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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27817</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27817</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>UNIVERSIDAD Y SOSTENIBILIDAD SOCIAL DESDE LA &#x00C9;TICA DEL CUIDADO<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>1</sup></xref></article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>University and Social Sustainability from Care Ethics</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="authors">
<name>
<surname>V&#x00C1;ZQUEZ-VERDERA</surname>
<given-names>Victoria</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1">*</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>ESC&#x00C1;MEZ-S&#x00C1;NCHEZ</surname>
<given-names>Juan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2">**</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1">
<label>*</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Valencia. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Valencia</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4364-3893">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4364-3893</ext-link>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2">
<label>**</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4159-2431">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4159-2431</ext-link>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><email>toya.vazquez@uv.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2"><email>juan.escamez@uv.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>34</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
    <fpage>141</fpage>
    <lpage>158</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>21</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia de Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La misi&#x00F3;n de la universidad incluye el dar respuesta a los retos de cada momento hist&#x00F3;rico; y, en lo que concierne a la docencia, ofrecer una formaci&#x00F3;n rigurosa y actualizada en cada perfil profesional espec&#x00ED;fico. El objetivo del art&#x00ED;culo es plantear y reflexionar sobre qu&#x00E9; relatos, viejas promesas, y falsos mitos resultan insostenibles porque perpet&#x00FA;an el despilfarro, la desigualdad y la dominaci&#x00F3;n Para identificar cu&#x00E1;les son los retos actuales, en este art&#x00ED;culo utilizamos el m&#x00E9;todo de la hermen&#x00E9;utica-cr&#x00ED;tica. Lo que nos permite desentra&#x00F1;ar que la desigualdad, la exclusi&#x00F3;n, la injustica clim&#x00E1;tica, el imperialismo neoliberal, la corrupci&#x00F3;n, la destrucci&#x00F3;n de la biosfera y otros tantos problemas son consecuencia de modelos insostenibles. El art&#x00ED;culo analiza qu&#x00E9; otras perspectivas y relatos podr&#x00ED;an ofrecer mejores herramientas para avanzar hacia la sostenibilidad social.</p>
<p>Concluimos afirmando que la universidad puede encontrar en la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado elementos catalizadores para nutrir la transici&#x00F3;n hacia la sostenibilidad y la justicia social. Se trata de una &#x00E9;tica relacional capaz de crear conexiones para superar las imposiciones dominantes, el aislamiento social y los miedos que silencian ciertas voces. Necesitamos una formaci&#x00F3;n universitaria que reconstruya estos silencios y que active formas de participaci&#x00F3;n profesional competente (en t&#x00E9;rminos &#x00E9;ticos y t&#x00E9;cnicos). As&#x00ED;, estaremos en mejores condiciones para construir una democracia que tenga en cuenta las necesidades reales de todas las personas y reoriente los modelos educativos, sociales, cient&#x00ED;ficos, empresariales, laborales, fiscales y econ&#x00F3;micos para conseguir el viraje hacia la sostenibilidad que necesitamos.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>The mission of the university includes responding to the challenges of each historical moment; and, as far as teaching is concerned, offering rigorous and updated training in each specific professional profile. The aim of the article is to consider and reflect on which narratives, old promises and false myths are unsustainable because they perpetuate waste, inequality and domination. In order to identify the current challenges, in this article we use hermeneutic-criticism methodology. This allows us to unravel that inequality, exclusion, climate injustice, neoliberal imperialism, corruption, destruction of the biosphere and many other problems are the consequence of unsustainable models. The article discusses what other perspectives and narratives might offer better tools for moving towards social sustainability.</p>
<p>We conclude by affirming that the university can find in care ethics catalyzing elements to nurture the transition towards sustainability and social justice. It is a relational ethic capable of creating connections to overcome the dominant impositions, isolation and fear that silence certain voices. We need a university education that reconstructs those silences and activates forms of competent professional participation (in ethical and technical terms). Thus, we will be in a better position to build a democracy that takes into account the real needs of all people and reorients educational, social, scientific, business, labor, fiscal and economic models to achieve the shift towards the sustainability that we need.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>&#x00E9;tica del cuidado</kwd>
<kwd>sostenibilidad</kwd>
<kwd>universidad</kwd>
<kwd>empleabilidad</kwd>
<kwd>justicia social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>care ethics</kwd>
<kwd>sustainability</kwd>
<kwd>university</kwd>
<kwd>employability</kwd>
<kwd>social justice</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group id="award1">
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci&#x00F3;n y Universidades</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>EDU2009-07173</award-id>
</award-group>
<award-group id="award2">
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci&#x00F3;n y Universidades</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>EDU2017-82629-R</award-id>
</award-group>
<award-group id="award3">
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci&#x00F3;n y Universidades</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>EDU2017-83284-R</award-id>
</award-group>
<funding-statement>Se agradece la financiaci&#x00F3;n del Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci&#x00F3;n y Universidades a trav&#x00E9;s de los proyectos: &#x201C;<italic>La alfabetizaci&#x00F3;n ecosocial: un elemento central en los procesos de sostenibilizaci&#x00F3;n curricular para el logro de la Agenda 2030 (ODS) en la formaci&#x00F3;n inicial del profesorado</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2009-07173); y &#x201C;<italic>Aprendizaje-servicio (ApS) y empleabilidad de los estudiantes universitarios en Espa&#x00F1;a: competencias para la inserci&#x00F3;n laboral</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-82629-R). As&#x00ED; como la financiaci&#x00F3;n del Ministerio de Econom&#x00ED;a, Industria y Competitividad a trav&#x00E9;s del proyecto: &#x201C;<italic>Dise&#x00F1;o operativo de la competencia &#x201C;aprender a aprender&#x201D; para los grados universitarios. Instrumentos de evaluaci&#x00F3;n y propuestas para la ense&#x00F1;anza</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-83284-R).</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-27817-es" sec-type="introduction">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
    <p>Entre los prop&#x00F3;sitos de las universidades se incluyen la preparaci&#x00F3;n de las personas para el empleo, junto a la dimensi&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica de una ciudadan&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica y la familiarizaci&#x00F3;n del estudiantado con las ra&#x00ED;ces culturales e hist&#x00F3;ricas de la tradici&#x00F3;n en la que se insertan. Tambi&#x00E9;n existe el objetivo fundamental de formar en las competencias propias del perfil profesional de cada titulaci&#x00F3;n espec&#x00ED;fica. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27817-es">Ortega en su celebrado escrito <italic>Misi&#x00F3;n de la Universidad</italic></xref> centra su exposici&#x00F3;n en que la universidad debe formar profesionales t&#x00E9;cnica y &#x00E9;ticamente competentes y ense&#x00F1;ar cultura. Entiende por cultura el sistema de ideas vivas que cada &#x00E9;poca posee:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Esas que llamo ideas vivas o de que se vive son, ni m&#x00E1;s ni menos, el repertorio de nuestras efectivas convicciones sobre lo que es el mundo y son los pr&#x00F3;jimos, sobre la jerarqu&#x00ED;a de valores que tienen las cosas y las acciones: cu&#x00E1;les son estimables, cu&#x00E1;les menos (Ortega, 1930, p. 341).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Ante esas ideas vivas, cabe adoptar una actitud cr&#x00ED;tica para analizar si estamos de acuerdo con ellas o tenemos que rechazarlas porque no responden a las necesidades de nuestra vida. &#x00BF;Cu&#x00E1;les son las ideas vivas de este primer cuarto del siglo XXI que tienen que ser analizadas con rigor? &#x00BF;Cu&#x00E1;les son los retos del siglo XXI que la universidad debe cuestionar cr&#x00ED;ticamente? A nuestro juicio son: el imperio de la econom&#x00ED;a; la globalizaci&#x00F3;n; la sociedad del conocimiento; la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n y la Inteligencia Artificial; la complejidad y el mestizaje de nuestras sociedades; las desigualdades; el desafecto de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a hacia los poderes del Estado y hacia las instituciones que los detentan; la sostenibilidad de los sistemas econ&#x00F3;mico, social y medioambiental; y los cuidados ante la fragilidad del mundo y la vulnerabilidad humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27817-es">Esc&#x00E1;mez, y Peris, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Actualmente se pide a la universidad que ejerza un liderazgo en la transici&#x00F3;n digital y ecol&#x00F3;gica. Pero la sostenibilidad social no es una cuesti&#x00F3;n exenta de controversias &#x00E9;ticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27817-es">Franck, &#x0026; Osbeck, 2018</xref>). Cada vez es m&#x00E1;s evidente la necesidad de cambiar el modelo actual de <italic>progreso</italic> para transitar hacia otro m&#x00E1;s sostenible para la vida de las personas y los territorios en los que habitamos.</p>
<p>Desde el &#x00E1;mbito universitario podemos aportar elementos para repensar qu&#x00E9; modelo de <italic>progreso</italic> nos sit&#x00FA;a en mejores condiciones para un bien com&#x00FA;n universal, c&#x00F3;mo orientar los m&#x00E9;todos de ense&#x00F1;anza y de investigaci&#x00F3;n, d&#x00F3;nde atraer financiaci&#x00F3;n que genere justicia social, cuestionarnos el para quienes trabajamos. Parte del reto que tenemos por delante es comprender que para revertir los efectos devastadores del modelo de <italic>progreso</italic> que nos ha tra&#x00ED;do a la situaci&#x00F3;n actual, necesitamos contar con otras voces que permitan comprender y apreciar otras interpretaciones y otros relatos que hagan posible una gesti&#x00F3;n prudente de nuestra propia vulnerabilidad y la activaci&#x00F3;n de modelos sociales, empresariales, laborales, fiscales y econ&#x00F3;micos innovadores.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>How can we motivate students to critically reflect on human centeredness and the interdependency of living and nonliving things? How can we encourage learners to identify and question their own values, beliefs, and/or worldviews underpinning anthropocentric practices and lifestyles? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27817-es">Tillmanns, 2020</xref>, p.14).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27817-es">Hans Jonas (1995)</xref> habla del vac&#x00ED;o &#x00E9;tico de nuestro tiempo. La &#x00E9;tica tiene que existir. Y tiene que existir porque las personas y organizaciones humanas act&#x00FA;an, y la &#x00E9;tica est&#x00E1; para ordenar las acciones y regular su poder. Tanto m&#x00E1;s tiene que existir cuanto mayores sean los poderes de la acci&#x00F3;n que ella ha de regular. Por tanto, las nuevas capacidades de acci&#x00F3;n requieren nuevas reglas &#x00E9;ticas y quiz&#x00E1;s una nueva &#x00E9;tica. Es vital plantearse c&#x00F3;mo activar otras formas de gestionarnos tanto en t&#x00E9;rminos macro como micro, porque la salud de las personas y la salud del planeta son dos elementos en rec&#x00ED;proca interacci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The purpose of development is to improve the life of individuals and that individuals are not the instruments of economic development, on the contrary, economic development should function and be an instrument in service of human beings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27817-es">Yoo, Mosrur, Lee, &#x0026; Toca Andrea, 2019</xref>, p. 269).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Es cada vez m&#x00E1;s frecuente identificar trabajos que encuentran en la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado elementos interesantes para desarrollar sus l&#x00ED;neas de investigaci&#x00F3;n tambi&#x00E9;n en los contextos universitarios (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27817-es">Aloni, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27817-es">Bozalek, McMillan, Marshall, November, Daniels &#x0026; Sylvester, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27817-es">Bergland, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27817-es">Done, Murphy, &#x0026; Knowler, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27817-es">Gachago, &#x0026; Livingston, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27817-es">Lolich, &#x0026; Lynch, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27817-es">Lottero-Perdue, &#x0026; Settlage, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27817-es">Lu, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-27817-es">V&#x00E1;zquez, 2019</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27817-es">Joan Tronto (2015)</xref> se&#x00F1;ala que aunque solemos pensar que la esfera del cuidado y la esfera de la pol&#x00ED;tica est&#x00E1;n separadas y requieren de l&#x00F3;gicas diferenciadas, en realidad ambas tienen implicaciones pol&#x00ED;ticas.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-27817-es" sec-type="method">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a metodolog&#x00ED;a que se sigue en la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de los problemas que se abordan en este art&#x00ED;culo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Para abordar la pregunta relativa a si la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado es capaz de ofrecer otros relatos o interpretaciones sobre cu&#x00E1;les son las ideas vivas o los retos que actualmente necesitan nuestra atenci&#x00F3;n, utilizamos la hermen&#x00E9;utica cr&#x00ED;tica. El m&#x00E9;todo en la investigaci&#x00F3;n tiene que adaptarse al objeto que investiga. Sin embargo, hoy los m&#x00E9;todos en la investigaci&#x00F3;n parecen haber alcanzado una sacralizaci&#x00F3;n en s&#x00ED; mismos que los convierten en dogmas indiscutibles, pero poco rigurosos para comprender la complejidad de la persona humana. Dos son los m&#x00E9;todos que parecen disputarse la primac&#x00ED;a en el estudio de la persona: a) el mentalismo que no atiende a los datos aportados por las ciencias neurobiol&#x00F3;gicas actuales; y b) el naturalismo que reduce el saber de lo humano a las aportaciones que nos hacen las ciencias naturales emp&#x00ED;ricas (como las neurociencias).</p>
