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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27805</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27805</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N ESCINDIDA: PERSPECTIVAS DESDE LA PEDAGOG&#x00CD;A Y LA EDUCACI&#x00D3;N SOCIAL</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>The Rupture of Education: Perspectives From Pedagogy and Social Education</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3678-8277</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>&#x00DA;CAR</surname>
<given-names>Xavier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1"/>
</contrib>
</contrib-group>
<aff id="aff1">
<institution content-type="original">Universitat Aut&#x00F2;noma de Barcelona. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universitat Aut&#x00F2;noma de Barcelona</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1"><email>xavier.ucar@uab.cat</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<elocation-id>e27805</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>26</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>04</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>&#x00BF;Es la educaci&#x00F3;n social un tipo espec&#x00ED;fico y diferenciado de educaci&#x00F3;n? &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; es lo que la diferencia de otros tipos de educaci&#x00F3;n? &#x00BF;Hay alguna educaci&#x00F3;n o pedagog&#x00ED;a que no sea social? &#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo se relacionan la pedagog&#x00ED;a y educaci&#x00F3;n social con esos otros tipos, tambi&#x00E9;n espec&#x00ED;ficos, de educaci&#x00F3;n? Estas son algunas de las preguntas que, desde la perspectiva de la pedagog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n social, orientan el recorrido conceptual e hist&#x00F3;rico que se desarrolla en este trabajo alrededor de lo que hemos caracterizado como escisiones educativas. Se parte de la idea que, al amparo de la perspectiva anal&#x00ED;tica predominante, se han producido a lo largo del pasado siglo, diversas escisiones en el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Se identifican y analizan cuatro escisiones concretas: (a) la que estructura el universo de las acciones educativas en tres &#x00E1;reas: formal, no formal e informal; (b) la que diferencia entre pedagog&#x00ED;a y ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n; (c) la que clasifica tres tipos diferenciados de pedagog&#x00ED;a: la familiar, la escolar y la social; y (d) la que estructura el sector universitario de la educaci&#x00F3;n en las denominadas &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento cient&#x00ED;fico. Se cierra el trabajo con una lectura de las articulaciones que estructuran en la actualidad aquellas escisiones educativas.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Is social education a specific and differentiated type of education? What differentiates it from other types of education? Is there any education or pedagogy that is not social? How are pedagogy and social education related to these other, also specific, types of education? These are some of the questions that guide the conceptual and historical journey undertaken in this work from the perspective of pedagogy and social education, based around what we have characterized as ruptures in education. The underlying idea is that various ruptures have occurred in the field of education over the past century within the framework of the predominant analytical perspective. Four specific ruptures are identified and analyzed: (a) that which classifies the universe of educational actions in three areas: formal, non-formal and informal; (b) the difference between pedagogy and educational sciences; (c) that which identifies three differentiated types of pedagogy: family, school, and social; and (d) that which divides the field of Education at university into so-called areas of scientific knowledge. The work closes with an interpretation of the connections that currently structure these ruptures in education.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave:</italic></title>
<kwd>Pedagog&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n social</kwd>
