo viator</italic> supposes the recognition that &#x201C;the ability to construct narrations and to understand them is fundamental to the discovery of a personal world within the world of life&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27858-Eng">Bernal Guerrero, 2011</xref>, p. 294). School contributes, through the transmission of culture, to the construction of these narrations through the understanding of the world, the learning of language and contemplation. Firstly, culture provides the knowledge necessary to situate and humanly inhabit the historical reality in which one lives. &#x201C;To be in the world requires understanding, perhaps partial and fragmentary, but man needs to comprehensively inhabit their life in order to live humanly: no one is properly in a place (nor in a time) if they don&#x2019;t know where they are&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27858-Eng">Mar&#x00ED;n, 2019</xref>, p. 12). Secondly, thanks to language, not only can a person communicate with others but can also explore their interior selves. Given that language is a vehicle for thought and reflection, the broader a person&#x2019;s vocabulary the better they can express their opinions, feelings or judgements and, perhaps more importantly, discern these in themselves (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27858-Eng">Llano, 1999</xref>, p. 151). By teaching grammar, improving handwriting or encouraging the habit of reading, teachers open the door to true critical thinking, providing students with the tools necessary for internal dialogue and reflection. However, in a world buzzing with the constant noise and overstimulation of new technologies, schools offer students the ability to discover something even more powerful than words: silence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-27858-Eng">Torralba, 2005</xref>). Silence allows students to engage with powerful questions about their own personal identity, their life and its meaning.</p>
<p>Secondly, school permits the student to discover themselves as a being of encounter. &#x201C;Man is, by nature, a being in need; and, among the primary needs that afflicts him is the need for culture&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27858-Eng">Bellamy, 2018</xref>, p. 99). The discovery of the relational nature of the person is one of the fundamentals of a commitment to a democratic society, permitting the transformation of &#x201C;what one <italic>de facto</italic> desires into what can <italic>legitimately</italic> desire &#x2013; a transformation that can never be based on one&#x2019;s own views or desires but requires the participation what is or who are others&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27858-Eng">Biesta, 2017</xref>, p. 21). This transformation of desire is the key to the ability to commit oneself to the fundamentals of democratic citizenship. Finally, culture also opens a door to the discovery of one&#x2019;s own biography and an understanding of one&#x2019;s own history within history. This encounter with tradition provides meaningful relevance for the construction of one&#x2019;s own personal identity: references.</p>
<p>Within our liquid world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27858-Eng">Bauman, 2005</xref>), the mission of school as a transmitter of culture continues to be as relevant as in previous times, since it is through this that individuals can live in a truly human way: inhabiting and being inhabited by the world.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-27858-Eng">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title><italic>School: a place for the construction of shared meanings</italic></title>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27858-Eng">Lipovetsky (1993)</xref> defined our age with a single word: emptiness. One of the spheres which has most suffered from this emptiness is language, the cause the current difficulties in creating common spaces of understanding.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Without the proper language we cannot think about ourselves nor our society other than through the inadequate concepts offered by a culture constructed largely on &#x201C;quantum&#x201D; and &#x2018;ludens&#x2019; parameters, that is, on the mechanical-quantifiable and on play (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-27858-Eng">Navarro-Valls, 2005</xref>, p. 5).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The disappearance of common frames of reference in which words take on meaning, combined with a dictatorship of opinion, brings with it a difficulty in recognising oneself, and dialogue and encounter with others. Teachers may restore the power of language to establish common frames of reference, while schools can show students that the most properly human experiences, such as suffering, love, freedom, justice, etc, are not relative realities but rather they are perceived through a form of reason that lies beyond mere technical know-how. &#x201C;History, tradition, observation, trust, even poetry and literature have important insights to offer&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Eng">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>, p. 41). Through the Humanities, schools can offer the possibility of shared meaning, helping to reveal a truth in the concept of humanity through natural law and that questions about individual dignity and fulfilment are not relative (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27858-Eng">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2015</xref>) and can be engaged within a common frame of reference. It can thus be affirmed that, in a world dominated by the pragmatic logic of technology, schools safeguard the usefulness of that which appears to be useless: &#x201C;Knowledge in itself constitutes a bulwark against delusions of the omnipotence of money and utilitarianism&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-27858-Eng">Ordine, 2013</xref>, p. 15).</p>
    <p>Thus, school can create common frames of reference where not only words take on meaning but also other human values and virtues. The cultivation of the humanities, denigrated by a runaway scientific rationalism has the capacity to reveal there are more important purposes in life, that individuals enjoy certain inalienable rights by virtue of their humanity and that human freedom cannot be reduced to the mere satisfaction of appetites but that achieves fulfilment in the service of the common good (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27858-Eng">Larr&#x00FA;, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-27858-Eng">Brown &#x0026; Ion, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Additionally, schools also contribute to the creation of meaning by providing the experiences that help overcome the barriers of social class, fomenting dialogue among people from very diverse backgrounds. This is one of the great democratising promises of education, the possibility to offer powerful and liberating knowledge. Schools have the &#x201C;capacity to open the door to culture as if a new world, a world other than that which sustains family relations&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-27858-Eng">Recalcati, 2016</xref>, p. 16). Education offers the promise that all students, regardless of their social background, can develop their full potential and exercise their personal liberty in a profound and meaningful way. Schools must not fall into the trap of a &#x201C;false democracy of mediocrity&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-27858-Eng">Steiner &#x0026; Ladjali, 2016</xref>, p. 119), but must recall that it is through cultural transmission that true social equality and commitment to shared values of compassion, care for others, tolerance and social harmony.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec sec-type="conclusions" id="sec-11-27858-Eng">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusion: school as a place of meaning</sc></bold></title>