    <p>En nuestra opini&#x00F3;n uno y otro m&#x00E9;todo son reduccionistas. Compartimos las tesis defendidas por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27817-es">Jes&#x00FA;s Conill (2019</xref>, p. 190) cuando argumenta que para comprender al ser humano necesitamos interpretarlo contando con las ciencias naturales, sociales, hist&#x00F3;ricas y humanas. A ese m&#x00E9;todo lo llama hermen&#x00E9;utico-cr&#x00ED;tico, con una gran tradici&#x00F3;n en la antropolog&#x00ED;a moderna (Taylor, Ricoeur, MacIntyre, Apel, Habermas) y en el pensamiento de autores espa&#x00F1;oles como Ortega y, especialmente, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-27817-es">Zubiri que en su libro <italic>Sobre el hombre</italic> (1986)</xref> recoge muchos de sus escritos sobre la conexi&#x00F3;n entre filosof&#x00ED;a y ciencia, que posteriormente han profundizado Ignacio Ellacur&#x00ED;a, Pedro La&#x00ED;n, Diego Gracia y L&#x00F3;pez Aranguren en sus intentos de fundamentar biol&#x00F3;gicamente la &#x00E9;tica.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>En suma, la v&#x00ED;a nool&#x00F3;gica zubiriana como la hermen&#x00E9;utica-cr&#x00ED;tica de Apel, Habermas y Cortina son m&#x00E1;s fecundas para interpretar la realidad de la persona humana que la reducci&#x00F3;n cientificista del positivismo naturalista y el factualismo fenomenol&#x00F3;gico heideggeriano, ajenos al pensamiento cient&#x00ED;fico y al mundo de los valores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27817-es">Conill, 2019</xref>, p. 216).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La hermen&#x00E9;utica-cr&#x00ED;tica ayuda a introducir la posibilidad de distintas interpretaciones. As&#x00ED; como el an&#x00E1;lisis de las situaciones concretas para producir reflexiones de y desde otras interpretaciones y relatos.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27817-es">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>&#x00BF;Q<sc>u&#x00E9; preocupa a las personas que forman parte de las universidades?</sc></bold></title>
<p>En el &#x00E1;mbito de la docencia universitaria son cada vez m&#x00E1;s las iniciativas que prestan atenci&#x00F3;n a la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado, lo cual se manifiesta en la existencia de investigaciones, conferencias y proyectos de innovaci&#x00F3;n docente (por ejemplo: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27817-es">Mut, V&#x00E1;zquez, y Belda, 2021</xref>). En general, podemos decir que tanto al estudiantado como al profesorado le preocupa el poder ajustarse a los requerimientos que actualmente impone el contexto laboral y universitario en cuanto a rendici&#x00F3;n de cuentas y competitividad; pero que tambi&#x00E9;n busca encontrar un sentido a su quehacer en t&#x00E9;rminos relacionales. As&#x00ED;, en el estudio transversal realizado en tres centros de educaci&#x00F3;n superior en la ciudad de Dubl&#x00ED;n (Irlanda) en el que se exploraron cu&#x00E1;les eran las aspiraciones del estudiantado, encontraron que los tres factores m&#x00E1;s valorados fueron &#x0022;convertirme en experto/a en mi campo&#x0022;, &#x0022;ayudar a otros que tienen dificultades&#x0022; y &#x0022;formar una familia&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27817-es">Lolich, &#x0026; Lynch, 2017</xref>). En lo que respecta al profesorado, tambi&#x00E9;n hay estudios que revelan que existen propuestas entre las profesoras universitarias de resistencia frente a las culturas universitarias neoliberales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27817-es">Done, Murphy, &#x0026; Knowler, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Tambi&#x00E9;n en el estudio realizado en una universidad espa&#x00F1;ola a partir de las entrevistas en profundidad a 40 personas involucradas en la transici&#x00F3;n al mundo laboral desde la universidad en las diferentes &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento: sanidad, ingenier&#x00ED;a y arquitectura, ciencias sociales y jur&#x00ED;dicas, artes y humanidades, se da cuenta de varios de los mecanismos que impiden la plena inclusi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27817-es">Tenorio, Gonz&#x00E1;lez, y Padilla, 2021</xref>): Reclaman la necesidad de revertir las versiones de empleabilidad atravesadas por imperativos neoliberales y hacer visibles los mecanismos subyacentes que reproducen relaciones de poder y son contrarios a la verdadera misi&#x00F3;n de la universidad.</p>
<p>Con este sentido, tambi&#x00E9;n <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27817-es">Tronto (2017)</xref> reflexiona sobre el impacto del neoliberalismo en las formas en las que organizamos nuestras vidas individuales y colectivas; y como consigue que las deficiencias que tenemos para satisfacer las demandas de cuidado sean vistas como fracasos individuales; y no como fracasos de una responsabilidad colectiva. De esta manera, identifica varias de las limitaciones que tiene la cultura neoliberal para dar respuesta a las necesidades de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a: No se aceptan las responsabilidades de nada que no sean las propias elecciones; se dificulta la posibilidad de pensar en el cuidado m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del hogar; y las racionalidades mercantilistas e instrumentalistas eclipsan las aspiraciones m&#x00E1;s genuinas de las personas.</p>
<p>Es necesario revisar presupuestos epistemol&#x00F3;gicos y axiol&#x00F3;gicos y profundizar en la visibilizaci&#x00F3;n de la vulnerabilidad humana y las interdependencias a nivel planetario e interpersonal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27817-es">Bonnett, 2017</xref>). La ausencia de reconocimiento de nuestras interdependencias rec&#x00ED;procas no puede seguir manteni&#x00E9;ndose. La desatenci&#x00F3;n de los trabajos de cuidados implican una falta de democracia. El desprecio hacia los tiempos de reposici&#x00F3;n de los ciclos de la naturaleza (como los depositos carbonizados, los minerales, el agua limpia, la polinizaci&#x00F3;n, etc) o hacia los impactos de la contaminaci&#x00F3;n y emisiones nocivas no son sino consecuencia de nuestra soberbia. Hemos de darnos cuenta de que las llamadas <italic>externalidades</italic> de nuestro metabolismo econ&#x00F3;mico generan y son causa de la destrucci&#x00F3;n y la pobreza. Los modelos econ&#x00F3;micos que se apropian de lo que consideran recursos naturales gratuitos e infinitos est&#x00E1;n trasnochados. As&#x00ED; tambi&#x00E9;n se est&#x00E1;n planteando los retos que habr&#x00E1; de superar la econom&#x00ED;a circular desde la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27817-es">Pla-Juli&#x00E1;n, &#x0026; Guevara, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>En definitiva, lo que cada vez preocupa a m&#x00E1;s personas son todas estas cuestiones relacionadas con nuestras eco e interdependencias no solo en las pol&#x00ED;ticas de gesti&#x00F3;n universitaria, sino tambi&#x00E9;n en las preguntas de investigaci&#x00F3;n, y los contenidos, metodolog&#x00ED;as y competencias curriculares. La participaci&#x00F3;n de las universidades ha de incluir una trama extraordinariamente densa de pensamiento, afecto, reflexi&#x00F3;n y compromiso que ha sido menospreciada hasta ahora (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27817-es">Lim&#x00F3;n, Sol&#x00ED;s, y Pab&#x00F3;n, 2021</xref>). Este tipo de sabidur&#x00ED;as ha de ser reconocido como creaci&#x00F3;n cultural humana y volcada al conjunto del torrente del saber de la humanidad.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-27817-es">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a &#x00E9;tica del cuidado</sc></bold></title>
<p>Por eso, encontramos especialmente interesante el modelo antropol&#x00F3;gico del <italic>homo curans</italic> propuesto por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27817-es">Tronto (2017)</xref>. Un relato o interpretaci&#x00F3;n del ser humano como ser relacional y atravesado por el cuidado, que obliga a un tipo de relaciones basadas en el reconocimiento rec&#x00ED;proco. Que construyen un tipo de v&#x00ED;nculo que hace imposible la invisibilidad, el menosprecio y la indiferencia. El reconocimiento de la dignidad en cada ser humano nos motiva a buscar alianzas para sostener la vida y afrontar juntas la vulnerabilidad que compartimos. Existen iniciativas que est&#x00E1; reclamando otra forma de estar y hacer universidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27817-es">Bergland, 2018</xref>). Podemos trabajar para construir una universidad que nos sit&#x00FA;a m&#x00E1;s cerca de los asuntos cotidianos que nos preocupan como humanidad, y convierte el quehacer universitario en algo dirigido a crear las condiciones sociales, pol&#x00ED;ticas, medioambientales y econ&#x00F3;micas para que podamos vivir vidas m&#x00E1;s humanas y respetusosas con la sostenibildad. Se trata de entender que demandar un modelo de democracia que est&#x00E9; a la altura de las necesidades reales de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a, requiere democratizar el cuidado.</p>
<p>Seg&#x00FA;n el Diccionario de la Real Academia de la Lengua Espa&#x00F1;ola (1984), la sem&#x00E1;ntica del vocablo <italic>cuidar</italic> y que comparte con los vocablos de su &#x00E1;rea <italic>cuidado, cuidadoso, cuidador, cuidadosamente</italic> hace referencia a la solicitud, diligencia y atenci&#x00F3;n que son necesarias para hacer bien una cosa y/o hacer bien a las personas, a la sociedad y sus instituciones, y a la naturaleza. Fundamentalmente <italic>cuidar</italic> implica: a) disposiciones o sentimientos favorables (actitudes) para evitar el perjuicio de uno mismo y/o del otro, y empoderar el bien de uno mismo y/o del otro; b) y generar acciones que respondan en consecuencia.</p>
<p>Carol Gilligan en el libro <italic>In a Different Voi</italic>ce (1982), explica como en el marco conceptual de las teor&#x00ED;as morales, los fil&#x00F3;sofos discuten b&#x00E1;sicamente si la &#x00E9;tica se basa en la raz&#x00F3;n o en la emoci&#x00F3;n. Y los psic&#x00F3;logos morales hablan del Yo como un ente separado de los dem&#x00E1;s y del mundo; y conciben el desarrollo moral como un tr&#x00E1;nsito de la dependencia a la independencia. La <italic>voz diferente</italic> que descubre con sus investigaciones es que unen la raz&#x00F3;n con la emoci&#x00F3;n y perciben al Yo relacionado con los dem&#x00E1;s y con el mundo. En sus narrativas sobre los problemas morales, sus vidas estaban conectadas y eran interdependientes. Desde este punto de vista, lo contrario de la dependencia era el aislamiento, al que califica como el gran da&#x00F1;o moral y psicol&#x00F3;gico de las personas.</p>
<p>En 1993 Joan Tronto y Berenice Fisher en <italic>Moral Boundaries</italic> identificaron cuatro momentos principales del cuidado: la atenci&#x00F3;n sol&#x00ED;cita, la escucha, la responsabilidad de cuidar y la urgencia de la respuesta. A estos cuatro momentos &#x00E9;ticos, posteriormente <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27817-es">Tronto (2013</xref>, pp. 34-35) en <italic>Caring Democracy. Markets, Equality, and Justice</italic> a&#x00F1;adi&#x00F3; un quinto elemento: pluralidad, comunicaci&#x00F3;n, confianza y respeto (o <italic>caring with</italic>). Este quinto momento es de alguna manera la consecuencia de que la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado sea una &#x00E9;tica relacional; y la que permite una democratizaci&#x00F3;n en t&#x00E9;rminos de justicia redistributiva y de la asunci&#x00F3;n de la capacidad colectiva de actuar. As&#x00ED;, se expresa en un texto posterior exponiendo estos cinco momentos:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The first four phases of care imagined a citizen as someone who is attentive, responsible, competent, and responsive; &#x201C;caring-with&#x201C; is our new democratic ideal. What makes care equal is not the perfection of an individual caring act, but that we can trust that over time, we will be able to reciprocate the care we received from fellow citizens, and that they will reciprocate the care we&#x00B4;ve given to them (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27817-es">Tronto, 2015</xref>, p. 14).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Los 5 momentos para la pr&#x00E1;ctica del cuidado suponen los faros (o la br&#x00FA;jula) que podr&#x00ED;an orientar ese cambio de relato que necesitamos. La hermen&#x00E9;utica-cr&#x00ED;tica de diferentes textos y experiencias nos permite ofrecer otras interpretaciones de y desde voces que han permanecido subordinadas hasta hace poco.</p>
<sec id="sec-5-27817-es">
<label>4.1.</label>
<title><italic>El cultivo de los sentimientos</italic></title>