<kwd>pedagog&#x00ED;a social</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n formal, educaci&#x00F3;n no formal</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n informal</kwd>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n universitaria de grado</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>Pedagogy</kwd>
<kwd>educational sciences</kwd>
<kwd>social education</kwd>
<kwd>social pedagogy</kwd>
<kwd>formal education</kwd>
<kwd>non-formal education</kwd>
<kwd>informal education</kwd>
<kwd>undergraduate university training</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Tras pasar por el t&#x00FA;nel anal&#x00ED;tico son posibles de nuevo formas sint&#x00E9;ticas m&#x00E1;s libres, formas de vida dotadas con un suplemento de poes&#x00ED;a y m&#x00E1;s libertad de movimiento&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27805-Esp">Sloterdijk, 2016</xref>, p. 95).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>&#x00BF;Es la educaci&#x00F3;n social un tipo espec&#x00ED;fico y diferenciado de educaci&#x00F3;n? &#x00BF;En qu&#x00E9; consiste esa especificidad? &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; la diferencia de otros tipos de educaci&#x00F3;n? &#x00BF;Hay alguna educaci&#x00F3;n o pedagog&#x00ED;a que no sea social? &#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo se relacionan la pedagog&#x00ED;a y educaci&#x00F3;n social con esos otros tipos, tambi&#x00E9;n espec&#x00ED;ficos, de educaci&#x00F3;n? Estas son algunas de las preguntas b&#x00E1;sicas que orientan el recorrido conceptual e hist&#x00F3;rico que se va a desarrollar en este trabajo alrededor de lo que hemos caracterizado como escisiones educativas.</p>
<p>Voy a partir de la idea de que la educaci&#x00F3;n y la pedagog&#x00ED;a est&#x00E1;n escindidas o, en otros t&#x00E9;rminos, de que existen muchas educaciones y pedagog&#x00ED;as que, supuestamente, tienen entidad espec&#x00ED;fica en s&#x00ED; mismas y que se diferencian a partir de un conjunto muy diverso de criterios. Una escisi&#x00F3;n es algo m&#x00E1;s que una mera divisi&#x00F3;n o fragmentaci&#x00F3;n a partir de una unidad inicial; es una diferenciaci&#x00F3;n excluyente que, con el paso del tiempo, puede acabar afirmando una identidad propia, espec&#x00ED;fica, constitutiva y diferenciada tanto de la unidad original como de cada uno del resto de objetos escindidos.</p>
<p>Es probable que sea en la Modernidad cuando esta tendencia general a la escisi&#x00F3;n de cualquier fen&#x00F3;meno se plantea de manera m&#x00E1;s clara. Lo hace al amparo de la perspectiva anal&#x00ED;tica que, en aquel momento, parec&#x00ED;a ser el medio m&#x00E1;s actualizado, r&#x00E1;pido y mejor para descubrir y dominar los misterios de la vida (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27805-Esp">Sloterdijk, 2016</xref>). Escindir para precisar, para clarificar, para diferenciar y para comprender. Siempre bajo la premisa, hoy un tanto ingenua, de que el an&#x00E1;lisis lleva al dominio y de que s&#x00F3;lo a trav&#x00E9;s de este &#x00FA;ltimo resulta posible alcanzar un conocimiento profundo y verdadero de las cosas.</p>
<p>Bajo esta perspectiva todo es desmontable, deconstruible y fragmentable. A lo largo de los dos &#x00FA;ltimos siglos, muchas dimensiones y fen&#x00F3;menos de la existencia humana han operado por escisi&#x00F3;n. Todo se deconstruye en aras de un mayor y mejor conocimiento, que, de hecho, no persigue otra cosa que un mayor dominio sobre la realidad. Las disciplinas parec&#x00ED;an ser el &#x00FA;ltimo reducto en el &#x00E1;mbito acad&#x00E9;mico, pero, bajo la ense&#x00F1;a de una especializaci&#x00F3;n imperante, tambi&#x00E9;n se escinden en &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento y en &#x00E1;mbitos de investigaci&#x00F3;n, acci&#x00F3;n e intervenci&#x00F3;n que gozan de mayor o menor autonom&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>El campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n y la pedagog&#x00ED;a no es una excepci&#x00F3;n y, en su recorrido de lo simple a lo complejo, ha experimentado numerosas escisiones, muchas de las cuales todav&#x00ED;a siguen hoy vigentes. Lejos queda