<p>One of the most important psychological processes of youth is the construction of one&#x2019;s own personal identity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27858-Eng">Guardini, 2015</xref>). Responding to the question &#x201C;Who are you&#x201D; is of paramount importance and the answer will determine a multitude of life decisions a person will make over the course of their life in the future. Technology, mass production or the facility for consumption exalts the notion of personal liberty as an absolute, and what may appear as a great advantage: the possibility of limitless choice; poses a great risk of disorientation. The sensation of liquidity that surrounds the daily life of individuals impedes their ability to commit themselves, to make meaningful, permanent decisions while also undermining our democratic institutions. According to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27858-Eng">Esteve (2010)</xref>:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>At the moment, through carelessness in education, we produce individuals unwilling to defend their values so as to avoid problems, who are incapable of self-control and prone to aggression, who believe they have the right to decide on the lives of others, who consider others inferior, will demand a repeal of civil liberties to increase their control over others (pp. 182-183).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Today, schools and teachers are struggling to resist an agenda that aims to substitute teleological reflection as a guide to education for methodological changes cased on the criteria of efficacy. In pursuing a supposed adaptation of educational institutions to the technological challenges of the new millennium, school are pressured into three grave reductionisms which, under the guise of innovation, pose the hidden danger of producing individuals who are highly manipulable, believing themselves to be free while in fact they are enslaved by the tyranny of their appetites.</p>
    <p>Nevertheless, as this article has shown, innovation and the transmission of culture are not mutually exclusive but rather complementary; new pedagogical methods can positively contribute to cultural transmission. The true dichotomy is found between those methodological changes that are the product of teleological reflection and those in which the discourse of innovation disguises a pedagogical relativism. Given this panorama, it is essential to rethink the purpose and goals of education, while providing teachers of these disciplines with the training necessary to better identify and achieve these ends (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-27858-Eng">Garc&#x00ED;a-Mart&#x00ED;nez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). Philosophy, History, Anthropology or Theory of Education are essential subjects within teacher training, both for initial and reinforcement training programs, in resisting the calls for schools to give up their true mission: to education individuals able to commit to themselves, to others and to their times.</p>
    <p>These goals can only be achieved if students have the tools to construct a solid and well-founded personal identity. Narration, intelligibility and responsibility are essential elements in this effort (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27858-Eng">MacIntyre, 2013</xref>) and must be incorporated into school curricula. However, these three dimensions are embedded within and can only be taught through culture. Firstly, culture plays a primordial role in the narrative competence of the student given that, ultimately, it is &#x201C;memory, constructed through personal and collective experience, that binds us to our biography, our history and our identity&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-27858-Eng">Bernal Guerrero, 2009</xref>, p. 138); secondly, cultural transmission makes reality intelligible, allowing young people to perform the action which is most properly human: contemplation. In a world dominated by scientism, it is through culture that school can offer fresh vistas and avenues to engage in the fundamental questions of existence.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>A wisdom which aims to construct itself using only empirical reason is unable to respond to the great existential questions, which require drawing from that current of ethical experiences that constitute a historical wisdom that contains, both critically and passively, the wealth of knowledge human beings have acquired from all the possible sources at our disposal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27858-Eng">Ib&#x00E1;&#x00F1;ez-Mart&#x00ED;n, 2021</xref>, p. 40).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Finally, culture enables students to see themselves as contingent, as needing others: those that preceded them and those that surround them. Thus, the individual discovers their relational dimension, the importance of community and the responsibilities this entails. Thus, the discovery of the dialogic nature of the person (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-27858-Eng">Yepes &#x0026; Aranguren, 2003</xref>) is an essential remedy to the social ills of violence, radicalisation and extremism.</p>
<p>In an era when young people, with only a click, have access to vast amounts of information, online videogames and shopping or virtual relationships, providing an education in and for freedom is no doubt the great challenges of the new millennium. Therefore, education cannot be reduced to a &#x201C;technical function or action based on formulas that seek predetermined ends rather than the personal fulfilment and growth&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27858-Eng">Larr&#x00FA;, 2018</xref>, p. 158). We must stand for schools as transmitters of culture, defend an education that not only recognises the immense value of providing guidance to students but also that regards culture, understood as the cultivation of the spirit, as able to spur students to engage, through the experience of goodness, truth and beauty (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27858-Eng">Llano, 1985</xref>), in the deepest questions of existence. Schools must, through culture, create meaning in young people&#x2019;s lives and the common shared values that make a democratic society possible.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ref-list>
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