<p>La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado implica solicitud y respeto por el otro vulnerable y por un mundo fr&#x00E1;gil. El primer momento de esta &#x00E9;tica es la sensibilidad a las necesidades que nos muestran, demandando atenci&#x00F3;n y no indiferencia en una &#x00E9;poca hist&#x00F3;rica en la que prevalece un Yo narcisista, patol&#x00F3;gicamente hipertrofiado, que las relaciones neoliberales de producci&#x00F3;n cultivan y explotan para incrementar la productividad, sean cuales sean los efectos perversos que se derivan para las otras personas y la Tierra. Por eso, en las &#x00E1;reas de investigaci&#x00F3;n denominadas Ciencia, Tecnolog&#x00ED;a y Sociedad tambi&#x00E9;n se est&#x00E1; llamando la atenci&#x00F3;n sobre la necesidad de tener en cuenta los sentimientos activistas; as&#x00ED;, se ha reconocido la dimensi&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica de estas &#x00E1;reas de investigaci&#x00F3;n y se ha desarrollado un modelo de 4 etapas para la acci&#x00F3;n sociopol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27817-es">Hodson, 2020</xref>). O tambi&#x00E9;n la experiencia desarrollada en el &#x00E1;rea de las ingenier&#x00ED;as para introducir las experiencias afectivas y la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27817-es">Lottero-Perdue, &#x0026; Settlage, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Deseos, sentimientos, emociones, eso que los pensadores cl&#x00E1;sicos llamaban pasiones, son fundamentales para el cuidado. Actualmente, las llamadas competencias socioemocionales est&#x00E1;n reclamando un lugar prioritario en la formaci&#x00F3;n curricular universitaria. E incluso se vinculan al servicio comunitario (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27817-es">Santos Rego, Mella-N&#x00FA;&#x00F1;ez, y Garc&#x00ED;a-&#x00C1;lvarez, 2021</xref>). Es propio de todo ser viviente tender hacia otra cosa y esta tendencia tiene siempre se&#x00F1;ales afectivas b&#x00E1;sicas: el placer, el dolor, la alegr&#x00ED;a y la pena, la ternura y el temor. Son el presupuesto de la actividad psicol&#x00F3;gica m&#x00E1;s elemental. La persona humana es un viviente de esta tierra, y todo lo que hace y busca est&#x00E1; cargado de pasiones. Es necesario volver a considerar la vida partiendo del otro y de lo otro, otorg&#x00E1;ndole una prioridad en las relaciones del Yo.</p>
<p>La solicitud respetuosa transforma lo que parec&#x00ED;a un simple ejemplar de la especie humana en una persona &#x00FA;nica; nada en ella resulta ya banal; una leve sonrisa puede revelar m&#x00E1;s que la conducta de una vida entera. La solicitud multiplica, en cada uno de los seres que cuidan y son cuidados, la riqueza del mundo; no es ya un mundo, son dos mundos en relaci&#x00F3;n; la comprensi&#x00F3;n de la realidad adquiere una dimensi&#x00F3;n de profundidad. Cuando se respeta al otro, su identidad personal es reconocida como suya, original e intransferible. S&#x00F3;lo as&#x00ED; es posible que la persona cuidada se la considere como un fin en s&#x00ED; misma y no como un medio para conseguir un fin; que se le reconozca dignidad personal y autonom&#x00ED;a para ser y actuar de acuerdo con los valores que le merecen la pena. S&#x00F3;lo es capaz de cuidar a otra persona quien es capaz de cuidar de s&#x00ED;; s&#x00F3;lo es capaz de respetar y estimar quien se respeta y estima a s&#x00ED; misma/o. Para sentir y comprender a otras personas, es preciso tener clara conciencia de la propia dignidad personal. Se cuestiona as&#x00ED; el &#x201C;olvido de lo imprescindible&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27817-es">Gil y Navajas, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-27817-es">
<label>4.2.</label>
<title><italic>La escucha</italic></title>
<p>Por ello, es necesaria la actitud de la escucha como segundo momento de la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado. La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado insiste en la necesidad de escuchar a quien necesita cuidados. Es una &#x00E9;tica de casos, en el que cada persona cuidada presenta sus necesidades concretas, si se le da ocasi&#x00F3;n para ello. Escuchar no es una actividad pasiva, sino receptiva. Es lo &#x00FA;nico que ayuda a otras personas a expresar sus genuinos pensamientos. En cierto sentido, la escucha antecede a la palabra.</p>
<p>La escucha tambi&#x00E9;n tiene una dimensi&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica como participaci&#x00F3;n en la existencia de los otros, en sus alegr&#x00ED;as y sus sufrimientos. Es lo que enlaza e intermedia entre las personas para que configuren una comunidad. La estrategia de dominio del patriarcado consiste en privatizar el cuidado, impidiendo su socializaci&#x00F3;n, su politizaci&#x00F3;n o transposici&#x00F3;n de lo privado a lo p&#x00FA;blico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27817-es">Han, 2017</xref>). Sin embargo, la voluntad pol&#x00ED;tica de configurar un espacio p&#x00FA;blico, una comunidad de escucha, el conjunto pol&#x00ED;tico de los oyentes se encuentra hoy cuestionada. Contra esa situaci&#x00F3;n se alza Gilligan en <italic>In a Different Voice</italic> y en las publicaciones de 2013 sobre &#x00E9;tica del cuidado. No se escuchan las genuinas voces de las mujeres y de los ni&#x00F1;os sobre el desarrollo moral porque son voces diferentes a las que propugna los intereses de jerarquizaci&#x00F3;n y de poder del patriarcado. Tampoco se escuchan las voces diferentes o contrarias a las voces defensoras de las estructuras jer&#x00E1;rquicas y de poder en las relaciones sociales y en los protocolos normalizados de la investigaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Las universidades son lugares ideales para liberar la propia voz, as&#x00ED; como para examinar las narrativas que nos rodean con estima y pensamiento cr&#x00ED;tico. Autoras como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27817-es">Stein (2019</xref>, p. 199) nos invita a escuchar las voces del pensamiento decolonial para &#x0022;repensar &#x0027;las historias que nos contamos sobre el cambio clim&#x00E1;tico, la educaci&#x00F3;n superior y nuestros horizontes de esperanza&#x0022;. As&#x00ED;, plantea que una educaci&#x00F3;n transformadora deber&#x00ED;a permitir y animar a escuchar respetuosa y cr&#x00ED;ticamente al estudiantado, a las organizaciones y a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a en general para cuestionar ideas y relatos de la modernidad que perpet&#x00FA;an una falsa idea de certidumbre y predictibilidad, o de un derecho al control o un crecimiento ilimitado -sin tener en cuenta los l&#x00ED;mites de la expropiaci&#x00F3;n o explotaci&#x00F3;n-. Propone escuchar diferentes interpretaciones, que cuestionan los relatos de la meritocracia, el pensamiento &#x00FA;nico o la independencia absoluta.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-27817-es">
<label>4.3.</label>
<title><italic>La responsabilidad de hacerse cargo</italic></title>
<p>El tercer momento de la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado consiste en argumentar la responsabilidad de satisfacer las necesidades de quien necesita cuidados. Es al ant&#x00ED;doto de las teor&#x00ED;as &#x00E9;ticas centradas en el inter&#x00E9;s personal y en la construcci&#x00F3;n de un Yo aut&#x00F3;nomo encerrado en s&#x00ED; mismo, que ignora el requerimiento de protecci&#x00F3;n, atenci&#x00F3;n y ayuda que todos los seres racionales, y tambi&#x00E9;n el conjunto de los seres vivos y la Tierra, necesitan como seres contingentes y vulnerables.</p>
<p>A juicio de Gilligan, la &#x00E9;tica no puede ser entendida solo en t&#x00E9;rminos de razonamientos l&#x00F3;gicos tal como se dan en los debates morales de los dilemas hipot&#x00E9;ticos; esa es la cr&#x00ED;tica que Gilligan hace a su maestro Kohlberg y a la <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Justicia</italic> de Rawls en la que se fundamenta el pensamiento del liberalismo moral. Entre las deficiencias del liberalismo, hay que se&#x00F1;alar dos principales: a) que no ha sabido pensar la fragilidad y la vulnerabilidad como una realidad intr&#x00ED;nseca a cada persona, a las sociedades humanas y sus instituciones, a la comunidad bi&#x00F3;tica y a la Tierra; b) que plantea cuestiones o problemas morales referidos a individuos abstractos, desencarnados, sin rostro. La &#x00E9;tica tiene que ser, al mismo tiempo, una forma de responder a las necesidades de los dem&#x00E1;s que nos interpelan desde su fragilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27817-es">Camps, 2021</xref>). La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado plantea problemas reales de personas concretas en situaciones precisas. Desde ella, es m&#x00E1;s dif&#x00ED;cil desatender esas vidas que han contado poco para las teor&#x00ED;as &#x00E9;ticas, pol&#x00ED;ticas y econ&#x00F3;micas dominantes hoy: las vidas precarias cuya explotaci&#x00F3;n no se percibe, las vidas de quienes no tienen voz porque carecen de los derechos de ciudadan&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, por ejemplo, tambi&#x00E9;n en el contexto universitario portugu&#x00E9;s existen voces que est&#x00E1;n llamando la atenci&#x00F3;n sobre el papel y el impacto de la ingenier&#x00ED;a en la sociedad contempor&#x00E1;nea; lo que hace necesario repensar la ense&#x00F1;anza de las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento que incluye para reforzar su prop&#x00F3;sito de servicio a la humanidad y al bien com&#x00FA;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27817-es">Monteiro <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Desde estos estudios se ha puesto en evidencia que la concepci&#x00F3;n dominante se centra en la visi&#x00F3;n econ&#x00F3;mica de la ingenier&#x00ED;a y los y las profesionales que deja fuera el sentido de vinculaci&#x00F3;n a la humanidad, la justicia social y el bien com&#x00FA;n. Otro ejemplo, en el contexto universitario sudafricano podr&#x00ED;a ser el activado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27817-es">Bozalek y Zembylas (2017</xref>, p. 64) a trav&#x00E9;s de lo que llamaron pedagog&#x00ED;as con capacidad de respuesta como &#x201C;pr&#x00E1;cticas &#x00E9;tico-pol&#x00ED;ticas que incorporan una ontolog&#x00ED;a relacional a las actividades de ense&#x00F1;anza y aprendizaje, ampliando as&#x00ED; su potencial transformador&#x201D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-27817-es">
<label>4.4.</label>
<title><italic>La urgencia de generar programas concretos de acci&#x00F3;n para el cuidado</italic></title>
<p>El cuarto momento de cuidar es la urgencia de la respuesta a las necesidades expresadas por quienes necesitan cuidados. La importancia de este momento del cuidado no ha sido suficientemente evidenciada. Los ejemplos que se pueden poner son muchos. Con frecuencias leemos o escuchamos noticias como las siguientes: a) cien mil personas de la ciudad X est&#x00E1; en lista de espera para su intervenci&#x00F3;n quir&#x00FA;rjica; b) los ancianos de las residencias de la ciudad Y no han podido ser atendidos del COVID-19 en los hospitales; c) hay una plaga de hambruna en el Estado Z debido a la sequ&#x00ED;a o a la guerra civil; d) los dirigentes de los principales pa&#x00ED;ses del mundo se han comprometido a limitar el calentamiento global a 1.5 grados antes del 2030, etc. Sin embargo, la reducci&#x00F3;n de la pobreza severa, el efectivo cumplimiento de los derechos humanos, la acogida a los migrantes, la igualdad real de mujeres y varones en el acceso a los puestos de trabajo, la mitigaci&#x00F3;n del cambio clim&#x00E1;tico&#x2026; que se plantean en los discursos y en las declaraciones firmadas por los dirigentes pol&#x00ED;ticos de los gobiernos y de las instituciones internacionales no van acompa&#x00F1;ados de compromisos econ&#x00F3;micos efectivos que hagan posible el cumplimiento de las promesas de cuidar a las personas concretas.</p>
<p>Desde la perspectiva de la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado, se llama la atenci&#x00F3;n sobre el hecho de que siempre necesitamos de ciertas condiciones materiales y f&#x00ED;sicas para poder florecer seg&#x00FA;n nuestros intereses y necesidades. En pleno siglo XXI, a&#x00FA;n seguimos manejando relatos desfasados de un ser humano abstracto y abstra&#x00ED;do de todo tipo de necesidades biol&#x00F3;gicas y afectivas. El ideal de autosuficiencia humana minusvalora las actividades no remuneradas que contribuyen en alta medida a la econom&#x00ED;a de los pa&#x00ED;ses y el bienestar de su ciudadan&#x00ED;a, pero resultan invisibles para las estad&#x00ED;sticas econ&#x00F3;micas y de contabilidad nacional porque se desarrollan fuera del mercado.</p>
    <p>Consideramos, sin embargo, que el cuidado es la gran riqueza invisible de las econom&#x00ED;as modernas, pero no se distribuye por libre acuerdo, sino por fuertes presiones sociales. Como ha evidenciado <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27817-es">Dur&#x00E1;n (2018)</xref>, a partir de la Encuesta sobre Cuidados a Dependientes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-27817-es">EDAD, 2008</xref>) realizada en Espa&#x00F1;a, el trabajo de cuidar pasa factura a quien asume la mayor parte de tareas de cuidado y atenci&#x00F3;n, y le aparta del trabajo laboral. La cuarta parte de la poblaci&#x00F3;n espa&#x00F1;ola no puede ni siquiera plantearse la posibilidad de trabajar fuera de casa, el 13 % ha tenido que abandonar su empleo, el 9 % ha reducido su jornada laboral, y el 22 % ha tenido alg&#x00FA;n otro tipo de problemas laborales. Ante las necesidades, los hogares cuentan con sus propios recursos de tiempo de cuidado no remunerado, que recae casi simpre en las mujeres. Esa es su riqueza y la riqueza invisible del pa&#x00ED;s. Sin embargo, este recurso no es suficiente en muchas ocasiones, y han de obtener el cuidado que necesitan de los servicios p&#x00FA;blicos, el voluntariado o el mercado. Para adquirir cuidados mediante el mercado han de disponer de renta (ingresos) o de riqueza (patrimonio). Para el 70 % de los hogares es imposible pagar un cuidador a jornada completa (con salario m&#x00ED;nimo interprofesional) porque consumir&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s de un tercio de los ingresos del hogar. Para las personas j&#x00F3;venes, paradas, mayores o migrantes la proporci&#x00F3;n es a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s alta. Si las necesidades de cuidado se priorizan para garantizar el bienestar de la poblaci&#x00F3;n, hay que desarrollar nuevas perspectivas econ&#x00F3;micas que no se basen en el trabajo no remunerado de las mujeres, y nuevos servicios que sean accesibles a la mayor&#x00ED;a de los hogares.</p>