aquella &#x201C;<italic>escuela de la vida</italic>&#x201D; y aquel &#x201C;<italic>saber total</italic>&#x201D; a los que se refer&#x00ED;a Comenio en el siglo XVII<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1"><sup>1</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Una mirada actual a lo educativo revela no s&#x00F3;lo un panorama muy complejo, sino tambi&#x00E9;n, numerosas ambig&#x00FC;edades, solapamientos e imprecisiones conceptuales y metodol&#x00F3;gicas que parecen no acabar de resolverse. No es solo que cualquier persona pueda, aparentemente con conocimiento de causa por el hecho de ser padre o madre, hablar de educaci&#x00F3;n. A menudo ha sido la propia profesi&#x00F3;n educativa y, tambi&#x00E9;n los medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n quienes, privilegiando la amplificaci&#x00F3;n de determinados discursos, han contribuido en buena medida al confusionismo sobre el <italic>qu&#x00E9;</italic>, el <italic>qui&#x00E9;n</italic>, el <italic>c&#x00F3;mo</italic> y el <italic>d&#x00F3;nde</italic> de la educaci&#x00F3;n en nuestras sociedades actuales. Es lo que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27805-Esp">Trilla (2018)</xref> ha puesto de manifiesto en un trabajo sobre lo que &#x00E9;l denomina &#x201C;<italic>la moda reaccionaria en educaci&#x00F3;n</italic>&#x201D;. Se trata de:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>poner en evidencia la frivolidad espectacular de ciertos prohombres de la cultura cuando se ponen a opinar sobre educaci&#x00F3;n. Salir al paso de fobias, realmente arbitrarias, de algunos profesionales de la docencia que atribuyen todos los males a cualquier innovaci&#x00F3;n educativa que se tercie. Referirse, expl&#x00ED;citamente y por su nombre a dos grupos de ideolog&#x00ED;as opuestas, pero ambos con comportamientos claramente sectarios. Y meterse tambi&#x00E9;n con los &#x201C;progres&#x201D; de dos tipos: los que se dedican a reinventar la sopa de ajo; y los que adem&#x00E1;s dicen hacerlo cient&#x00ED;ficamente (p. 190).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La moda a la que se refiere el autor ha contribuido sin duda a generar abundante ruido espurio y, tambi&#x00E9;n, a dificultar un debate fundamentado y serio en la sociedad sobre las realidades y problem&#x00E1;ticas actuales de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Pero, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de esto, hay que apuntar a toda una serie de escisiones que, a lo largo del siglo XX, se fueron desarrollando o incorporando al acervo educativo te&#x00F3;rico y pr&#x00E1;ctico; probablemente en sinton&#x00ED;a con lo que estaba sucediendo en el resto de las ciencias en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s. La escuela y la comunidad, lo escolar y lo social, la raz&#x00F3;n y la emoci&#x00F3;n, la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica, los contenidos y las actividades, lo cualitativo y lo cuantitativo, la academia y la profesi&#x00F3;n, no son sino algunos ejemplos de las escisiones a las que nos estamos refiriendo.</p>
<p>Estas escisiones se hacen hoy m&#x00E1;s evidentes dado el camino hacia la visibilizaci&#x00F3;n y comprensi&#x00F3;n de la complejidad que se inici&#x00F3; en el &#x00FA;ltimo cuarto del siglo pasado. Un camino originado por la incapacidad manifiesta de las ideas y conceptos entonces disponibles para abordar, de una manera profunda y ajustada, la complejidad de los fen&#x00F3;menos. Frente a aquella incapacidad se ensayaron hibridaciones y permeabilizaciones conceptuales y metodol&#x00F3;gicas que propon&#x00ED;an repensar las fronteras erigidas entre los fen&#x00F3;menos y reconectar y reinterpretar, de alguna manera, lo que previamente hab&#x00ED;a sido escindido. Los m&#x00E9;todos mixtos de investigaci&#x00F3;n, que tratan de superar la escisi&#x00F3;n entre m&#x00E9;todos cualitativos y cuantitativos; las denominadas bio-ciencias, que buscan amalgamar la biolog&#x00ED;a con el resto de las ciencias naturales; y, por ultimo y entre muchos otros, la perspectiva del &#x201C;aprender a aprender&#x201D;, que pretende transcender la diferenciaci&#x00F3;n entre contenidos y procedimientos, son ejemplos concretos de este camino. Desde entonces nos afanamos en esta b&#x00FA;squeda general de articulaciones que proporcionen unas perspectivas m&#x00E1;s precisas, integradas y completas de una realidad socioeducativa que sabemos compleja.</p>