<p>Los proyectos de investigaci&#x00F3;n y las politicas de sostenibilidad han de ir mas all&#x00E1; de modelos o relatos caducos para que las acciones que se ejecuten no perpet&#x00FA;en el status quo, diluyendo las autenticas urgencias actuales en programas que solo ofrecen una aparente b&#x00FA;squeda de la Sostenibilidad, sin abordar las contradicciones. En un reciente estudio se identificaron varias de estas contradicciones que siguen perpetuandose, y que suponen narrativas contrarias al cambio que necesitamos(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27817-es">Stratford, &#x0026; Wals, 2020</xref>, p. 989): Ocultar qu&#x00E9; modelos actuales de crecimiento econ&#x00F3;mico provocan la destrucci&#x00F3;n del medio ambiente; pretender que la &#x0022;educaci&#x00F3;n de siempre&#x0022; sea suficiente; no ampliar la educaci&#x00F3;n para la ciudadan&#x00ED;a a la educaci&#x00F3;n mundial, para la paz y la inclusi&#x00F3;n; No invertir en la cualificaci&#x00F3;n del profesorado; no poner fin a la evasi&#x00F3;n fiscal de las empresas y eliminar las subvenciones a los combustibles f&#x00F3;siles; menospreciar las sabidurias no hegem&#x00F3;nicas y los conocimientos tradicionales locales; no cambiar los planes de estudio y gobernanza; no incentivar a las universidades para que produzcan profesionales e investigaciones que aborden los retos sist&#x00E9;micos a gran escala mediante el pensamiento creativo y la resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas; resistirse a la plena participaci&#x00F3;n econ&#x00F3;mica de las mujeres o de los grupos minoritarios.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-27817-es">
<label>4.5.</label>
<title><italic>La democratizaci&#x00F3;n del cuidado</italic></title>
<p>Autoras como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27817-es">Esteban (2017)</xref> han se&#x00F1;alado que la organizaci&#x00F3;n de las tareas de atenci&#x00F3;n f&#x00ED;sica y emocional a las personas se corresponden con una organizaci&#x00F3;n social y econ&#x00F3;mica concreta, donde se proyectan modos de producci&#x00F3;n y socializaci&#x00F3;n en los que las mujeres son orientadas a la reproducci&#x00F3;n y el cuidado de los otros; y los varones, a la producci&#x00F3;n de bienes para el mercado. Es decir, las tareas de cuidado tradicionalmente se han asignado siguiendo esquemas jer&#x00E1;rquicos y relaciones de poder que han eximido del trabajo de cuidado a determinadas personas en base a su sexo, clase, raza o situaci&#x00F3;n econ&#x00F3;mica. O incluso, en ocasiones tambi&#x00E9;n se puede llegar a dar la situaci&#x00F3;n de que quien ejerce estas funciones lo hace de tal forma que usa su poder en forma de tiran&#x00ED;a y chantaje emocional hacia quien est&#x00E1; &#x201C;cuidando&#x201C; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27817-es">Kittay, 1999</xref>).</p>
<p>Tronto propone alterar la conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n del cuidado como algo que involucra solo a qui&#x00E9;n cuida y a qui&#x00E9;n recibe ese cuidado, para ampliar as&#x00ED; el foco. De esta manera, podemos abordar con mejores garant&#x00ED;as la complejidad de las situaciones y din&#x00E1;micas sociales y estructurales que subyacen:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>I consider the claim that an important part of democratic caring concerns the breaking down of hierarchical relationships. One starting point for doing so is to undermine the logic of care as dyadic. Care rarely happens between two people, only. And to create opportunities to &#x201C;triangulate&#x201C; care also creates opportunities to break up a relentless hierarchy of power (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27817-es">Tronto, 2013</xref>, p. 153).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>En demasiadas ocasiones las personas que cuidan a las personas vulnerables se convierten ellas mismas tambi&#x00E9;n en personas m&#x00E1;s vulnerables por el estr&#x00E9;s, la precarizaci&#x00F3;n laboral, la bajada de ingresos econ&#x00F3;micos y el impacto en su propia salud. Y esto sucede porque el trabajo de cuidados est&#x00E1; feminizado, hogarizado e invisibilizado. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27817-es">Tronto (1993)</xref> conceptualiz&#x00F3; el t&#x00E9;rmino <italic>privileged irresponsibility</italic> para exponer las maneras en que la divisi&#x00F3;n sexual del trabajo y los valores sociales hegem&#x00F3;nicos permiten que ciertos individuos se excusen de asumir responsabilidades b&#x00E1;sicas de cuidado. Podemos ampliar esta definici&#x00F3;n a la ceguera que los gobiernos, instituciones y empresas han mostrado y muestran frente a la realidad de que todas las personas somos vulnerables y tenemos la responsabilidad de hacernos cargo de manera individual y colectiva de la vulnerabilidad propia y ajena. Para ello, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27817-es">Selma Sevenhuijsen (2003</xref>, p. 194) advirti&#x00F3; de la necesidad de construir nuevos marcos &#x00E9;ticos y pol&#x00ED;ticos:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Care, as a democratic practice, assumes that the moral orientation of care is part of our daily moral and mental <italic>habitus</italic>. In this respect, caring citizenship includes the right to have time to care, to make, on a daily basis, a place for care.</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Por eso, es necesario situar el cuidado como bien p&#x00FA;blico y responsabilidad ciudadana. Situar el cuidado en el marco de una &#x00E9;tica civil en la que la corresponsabilidad sea un hecho es el mecanismo que evitar&#x00ED;a que nuestra forma de malgestionar las necesidades de cuidado acaben generando pobreza e injusticia social y de g&#x00E9;nero. Necesitamos revisar -de manera cr&#x00ED;tica y a la luz de desfasadas l&#x00F3;gicas dicot&#x00F3;micas, mercantilistas y patriarcales- cu&#x00E1;les son las opciones que se nos ofrecen para solventar el cuidado; y qu&#x00E9; queremos y podemos esperar de una sociedad aut&#x00E9;nticamente democr&#x00E1;tica. Con esta intenci&#x00F3;n y en nuestro contexto nacional, es bien interesante la propuesta de implantaci&#x00F3;n de un sistema basado en el derecho universal de atenci&#x00F3;n suficiente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27817-es">Mart&#x00ED;nez, Rold&#x00E1;n, y Sastre, 2018</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-27817-es" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscusi&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>La hermen&#x00E9;utica-cr&#x00ED;tica realizada sobre la crisis de cuidados en sus cinco momentos &#x00E9;ticos, nos lleva a abordar la discusi&#x00F3;n sobre si el relato de la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado podr&#x00ED;a ser un elemento catalizador para generar otras formar de estar y hacer universidad. Para abordar esta pregunta son muy sugerentes las aportaciones que se vienen dando en estos &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os por investigaciones rigurosas y desde plurales puntos de vista. Desde la perspectiva jur&#x00ED;dica, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27817-es">Pau (2020)</xref> plantea si existe alguna raz&#x00F3;n jur&#x00ED;dica para contraponer la &#x00E9;tica de la justicia con la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado; y para responder desarrolla una argumentaci&#x00F3;n con base en el principio de la igualdad. Analiza como el principio de igualdad y el principio del cuidado son dos principios complementarios y sin embargo contrapuestos. El principio de igualdad propugna el trato igual a todas las personas, y el principio del cuidado propugna lo contrario: el trato desigual a todas ellas. La raz&#x00F3;n de que sean dos principios contrapuestos radica en que el primero es un principio objetivo, abstracto, universal, puesto que se refiere a todas las personas en general; y el segundo es un principio subjetivo, concreto, particular, puesto que se refiere a cada una en su irreductible individualidad.</p>
<p>A diferencia del princio de igualdad, que se basa en la autonom&#x00ED;a de todas las personas, el principio del cuidado se basa en la premisa contraria: la dependencia y vulnerabilidad de todas ellas. El principio del cuidado supone el trato a cada persona conforme a sus necesidades en cada momento concreto de su vida. Para Pau, tanto el principio de igualdad como el principio del cuidado deben enmarcarse en una misma &#x00E9;tica de la justicia. No hay raz&#x00F3;n para contraponer la &#x00E9;tica de la justicia con la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado: el cuidado tambi&#x00E9;n es debido en justicia. Las normas jur&#x00ED;dicas deben recoger el deber del cuidado. Estos planteamientos valientes no son usuales en estos tiempos, como tampoco los compromisos econ&#x00F3;micos acompa&#x00F1;an a los discursos ampulosos en los eventos internacionales y a las declaraciones y convenios que firman los l&#x00ED;deres pol&#x00ED;ticos mundiales.</p>
<p>Desde la perspectiva &#x00E9;tica, Cortina, una consagrada pensadora moral de filiaci&#x00F3;n kantiana, en su libro <italic>&#x00C9;tica cosmopolita. Un apuesta por la cordura en tiempos de pandemia</italic> (2021, p. 40) nos confiesa que lleva varios a&#x00F1;os dise&#x00F1;ando una &#x00E9;tica de la raz&#x00F3;n cordial, un reconocimiento cordial o compasivo que nos lleve a preocuparnos por la justicia, pero no entendida como condescendencia, sino como la capacidad de com-padecer la alegr&#x00ED;a y el sufrimiento de los que se reconocen como aut&#x00F3;nomos y a la vez vulnerables. Nos dice que plantear en serio <italic>lo justo</italic> carece de sentido si esa exigencia no brota de una raz&#x00F3;n cordial, porque conocemos la verdad y la justicia no s&#x00F3;lo por la argumentaci&#x00F3;n, sino tambi&#x00E9;n por el coraz&#x00F3;n. Por eso la virtud humana por excelencia es la cordura, en la que se dan cita la prudencia, la justicia y la <italic>kard&#x00ED;a</italic>, la virtud del coraz&#x00F3;n l&#x00FA;cido. Las orientaciones para la educaci&#x00F3;n en la &#x00E9;tica cordial nos las muestra usando la met&#x00E1;fora <italic>El rocio que empapa la tierra,</italic> y concluye que formar en la compasi&#x00F3;n, en la capacidad de ser con otros y de comprometerse con ellos, es, a su juicio, la clave irrenunciable de la formaci&#x00F3;n humanista que debe ofrecerse en el siglo XXI (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27817-es">Cortina, 2021</xref>, pp. 114-116).</p>
<p>Por su parte Camps en su libro, <italic>Tiempos de cuidados. Otra forma de estar en el mundo</italic> (2021, pp. 32-33), afirma que cuando se ha centrado en la justicia, la &#x00E9;tica moderna ha prestado escasa atenci&#x00F3;n a las situaciones reales de injusticia. En cambio, la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado se empieza a desarrollar en nuestros tiempos junto a la aparici&#x00F3;n de las &#x00E9;ticas aplicadas, cuyo cometido es plantear problemas reales y concretos en escenarios sociales diversos. En todas ellas, lo que importa es el contexto, la situaci&#x00F3;n singular, m&#x00E1;s que la teor&#x00ED;a e incluso m&#x00E1;s que los principios. Son &#x00E9;ticas <italic>de casos,</italic> que parten del supuesto de que no existen soluciones v&#x00E1;lidas para todas las situaciones por similares que parezcan. Considerar el valor &#x00E9;tico del cuidado conlleva de por s&#x00ED; una pretensi&#x00F3;n de universalidad, como ocurre con todos los valores &#x00E9;ticos. La emergencia actual de la dimensi&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica de los cuidados, tradicionalmente desempe&#x00F1;ados por mujeres, no puede entenderse como una guerra de sexos. Se trata de hacer patentes disposiciones y actividades mantenidas en la sombra durante siglos. De reivindicar pr&#x00E1;cticas imprescindibles no reconocidas y desigualmente repartidas.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-11-27817-es" sec-type="conclusion">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></bold></title>
<p>El modelo actual de <italic>progreso</italic> se apoya en relatos caducos y falsos mitos que ense&#x00F1;an modelos insostenibles para la vida en el planeta porque perpet&#x00FA;an la desigualdad y la dominaci&#x00F3;n. En este sentido, las instituciones -como tambi&#x00E9;n lo son las instituciones universitarias- que realmente quieran situar la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado en el centro de sus pol&#x00ED;ticas de calidad, han de tener en cuenta la necesidad de hacer expl&#x00ED;citos ciertos elementos del cuidado que de otro modo no se dicen y que en demasiadas ocasiones siguen d&#x00E1;ndose por sentados en otros entornos como el entorno familiar; es decir, han de revisar cr&#x00ED;ticamente c&#x00F3;mo se gestiona el poder, el prop&#x00F3;sito y la pluralidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27817-es">Tronto, 2010</xref>). As&#x00ED;, cuidado y justicia se podr&#x00E1;n articular de tal manera que los tiempos y las oportunidades vitales se reajusten para hacer posible la democratizaci&#x00F3;n del cuidado, las condiciones de justicia para realizarlas, y la corresponsabilidad en los impactos que genera. Consideramos que esta manera de entender la dimensi&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica y pol&#x00ED;tica en el quehacer universitario resulta m&#x00E1;s hol&#x00ED;stica e integradora de la complejidad.</p>