<p>Aun a nuestro pesar, habr&#x00ED;a que constatar que, en general en el &#x00E1;mbito educativo, los autores/as espa&#x00F1;olas del &#x00FA;ltimo siglo hemos hecho pocas aportaciones significativas y originales. Tambi&#x00E9;n, que el desarrollo de la educaci&#x00F3;n en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s se ha realizado mayoritariamente importando modelos te&#x00F3;ricos y conceptualizaciones provenientes de otros pa&#x00ED;ses. Unos modelos y conceptualizaciones gestados en otras tradiciones que, combinados y/o adaptados a nuestra propia realidad, encajaban a menudo con dificultad en un marco m&#x00E1;s o menos ordenado y coherente. El &#x00E1;mbito de la pedagog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n social, quiz&#x00E1;s por ser un campo poco estructurado, por gozar de un estatuto no demasiado claro entre la pr&#x00E1;ctica, la ciencia y el arte y por funcionar, por &#x00FA;ltimo, en la periferia o directamente al margen del sistema educativo ha sido especialmente sensible a estas escisiones.</p>
<p>Voy a ejemplificar esta idea con cuatro fen&#x00F3;menos, resultado de sendas escisiones educativas, que han tenido un amplio impacto en la configuraci&#x00F3;n del sector de la educaci&#x00F3;n y la pedagog&#x00ED;a en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s. Son escisiones que han afectado, de manera clara, al desarrollo y evoluci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n y la pedagog&#x00ED;a social. Lo que la educaci&#x00F3;n social es hoy en Espa&#x00F1;a, tanto en lo que se refiere a la formaci&#x00F3;n universitaria inicial como a su propia configuraci&#x00F3;n como profesi&#x00F3;n, es el resultado, entre otros, de las escisiones educativas que planteo.</p>
<p>No me interesa tanto profundizar en cada una de estas escisiones como mostrar la manera como han influido o determinado la evoluci&#x00F3;n de la pedagog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n social en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s. Las escisiones a las que me refiero son:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>La que estructura el universo de las acciones educativas en tres &#x00E1;reas: formal, no formal e informal.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>La que diferencia entre pedagog&#x00ED;a y ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>La que clasifica tres tipos diferenciados de pedagog&#x00ED;a: la familiar, la escolar y la social.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>La que estructura el sector universitario de la Educaci&#x00F3;n en &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento cient&#x00ED;fico.</p></list-item>
</list>
<sec id="sec-1-27805-Esp">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a estructura del universo de acciones educativas</sc></bold></title>
<p>Esta escisi&#x00F3;n en el universo de la educaci&#x00F3;n se populariza en la d&#x00E9;cada de los 70 del pasado siglo cuando, en el marco de la UNESCO, Edgar Faure publica su conocido texto <italic>Aprender a ser</italic>. A partir de entonces todas las acciones educativas se ubican en uno de los tres &#x00E1;mbitos, el <italic>formal</italic>, el <italic>no formal</italic> y el <italic>informal</italic>.</p>
    <p>La propia caracterizaci&#x00F3;n de los &#x00E1;mbitos no dejaba lugar a dudas sobre la consideraci&#x00F3;n de los tres tipos de acciones en el panorama educativo y, especialmente en relaci&#x00F3;n con la escuela y el sistema educativo. El <italic>formal</italic> se refer&#x00ED;a, en exclusiva, a estos &#x00FA;ltimos. El <italic>no formal</italic> se configuraba como un dep&#x00F3;sito extraordinariamente diverso de experiencias educativas que daba cabida a todo aquello que no fuera considerado <italic>formal</italic>, es decir, que no estuviera dentro del sistema educativo. Ortega apunta ir&#x00F3;nicamente, que era en el &#x00E1;mbito formal donde estaban &#x201C;la pedagog&#x00ED;a y educaci&#x00F3;n aut&#x00E9;nticas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27805-Esp">2005</xref>, p. 21). Algo claramente atestiguado por la minusvaloraci&#x00F3;n social y educativa que, durante buena parte del siglo XX, se dio a las actividades socioeducativas que hoy se engloban dentro de la educaci&#x00F3;n social.</p>