<p>La &#x00E9;tica del cuidado nos ofrece herramientas conceptuales y metodol&#x00F3;gicas para articular relatos que visualizan y problematizan con la madurez suficiente el hecho de la vulnerabilidad humana y del planeta. Necesitamos ejemplos inspiradores como el desarrollado por AAEEER (<italic>Australasian Association for Environmental Education Emerging Researchers</italic>). Este colectivo de estudiantes de posgrado e investigadoras inician su carrera profesional participando en una colaboraci&#x00F3;n que consideran genuinamente amable, alegre y solidaria; y que les da la oportunidad de experimentar un esfuerzo colectivo no jer&#x00E1;rquico y no ego&#x00ED;sta en la creaci&#x00F3;n de conocimiento. Apuestan por utilizar la narraci&#x00F3;n - como una pr&#x00E1;ctica de habitar el concepto &#x0022;Chthulu&#x0022; acu&#x00F1;ado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27817-es">Donna Haraway (2016)</xref> a trav&#x00E9;s de pr&#x00E1;cticas y acciones que les convierten en agentes de cambio dentro de la academia. En sus propias palabras: &#x0022;Jugamos con <italic>Chthulu</italic> como una figuraci&#x00F3;n, como una herramienta de narraci&#x00F3;n para abrir posibilidades de contar diferentes historias, para permitir diferentes formas de relacionarse&#x0022; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27817-es">AAEEER <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>, p. 149).</p>
<p>Defendemos que la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado es un elemento catalizador capaz de revertir el aislamiento social y el miedo, y as&#x00ED; crear conexiones para superar el modelo dominante. Desde las epistemolog&#x00ED;as y pr&#x00E1;cticas de la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado, los problemas no se reducen a un conjunto de algoritmos, hechos o datos alejados de los lazos relacionales y situacionales donde se producen. Necesitamos reconstruir las formas de participaci&#x00F3;n para la construcci&#x00F3;n de una democracia que tenga en cuenta las necesidades reales de todas las personas y reoriente la forma de entender la empleabilidad en las universidades. Parte del reto que tenemos por delante es comprender la necesidad de gestionar con prudencia nuestra propia vulnerabilidad y activar modelos educativos, sociales, cient&#x00ED;ficos, empresariales, laborales, fiscales y econ&#x00F3;micos innovadores.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn1"><label>1.</label> <p>Se agradece la financiaci&#x00F3;n del Ministerio de Ciencia, Innovaci&#x00F3;n y Universidades a trav&#x00E9;s de los proyectos: &#x201C;<italic>La alfabetizaci&#x00F3;n ecosocial: un elemento central en los procesos de sostenibilizaci&#x00F3;n curricular para el logro de la Agenda 2030 (ODS) en la formaci&#x00F3;n inicial del profesorado</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2009-07173); y &#x201C;<italic>Aprendizaje-servicio (ApS) y empleabilidad de los estudiantes universitarios en Espa&#x00F1;a: competencias para la inserci&#x00F3;n laboral</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-82629-R). As&#x00ED; como la financiaci&#x00F3;n del Ministerio de Econom&#x00ED;a, Industria y Competitividad a trav&#x00E9;s del proyecto: &#x201C;<italic>Dise&#x00F1;o operativo de la competencia &#x201C;aprender a aprender&#x201D; para los grados universitarios. Instrumentos de evaluaci&#x00F3;n y propuestas para la ense&#x00F1;anza</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-83284-R).</p></fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title><bold>R<sc>eferencias</sc> B<sc>ibliogr&#x00E1;ficas</sc></bold></title>
    <ref id="ref-2-27817-es"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><collab>AAEEER</collab> <string-name><surname>Verlie</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></string-name> <string-name><surname>Emery</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></string-name> <string-name><surname>Osborn</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></string-name> <string-name><surname>Beasy</surname> <given-names>K.</given-names></string-name> <string-name><surname>Coleman</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></string-name> <string-name><surname>Kezabu</surname> <given-names>K.</given-names></string-name> <string-name><surname>Nicholls</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></string-name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <article-title>Becoming Researchers: Making Academic Kin in the Chthulucene</article-title> <source><italic>Australian Journal of Environmental Education</italic></source> <volume>33</volume><issue>3</issue> <fpage>145</fpage><lpage>59</lpage> <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1017/aee.2017.24">https://doi.org/10.1017/aee.2017.24</ext-link></element-citation>
        <mixed-citation>AAEEER, Verlie, B., Emery, S., Osborn, M., Beasy, K., Coleman, B., Kezabu, K., &#x0026; Nicholls, J. (2017). Becoming Researchers: Making Academic Kin in the Chthulucene. <italic>Australian Journal of Environmental Education</italic> <italic>33</italic>(3), 145&#x2013;59. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1017/aee.2017.24">https://doi.org/10.1017/aee.2017.24</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27817</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27817</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>UNIVERSITY AND SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY FROM CARE ETHICS<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn01"><sup>1</sup></xref></article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>Universidad y sostenibilidad social desde la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>V&#x00C1;ZQUEZ-VERDERA</surname>
<given-names>Victoria</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01">*</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<name>
<surname>ESC&#x00C1;MEZ-S&#x00C1;NCHEZ</surname>
<given-names>Juan</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff02">**</xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c02"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff01">
<label>*</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Valencia. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Valencia</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4364-3893">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4364-3893</ext-link>
</aff>
<aff id="aff02">
<label>**</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Cat&#x00F3;lica de Valencia</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
<ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4159-2431">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4159-2431</ext-link>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c01"><email>toya.vazquez@uv.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c02"><email>juan.escamez@uv.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>34</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<fpage>141</fpage>
<lpage>158</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>28</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>21</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>License CC BY-NC-ND. Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-NoDerivate Works 4.0 International University of Salamanca. Its commercialization is subject to the permission of the publisher</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>The mission of the university includes rising to the challenges of each historical moment, and, as far as teaching is concerned, offering rigorous and up-to-date training in each specific professional profile. The aim of this article is to consider and reflect on which narratives, old promises and false myths are unsustainable because they perpetuate waste, inequality and domination. In order to identify the current challenges, in this article we use the critical hermeneutics ethodology. This allows us to establish that inequality, exclusion, climate injustice, neo-liberal imperialism, corruption, destruction of the biosphere and many other problems are the consequence of unsustainable models. The article discusses which other perspectives and narratives might offer better tools for moving towards social sustainability.</p>
<p>We conclude that the university can find in care ethics catalysing elements to nurture the transition towards sustainability and social justice. This is a relational ethics capable of creating connections to overcome the dominant impositions, isolation and fear that silence certain voices. We need a university education that reconstructs these silences and activates forms of competent professional participation (in ethical and technical terms). In this way, we will be in a better position to build a democracy that takes into account the real needs of all people and reorients educational, social, scientific, business, labour, fiscal and economic models to achieve the shift towards the sustainability that we need.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>La misi&#x00F3;n de la universidad incluye el dar respuesta a los retos de cada momento hist&#x00F3;rico; y, en lo que concierne a la docencia, ofrecer una formaci&#x00F3;n rigurosa y actualizada en cada perfil profesional espec&#x00ED;fico. El objetivo del art&#x00ED;culo es plantear y reflexionar sobre qu&#x00E9; relatos, viejas promesas, y falsos mitos resultan insostenibles porque perpet&#x00FA;an el despilfarro, la desigualdad y la dominaci&#x00F3;n Para identificar cu&#x00E1;les son los retos actuales, en este art&#x00ED;culo utilizamos el m&#x00E9;todo de la hermen&#x00E9;utica-cr&#x00ED;tica. Lo que nos permite desentra&#x00F1;ar que la desigualdad, la exclusi&#x00F3;n, la injustica clim&#x00E1;tica, el imperialismo neoliberal, la corrupci&#x00F3;n, la destrucci&#x00F3;n de la biosfera y otros tantos problemas son consecuencia de modelos insostenibles. El art&#x00ED;culo analiza qu&#x00E9; otras perspectivas y relatos podr&#x00ED;an ofrecer mejores herramientas para avanzar hacia la sostenibilidad social.</p>
<p>Concluimos afirmando que la universidad puede encontrar en la &#x00E9;tica del cuidado elementos catalizadores para nutrir la transici&#x00F3;n hacia la sostenibilidad y la justicia social. Se trata de una &#x00E9;tica relacional capaz de crear conexiones para superar las imposiciones dominantes, el aislamiento social y los miedos que silencian ciertas voces. Necesitamos una formaci&#x00F3;n universitaria que reconstruya estos silencios y que active formas de participaci&#x00F3;n profesional competente (en t&#x00E9;rminos &#x00E9;ticos y t&#x00E9;cnicos). As&#x00ED;, estaremos en mejores condiciones para construir una democracia que tenga en cuenta las necesidades reales de todas las personas y reoriente los modelos educativos, sociales, cient&#x00ED;ficos, empresariales, laborales, fiscales y econ&#x00F3;micos para conseguir el viraje hacia la sostenibilidad que necesitamos.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>care ethics</kwd>
<kwd>sustainability</kwd>
<kwd>university</kwd>
<kwd>employability</kwd>
<kwd>social justice</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>&#x00E9;tica del cuidado</kwd>
<kwd>sostenibilidad</kwd>
<kwd>universidad</kwd>
<kwd>empleabilidad</kwd>
<kwd>justicia social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<funding-group>
<award-group id="award01">
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>EDU2009-07173</award-id>
</award-group>
<award-group id="award02">
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>EDU2017-82629-R</award-id>
</award-group>
<award-group id="award03">
<funding-source>
<institution-wrap>
<institution>Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities</institution>
</institution-wrap>
</funding-source>
<award-id>EDU2017-83284-R</award-id>
</award-group>
<funding-statement>This work was supported by funding from Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities. through the following projects: &#x201C;<italic>Ecosocial literacy: a central element in curriculum sustainability processes to achieve the Agenda 2030 SDG in initial teacher training</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2009-07173); and &#x201C;<italic>Service-learning and the employability of university students in Spain: competences for workplace integration</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-82629-R). And funding from Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the project: &#x201C;<italic>Operational design for the &#x2018;learning to learn&#x2019; competence for university degrees. Assessment instruments and teaching proposals</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-83284-R).</funding-statement>
</funding-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-27817-Eng" sec-type="introduction">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
    <p>The objectives of universities include preparing people for employment, as well as educating in the ethical dimension of a critical citizenship and familiarising students with the cultural and historical roots of the tradition in which they are embedded. There is also a fundamental objective of providing training in the competences of the professional profile of each specific qualification. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27817-en">Ortega y Gasset in his celebrated work <italic>Misi&#x00F3;n de la Universidad</italic></xref> [Mission of the university] bases his argument on the claim that the university should train technically and ethically competent professionals and teach culture. By culture, he means the system of vital ideas each period possesses:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>These ideas, which I call vital or lived, are no more and no less than the repertoire of our true convictions about what the world is and our fellow beings are, about the hierarchy of values of things and actions: which are estimable and which are not. (Ortega, 1930, p. 341, own translation)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>It is important to adopt a critical stance when facing these vital ideas to analyse whether we agree with them or should reject them because they do not respond to the needs of our lives. What are the vital ideas of this first quarter of the twenty-first century that should be rigorously analysed? What are the challenges of the twenty-first century that the university should critically question? In our view, these are: the dominance of the economy; globalisation; the knowledge society; digitalisation and artificial intelligence; the complexity and multicultural nature of our societies; inequality; public disaffection with the powers of the state and the institutions that wield them; the sustainability of economic, social and environmental systems; and concerns about the fragility of the world and human vulnerability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27817-en">Esc&#x00E1;mez &#x0026; Peris, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>The university is currently called upon to exercise leadership in the digital and ecological transition. But the question of social sustainability is not free from ethical conflicts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27817-en">Franck &#x0026; Osbeck, 2018</xref>). There is an increasingly clear need to change the current model of <italic>progress</italic> and move towards one that is more sustainable for the life of people and the planet we inhabit.</p>
<p>From the university sector we can contribute elements for reconsidering which model of <italic>progress</italic> puts us in the best position for a universal common good, how to guide teaching and research methods, where to attract funding that generates social justice, and also ask ourselves to whose benefit we work. Part of the challenge we face is understanding that to reverse the devastating effects of the model of <italic>progress</italic> that has led us to our current position, we need to hear other voices that make it possible to understand and appreciate other interpretations and other narratives that enable prudent management of our own vulnerability and the activation of innovative social, business, work, tax and economic models.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>How can we motivate students to critically reflect on human centeredness and the interdependency of living and non-living things? How can we encourage learners to identify and question their own values, beliefs, and/or worldviews underpinning anthropocentric practices and lifestyles? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27817-en">Tillmanns, 2020</xref>, p.14)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27817-en">Hans Jonas (1995)</xref> speaks of the ethical void of our time. Ethics must exist. And they must exist because people and human organisations act, and ethics exist to order actions and control their power. The more powerful the action they must control, the more the need for them to exist. Therefore, new capacities for action require new ethical rules and perhaps a new ethics. It is vital to consider how to stimulate other ways of managing ourselves at both the macro and micro levels, since the health of people and the health of the planet are two elements in reciprocal interaction.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The purpose of development is to improve the life of individuals and that individuals are not the instruments of economic development, on the contrary, economic development should function and be an instrument in service of human beings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-27817-en">Yoo, Mosrur, Lee &#x0026; Toca Andrea, 2019</xref>, p. 269).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>It is increasingly common to encounter works that find elements of interest in care ethics for the developing their lines of research in university settings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27817-en">Aloni, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27817-en">Bozalek, McMillan, Marshall, November, Daniels &#x0026; Sylvester, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27817-en">Bergland, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27817-en">Done, Murphy, &#x0026; Knowler, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27817-en">Gachago, &#x0026; Livingston, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27817-en">Lolich, &#x0026; Lynch, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27817-en">Lottero-Perdue, &#x0026; Settlage, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27817-en">Lu, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-27817-en">V&#x00E1;zquez, 2019</xref>). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27817-en">Joan Tronto (2015)</xref> notes that although we usually think of the sphere of care and the sphere of politics as separate and requiring different logics, in reality they both have political implications.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-27817-Eng" sec-type="method">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>M<sc>ethodology for interpreting the problems addressed in this article</sc></bold></title>
<p>To address the question of whether care ethics can offer other narratives or interpretations about which living ideas or challenges currently need our attention, we used hermeneutic criticism. Research methods must fit the object being researched. However, research methods nowadays seem to have become enshrined in themselves, turning into unquestionable dogmas with insufficient rigour for understanding the complexity of the human being. Two methods appear to vie for predominance in the study of the person: a) mentalism, which does not consider the data provided by current neurobiological sciences; and b) naturalism, which reduces knowledge of what is human to contributions from the empirical natural sciences (such as neurosciences).</p>
    <p>In our opinion, both of these methods are reductionist. We share the theses advocated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27817-en">Jes&#x00FA;s Conill (2019</xref>, p. 190) when he argues that we must take the natural, social, historical and human sciences into account when interpreting the human being if we are to understand it. This method, which he calls hermeneutic criticism, has a strong tradition in modern anthropology (Taylor, Ricoeur, MacIntyre, Apel, Habermas) and in the thought of Spanish authors such as Ortega y Gasset and in particular <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-27817-en">Zubiri whose book <italic>Sobre el hombre</italic> [On man] (1986)</xref> brings together many of his writings on the connection between philosophy and science, which Ignacio Ellacur&#x00ED;a, Pedro La&#x00ED;n, Diego Gracia and L&#x00F3;pez Aranguren later covered in more depth in their attempts to provide a biological foundation for ethics.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>In short, Zubiri&#x2019;s noological path and the hermeneutic criticism of Apel, Habermas and Cortina are more productive for interpreting the reality of the human person than the reductionism of naturalist positivism with its excess faith in science or Heidegger&#x2019;s phenomenological factualism, which is disconnected from scientific thinking and he world of values (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27817-en">Conill, 2019</xref>, p. 216).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Hermeneutic criticism helps introduce the possibility of different interpretations, as well as analysis of concrete situations, to produce reflections of and from other interpretations and narratives.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27817-en">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>W<sc>hat concerns the people who form part of universities?</sc></bold></title>
<p>A growing number of initiatives in the field of university teaching consider care ethics, which are manifested in research, conferences and teaching innovation projects (for example: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27817-en">Mut, V&#x00E1;zquez &#x0026; Belda, 2021</xref>). In general, it is apparent that students and teachers alike are concerned with being able to meet the requirements that the employment and university context currently impose regarding accountability and competitiveness, but they also want to find a meaning for their endeavour in relational terms. Accordingly, a cross-sectional study in three higher education institutions in Dublin (Ireland) that explored students&#x2019; aspirations found that the three most highly valued factors were &#x201C;becoming an expert in my field&#x201D;, &#x201C;helping other who have difficulties&#x201D; and &#x201C;starting a family&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27817-en">Lolich &#x0026; Lynch, 2017</xref>). With regards to teachers, studies have also shown that there are proposals among university teachers to resist neo-liberal university cultures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27817-en">Done, Murphy &#x0026; Knowler, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>A study at a Spanish university based on in-depth interviews with 40 people transitioning from university to the world of work in different areas of knowledge (healthcare, engineering and architecture, social and legal sciences, arts and humanities) gives an account of several of the mechanisms that prevent full inclusion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27817-en">Tenorio, Gonz&#x00E1;lez &#x0026; Padilla, 2021</xref>): The subjects of this research identify a need to undo versions of employability that are pervaded by neo-liberal imperatives and to reveal the underlying mechanisms that reproduce relations of power and go against the true mission of the university.</p>
<p>On the same lines, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27817-en">Tronto (2017)</xref> also reflects on neo-liberalism&#x0027;s impact on how we organise our individual and collective lives, and how liberalism ensures that the shortfalls we face in satisfying demands for care are treated as individual failings rather than failures of collective responsibility. Accordingly, she identifies several limitations of neo-liberal culture for meeting the needs of citizens: there is a reluctance to accept responsibility for anything that is not one&#x2019;s own; the ability to think of care outside the home is restricted; and market and instrumentalist rationales eclipse people&#x2019;s most real aspirations.</p>
<p>It is necessary to review epistemological and axiological suppositions and go into greater depth in making human vulnerability and interdependencies visible at the planetary and interpersonal level (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27817-en">Bonnett, 2017</xref>). The lack of recognition of our reciprocal interdependencies cannot continue. Disregard for care work results in a lack of democracy. The disdain for the time needed for replenishment in natural cycles (such as hydrocarbon deposits, minerals, clean water, pollination, etc.) or towards the impacts of pollution and harmful emissions are a consequence of our vanity. We need to appreciate that the <italic>externalities</italic> of our economic metabolism result in and are the cause of destruction and poverty. Economic models that appropriate what they regard as free and infinite natural resources are outmoded. So, the challenges that the circular economy must overcome from care ethics are also being considered (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27817-en">Pla-Juli&#x00E1;n &#x0026; Guevara, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Ultimately, people are increasingly concerned by all of these questions relating to our environmental and inter-dependencies, not just in university management policies but also in research questions, and curriculum content, methodologies and competences. Participation by universities must include a very dense fabric of thought, affect, reflection and commitment, which until now has been underappreciated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27817-en">Lim&#x00F3;n, Sol&#x00ED;s &#x0026; Pab&#x00F3;n, 2021</xref>). This type of wisdom must be recognised as a human cultural creation and dedicated to all of the flow of knowledge of humankind.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-27817-en">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>are ethics</sc></bold></title>
<p>In view of the above, we find the anthropological model of the <italic>homo curans</italic> proposed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27817-en">Tronto (2017)</xref> especially interesting. A narrative or interpretation of the human being as a relational being traversed by care, which compels a type of relations based on reciprocal recognition. Constructing a type of link that makes invisibility, disregard and indifference impossible. Recognition of the dignity in each human being motivates us to seek alliances in order to sustain life and jointly confront the vulnerability we share. There are initiatives that call for another way of being and doing (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27817-en">Bergland, 2018</xref>). We can work to build a university that brings us closer to the everyday issues that concern us as humankind, and make the work of universities into something aimed at creating the social, political, environmental and economic conditions that enable us to live in way that is more human and shows more respect for sustainability. It is a matter of understanding that calling for a model of democracy that matches up to people&#x2019;s real needs requires the democratisation of care.</p>
<p>According to the dictionary of the Royal Spanish Academy (1984), the semantics of the word <italic>cuidar</italic> (to care) &#x2013; which it shares with the related words <italic>cuidado</italic> (care), <italic>cuidadoso</italic> (careful), <italic>cuidador</italic> (carer) and <italic>cuidadosamente</italic> (carefully) &#x2013; refer to the diligence and attention that are necessary to do something well and/or do good for people, society and its institutions, and nature. Fundamentally <italic>caring</italic> involves: a) favourable dispositions or feelings (attitudes) to avoid harming oneself and/or the other and to empower the good of oneself and/or the other; and b) generating actions that react in consequence.</p>
    <p>In her work <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27817-en"><italic>In a Different Voice</italic> (1982), Carol Gilligan</xref> explains how, in the conceptual framework of moral theories, philosophers basically discuss whether ethics are based on reason or on emotion. And moral psychologists speak of the self as a being separated from others and from the world; and they conceive moral development as a transition from dependence to independence. The <italic>different voice</italic> she discovers in her research is one that combines reason and emotion and perceives the self in relation to others and to the world. In people&#x2019;s narratives about moral problems, their lives were connected and were interdependent. From this perspective, the converse of dependence was isolation, which she describes as the great moral and psychological pain of people.</p>
<p>In 1993 Tronto and Berenice Fisher in <italic>Moral Boundaries</italic> identified four principal phases in care: attentiveness, listening, responsibility and responsiveness. In <italic>Caring Democracy. Markets, Equality, and Justice</italic> (2013, pp. 34&#x2013;35), Tronto later added a fifth element to these four ethical phases: plurality, communication, trust and respect (or <italic>caring with</italic>). This fifth phase is in some way the consequence of care ethics being a relational ethics; and it is what allows a democratisation in terms of redistributory justice and of the assumption of the collective capacity to act. In a later text, she set out these five phases:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The first four phases of care imagined a citizen as someone who is attentive, responsible, competent, and responsive; &#x201C;caring-with&#x201D; is our new democratic ideal. What makes care equal is not the perfection of an individual caring act, but that we can trust that over time, we will be able to reciprocate the care we received from fellow citizens, and that they will reciprocate the care we&#x2019;ve given to them. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27817-en">Tronto, 2015</xref>, p. 14)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The five phases in the practice of care are the beacons (or the compass) that can guide this change in narrative that we need. Hermeneutic criticism of different texts and experiences enables us to offer other interpretations of and from voices that remained subordinated until recently.</p>
<sec id="sec-5-27817-en">
<label>4.1.</label>
<title><italic>Cultivation of feelings</italic></title>
<p>Care ethics implies attention and respect for the vulnerable other and for a fragile world. The first phase of this ethics is sensitivity to the needs that are revealed to us, which demand attention and not indifference in a historical period in which a narcissistic and pathologically enlarged self prevails and is cultivated and exploited by neo-liberal relations of production to increase productivity, regardless of any deleterious effects this might have for other people and for the Earth. Therefore, in science, technology and society as fields of research, attention is also being drawn to the need to take activist feelings into account; consequently, the political dimension of these areas of research has been recognised and a four-stage model for socio-political action has been developed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27817-en">Hodson, 2020</xref>). And also, the experience developed in the area of engineering to introduce affective experiences and care ethics (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27817-en">Lottero-Perdue &#x0026; Settlage, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Wishes, feelings, emotions, what classical thinkers called passions, are fundamental for care. At present, the so-called socio-emotional competences are demanding a central position in the formation of university curricula. And they are even linked to serving the community (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27817-en">Santos Rego, Mella-N&#x00FA;&#x00F1;ez &#x0026; Garc&#x00ED;a-&#x00C1;lvarez, 2021</xref>). Tending towards other things is typical of any living being, and this tendency always has basic affective signals: pleasure, pain, happiness and sadness, affection and fear. They are the basis of the most elemental psychological activity. Human beings are inhabitants of this Earth, and everything they do and seek is loaded with passions. It is necessary to go back to consider life starting from the other and from what is other, prioritising it in relations with the self.</p>
<p>Respectful attention transforms what seemed like merely an example of the human species into a unique person; nothing in it is now banal; a slight smile can reveal more than the conduct of a whole life. In each of the beings that care and are cared for, attention multiplies the wealth of the world; it is no longer one world but rather two worlds in connection; the comprehension of reality acquires a dimension of profundity. When we respect the other, we recognise its personal identity as its own, original and non-transferable. Only in this way is it possible for the cared-for person to be considered as an end in itself and not a means to achieve an end, to recognise the person&#x2019;s dignity and autonomy to be and act in accordance with values that are worth the effort are recognised. Only people capable of caring for themselves can care for others; only people with self-respect and who value themselves can respect and value others. To feel and understand other people, it is necessary to have a clear awareness of one&#x2019;s own personal dignity. So, the &#x201C;forgetting of the vital&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27817-en">Gil y Navajas, 2021</xref>, own translation) is questioned.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-27817-en">
<label>4.2.</label>
<title><italic>Listening</italic></title>
<p>An attitude of listening is therefore necessary as a second phase in care ethics. Care ethics insists on the need to listen to those who need care. It is an ethics of cases, in which each cared-for person presents his or her specific needs, if the chance to do so arises. Listening is not a passive activity, but a receptive one. It is the only thing that helps other people express their true thoughts. In a way, listening precedes the word.</p>
    <p>Listening also has a public dimension as participation in the existence of others, in their happiness and their suffering. It is what links and mediates between people so that they form a community. The patriarchy&#x2019;s strategy of command involves privatisation of care, preventing its socialisation and politicisation or its move from the private to the public (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27817-en">Han, 2017</xref>). Nonetheless, the political will to shape a public space, a community of listening, the political set of listeners is now questioned. In her work <italic><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27817-en">In a Different Voice</xref></italic> and in her publications from <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-27817-en">2013</xref> on care ethics Gilligan speaks up against this situation. The true voices of women and children regarding moral development are not heard because they are voices that do not espouse the interests of hierarchisation and of power of the patriarchy. Nor are voices heard that are differ from or contradict those that defend hierarchical structures and power in social relations and in normalised research protocols.</p>
<p>Universities are ideal places for liberating one&#x2019;s own voice and for examining the narratives that surround us with value and critical thinking. Authors like <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27817-en">Stein (2019</xref>, p. 199) invite us to listen to the voices of decolonial thinking to &#x201C;rethink the stories we tell ourselves about climate change, higher education and our horizons for hope&#x201D;. She suggests that a transformative education should enable and encourage respectful and critical listening to students, organisations and citizens in general in order to question ideas and narratives of modernity that perpetuate a false idea of certainty and predictability, or a right to control or unlimited growth without taking into account the limits of expropriation or exploitation. She suggests listening to different interpretations, which question the narratives of meritocracy, monolithic thinking or absolute independence.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-27817-en">
<label>4.3.</label>
<title><italic>The responsibility to take charge</italic></title>
<p>The third phase in care ethics involves arguing for the responsibility to satisfy the needs of those who require care. This is the antidote to ethical theories centred on personal interest and to the construction of an autonomous self that closes in on itself and ignores the protection, attention and help that all rational beings, and indeed living beings and the Earth as a whole, need as contingent and vulnerable beings.</p>
<p>In Gilligan&#x2019;s view, ethics cannot be understood only in terms of logical reasoning as happens in moral debates on hypothetical dilemmas; this is Gilligan&#x2019;s criticism of her teacher Kohlberg and of Rawls&#x2019; <italic>Theory of Justice</italic>, which forms the basis of the thinking of moral liberalism. Among the deficiencies of liberalism, two are especially important: a) it has been unable to contemplate fragility and vulnerability as a reality innate to each person, to human societies and their institutions, to the biotic community and to the earth; b) it poses moral questions or problems referring to abstract, disembodied, faceless individuals. Ethics must at the same time be a way of responding to the needs of others who address us from their fragility (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27817-en">Camps, 2021</xref>). Care ethics pose real problems of specific people in specific situations. Based on them, it is harder to disregard the lives that count for little in the current dominant ethical, political and economic theories: precarious lives whose exploitation is not perceived, the lives of those who have no voice because they lack the rights of citizens.</p>
<p>For example, in the context of Portuguese universities, there are voices that call attention to the role and impact of engineering in contemporary society; something that makes it necessary to rethink the teaching of the areas of knowledge it includes to reinforce its objective of being at the service of humankind and the common good (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27817-en">Monteiro <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). These studies have shown that the dominant conception centres on an economic vision of engineering and professionals that leaves out the sense of connection to humankind, social justice and the common good. Another example in the context of universities in South Africa is that provided by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-27817-en">Bozalek and Zembylas (2017</xref>, p. 64) in what they called response-able pedagogies. These are &#x201C;ethico-political practices which incorporate a relational ontology into teaching and learning activities and thus extend their transformative potential&#x201D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-27817-en">
<label>4.4.</label>
<title><italic>The urgency of generating specific programmes for care</italic></title>
<p>The fourth phase of care is the urgency of the response to the needs expressed by the people who need care. The importance of this phase of care has not been sufficiently evidenced. Many examples could be given. We often read or hear news stories such as: a) a hundred thousand people from city X are on the waiting list for an operation; b) hospitals in city Y have been unable to treat old people in care homes for Covid-19; c) there is famine in State Z owing to drought or civil war; d) the leaders of the world&#x2019;s major countries have committed to restricting global warming to 1.5 degrees by 2030, etc. Nonetheless, commitments to reduce severe poverty, effectively implement human rights, welcome migrants, ensure real equality of women and men in accessing jobs, mitigate climate change and so on that are proposed in speeches and the declarations signed by the political leaders of governments and international institutions are not accompanied by effective economic commitments that make it possible to fulfil these promises to care for specific people.</p>
<p>The perspective of care ethics draws attention to the fact that we always need certain material and physical conditions if we are to flourish in accordance with our needs and interests. In the twenty-first century, we still work with outmoded narratives about an abstract human being detached from any type of biological or affective need. The ideal of human self-sufficiency undervalues unpaid activities that make a major contribution to the economies of countries and the well-being of their citizens, but are invisible in economic statistics and national accounts because they take place outside the market.</p>
    <p>Nonetheless, we consider that care is the great invisible wealth of modern economies, even though it is not distributed not by free agreement but by strong social pressures. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27817-en">Dur&#x00E1;n (2018)</xref> has shown, based on the Encuesta sobre Cuidados a Dependientes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-27817-en">EDAD, Survey on Caring for Dependants, 2008</xref>) carried out in Spain, the work of caring takes its toll on the people who do most of it and it separates them from the workforce. A quarter of Spain&#x2019;s population cannot even consider the possibility of working outside the home: 13 % have had to leave employment, 9 % have reduced their working hours and 22 % have had some other type of problem with work. Households have fallen back on their own unpaid caring resources in response to their needs, and this labour almost always falls to women. This is their wealth and the invisible wealth of the country. Nonetheless, this resource is very often not sufficient, and care must be obtained from public services, volunteers or the market. To buy care on the market, households need income (revenue) or wealth (assets). For 70 % of households, it is impossible to pay a full-time carer (at the national minimum wage) as this would absorb over a third of household income. For the young, the unemployed, old people or migrants this proportion of their income is even higher. If care needs are prioritised to guarantee the well-being of the population, it is necessary to develop new economic perspectives that are not based on unpaid work by women, and new services that are accessible to the majority of homes.</p>
<p>Research projects and sustainability projects have to go beyond obsolete models or narratives so that the actions implemented do not perpetuate the status quo, diluting current urgent needs in programmes that only offer an apparent search for sustainability, without addressing the contradictions. A recent study identified several contradictions that continue to be perpetuated, and which involve narratives counter to the change we need (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27817-en">Stratford &#x0026; Wals, 2020</xref>, p. 989): hiding which current models of economic growth cause the destruction of the environment; claiming that the &#x201C;usual education&#x201D; is sufficient; not expanding education for citizenship to global education for peace and inclusion; not investing in training teachers; not putting an end to tax evasion by companies and eliminating subsidies for fossil fuels; denigrating non-hegemonic types of knowledge and traditional local knowledge; not changing study and governance plans; not incentivising universities to produce professionals and research that tackle large-scale systemic challenges through creative thinking and problem-solving; resisting full economic participation by women or minority groups.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-27817-en">
<label>4.5.</label>
<title><italic>The democratisation of care</italic></title>
<p>Authors like <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27817-en">Esteban (2017)</xref> have observed that the organisation of the labour of physical and emotional care for people corresponds to a particular form of social and economic organisation that plans modes of production and socialisation in which women are pushed towards reproduction and caring for others, and men towards producing goods for the market. In other words, the work of caregiving has traditionally been allocated following hierarchical and relational schemes of power that have released certain people from the work of caring based on their gender, class, race or financial situation. On occasion, a situation can even arise in which the people who do the work of caring use their power in the form of tyranny and emotional blackmail towards the people for whom they &#x201C;care&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27817-en">Kittay, 1999</xref>).</p>
<p>Tronto suggests altering the conceptualisation of care as something that only involves the carer and the person who receives the care, to broaden the focus. In this way, we can approach with better guarantees the complexity of the underlying social and structural situations and dynamics:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>I consider the claim that an important part of democratic caring concerns the breaking down of hierarchical relationships. One starting point for doing so is to undermine the logic of care as dyadic. Care rarely happens between two people, only. And to create opportunities to &#x201C;triangulate&#x201D; care also creates opportunities to break up a relentless hierarchy of power. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27817-en">Tronto, 2013</xref>, p. 153)</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Too often the people who care for vulnerable people become more vulnerable themselves, owing to stress, reduced job security, reduced income and the impact on their own health. This happens because the work of caring is feminised, domesticated and made invisible. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27817-en">Tronto (1993)</xref> developed the concept of <italic>privileged irresponsibility</italic> to describe how the division of work along gender lines and hegemonic social values allows certain individuals to excuse themselves from accepting basic caring responsibilities. We can expand this definition to the unwillingness governments, institutions and businesses have shown and continue to show to acknowledge the reality that all people are vulnerable and that we have a responsibility to take charge individually and collectively for our own vulnerability and that of others. Accordingly, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27817-en">Selma Sevenhuijsen (2003</xref>, p. 194) warned of the need to construct new ethical and political frameworks:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Care, as a democratic practice, assumes that the moral orientation of care is part of our daily moral and mental <italic>habitus</italic>. In this respect, caring citizenship includes the right to have time to care, to make, on a daily basis, a place for care.</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Therefore, it is necessary to position care as a public good and a civic responsibility. Locating care in the framework of a civil ethics that includes joint responsibility is a mechanism that would prevent mismanagement of the needs for care from resulting in poverty and social and gender injustice. We must reconsider &#x2013; critically and in the light of outmoded binary, market and patriarchal rationales &#x2013; what options are offered to us to resolve care; and what we want and can expect from a truly democratic society. With this intention and in the context of Spain, proposals to implement a system based on the universal right to sufficient care are very interesting (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27817-en">Mart&#x00ED;nez, Rold&#x00E1;n &#x0026; Sastre, 2018</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-27817-Eng" sec-type="discussion">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>iscussion</sc></bold></title>
<p>The hermeneutic criticism of the crisis of care in its five ethical phases leads us to consider the discussion of whether the narrative of care ethics could be a catalyst for generating other ways of being and doing university. To approach this question, the contributions that have come from rigorous research from a variety of perspectives in recent years are very stimulating. From the legal perspective, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27817-en">Pau (2020)</xref> questions whether there is any legal reason to contrast the ethics of justice with care ethics; and in response develops an argument based on the principle of equality. He analyses how the principle of equality and the principle of care are complementary yet contrasting. The principle of equality calls for equal treatment for all, while the principle of care calls for the opposite: unequal treatment. The reason why these are two contrasting principles is that the former is an objective, abstract, universal principle, since it refers to all people in general, while the latter is a subjective, concrete, particular principle, as it refers to each person in its irrepressible individuality.</p>
<p>Unlike the principle of equality, which is based on the autonomy of all people, the principle of care is based on the opposing premise: the dependence and vulnerability of all of them. The principle of care involves treating all people in accordance with their needs as individuals at each specific moment in their lives. For Pau, both the principle of equality and the principle of care should be framed within a single ethics of justice. There is no reason to set the ethics of justice against care ethics: care is also due in justice. Legislative provisions should include the duty of care. These courageous approaches are not currently usual, as the bombastic speeches at international events and the declarations and agreements that world political leaders sign are not accompanied by economic commitments.</p>
<p>From the ethical perspective, Cortina, a renowned moral thinker of Kantian filiation, in her book <italic>&#x00C9;tica cosmopolita. Un apuesta por la cordura en tiempos de pandemia</italic> [Cosmopolitan ethics: a bet for sanity in times of pandemic] (2021, p. 40) states that she has spent a number of years designing an ethics of cordial reason, a cordial or compassionate recognition that leads us to concern ourselves with justice, understood not as condescension, but as the capacity to share the happiness and suffering of those who recognise themselves as simultaneously autonomous and vulnerable. She tells us that taking <italic>what is just</italic> seriously does not make sense if this exigency does not emerge from a cordial reason, since we know the truth and justice not just through reasoning, but also through the heart. Therefore, the human virtue par excellence is sanity, in which prudence, justice and <italic>kardia</italic>, the virtue of the lucid heart, come together. She shows us the guidelines for education in cordial ethics using the metaphor of <italic>the dew that soaks the soil</italic>, and she concludes that educating in compassion, in the capacity to be with others and to commit to them, is, in her view, the essential key to the humanist education that should be offered in the 21st century (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27817-en">Cortina, 2021</xref>, pp. 114&#x2013;116).</p>
<p>For her part, Camps in <italic>Tiempos de cuidados. Otra forma de estar en el mundo</italic> [Times of care: another way of being in the world] (2021, pp. 32&#x2013;33), affirms that modern ethics, when focussing on justice, pay scant attention to real situations of injustice. In contrast, care ethics have started to develop in our time along with the appearance of applied ethics, whose mission is to pose real and concrete problems in various social scenarios. In all of them, what matters is the context, the distinctive situation, more than the theory and even more that the principles. They are ethics <italic>of cases</italic> that start from the assumption that no solutions are valid for all situations, however similar they might appear. Considering the ethical value of care involves an attempt at universality, as happens with all ethical values. The current emergence of the ethical dimension of care, traditionally carried out by women, should not be seen as a battle of the sexes. It is a matter of shedding light on arrangements and activities that were kept in the shadows for centuries. Reclaiming essential practices that have not been recognised and are unequally shared.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-11-27817-Eng" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusions</sc></bold></title>
<p>The current model of <italic>progress</italic> is based on obsolete narratives and false myths that teach models that are not compatible with sustaining life on the planet because they perpetuate inequality and domination. In this sense, institutions, including universities, that truly wish to put care ethics at the centre of their quality policies, must take into account the need to make explicit certain elements of care which are otherwise not said and are all too often taken for granted in other settings such as the family; in other words, they must critically review how power is managed, its purpose and plurality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27817-en">Tronto, 2010</xref>). In this way, care and justice could be coordinated so that times and life opportunities are readjusted to permit the democratisation of care, the conditions of justice to attain it, and the joint responsibility in the impacts it generates. We believe that this way of understanding the ethical and political dimension of the work of universities is more holistic and includes complexity.</p>
<p>Care ethics offer us conceptual and methodological tools to articulate narratives that make apparent the fact of the vulnerability of humans and of the planet and identify the problems with it. We need inspiring examples such as the one developed by the AAEEER (<italic>Australasian Association for Environmental Education Emerging Researchers</italic>). This group of postgraduate students and early-career researchers have started out in their professional career by participating in a collaborative project that they regard as genuinely friendly, joyful and supportive, and which gives them the opportunity to experience a collective, non-hierarchical and non-egotistical effort in knowledge-creation. They back the use of narration as a practice of inhabiting the &#x201C;Chthulu&#x201D; concept coined by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27817-en">Donna Haraway (2016)</xref> through practices and actions that turn them into agents for change with academia. In their own words: &#x201C;we play with <italic>Chthulu</italic> as a figuration, as a storytelling tool to open possibilities to telling different stories, to enable different ways of relating&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27817-en">AAEEER <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>, p. 149).</p>
<p>We argue that care ethics is a catalyst that can undo social isolation and fear, and so create connections that go beyond the dominant model. From the epistemologies and practices of care ethics, problems are not reduced to a set of algorithms, facts or data distanced from the relational and situational ties where they occur. We need to reconstruct forms of participation in order to build a democracy that takes into account the real needs of all people and redirects how employability is understood in universities. Part of the challenge we face is to understand the need to manage our own vulnerability prudently and to activate innovative educational, social, scientific, business, work, tax and economic models.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="financial-disclosure" id="fn01"><label>1.</label> <p>This work was supported by funding from Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Science, Innovation, and Universities. through the following projects: &#x201C;<italic>Ecosocial literacy: a central element in curriculum sustainability processes to achieve the Agenda 2030 SDG in initial teacher training</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2009-07173); and &#x201C;<italic>Service-learning and the employability of university students in Spain: competences for workplace integration</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-82629-R). And funding from Spain&#x2019;s Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness through the project: &#x201C;<italic>Operational design for the &#x2018;learning to learn&#x2019; competence for university degrees. Assessment instruments and teaching proposals</italic>&#x201D; (EDU2017-83284-R).</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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