<p>La propia educaci&#x00F3;n social es un buen ejemplo de la fragilidad de la escisi&#x00F3;n <italic>formal-no formal</italic>. En el a&#x00F1;o 1991 se oficializan en el Bolet&#x00ED;n Oficial del Estado (BOE) los estudios universitarios de educaci&#x00F3;n social y entran, por tanto, a formar parte del sistema educativo formal. Hasta entonces la formaci&#x00F3;n de los hoy denominados educadores sociales (los entonces llamados educadores especializados; animadores socioculturales; alfabetizadores de adultos; monitores de educaci&#x00F3;n en el tiempo libre; formadores ocupaciones; y un largo etc&#x00E9;tera) era ofertada por entidades municipales y hac&#x00ED;a parte de la denominada educaci&#x00F3;n no formal.</p>
<p>A pesar de la importancia que todav&#x00ED;a hoy se le da en algunos pa&#x00ED;ses latinoamericanos a lo <italic>no formal</italic>, en tanto que sector educativo con entidad en s&#x00ED; mismo, en Europa ha acabado constituy&#x00E9;ndose como una simple delimitaci&#x00F3;n administrativa que se funda en la obtenci&#x00F3;n de certificados con validez acad&#x00E9;mica. La formaci&#x00F3;n que los ofrece es considerada formal y el resto no formal.</p>
<p>Al &#x00E1;mbito <italic>informal</italic>, por su parte, se le reconoc&#x00ED;a la existencia, pero, por sus propias caracter&#x00ED;sticas en tanto que entorno intangible y probablemente -se pensaba- poco susceptible de ser formalizado, hac&#x00ED;a que o no se tuviera en cuenta o se minimizara su influencia. La perspectiva de la complejidad aporta una mirada diferente. En la actualidad el <italic>aprendizaje informal</italic> es considerado un &#x00E1;mbito emergente y prometedor en el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n y, especialmente, en el de la educaci&#x00F3;n social dado que &#x00E9;sta &#x00FA;ltima focaliza su trabajo en la vida cotidiana de las personas. Un &#x00E1;mbito que, hoy en d&#x00ED;a, todav&#x00ED;a est&#x00E1; poco explorado y sobre el que es necesario investigar m&#x00E1;s.</p>
<p>&#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo se relaciona la educaci&#x00F3;n social con estas estas educaciones escindidas y, en todo caso, con cu&#x00E1;l de ellas est&#x00E1; m&#x00E1;s relacionada? No es una pregunta f&#x00E1;cil de responder a partir de c&#x00F3;mo se ha desarrollado en Espa&#x00F1;a. Hasta no hace mucho la respuesta inmediata hubiera podido ser que la educaci&#x00F3;n social se ubica en el &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n no formal. Es cierto que hist&#x00F3;ricamente la pedagog&#x00ED;a social, en tanto que alternativa a la escuela, se hab&#x00ED;a desarrollado al margen de lo formal ocup&#x00E1;ndose, precisamente, de todas aquellas personas que, por las razones que fuera, no pod&#x00ED;an acceder o eran expulsadas de la escuela. Quiz&#x00E1;s por eso <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27805-Esp">Fermoso (1994</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Esp">2003</xref>) afirma que la pedagog&#x00ED;a social se ocupa espec&#x00ED;ficamente de la educaci&#x00F3;n <italic>no formal</italic>.</p>
    <p>El B.O.E. de 10 de octubre del 1991 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27805-Esp">Real Decreto 24669-1420/1991</xref>), en el que se recogen, por vez primera, las directrices para los estudios de la Diplomatura de Educaci&#x00F3;n social, dec&#x00ED;a que:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Las ense&#x00F1;anzas deber&#x00E1;n orientarse a la formaci&#x00F3;n de un educador en los campos de la educaci&#x00F3;n no formal, educaci&#x00F3;n de adultos (incluidos los de la tercera edad), inserci&#x00F3;n social de personas desadaptadas y minusv&#x00E1;lidos, as&#x00ED; como en la acci&#x00F3;n socioeducativa (p. 32891).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>En otro lugar he analizado en profundidad las inconsistencias de esta formulaci&#x00F3;n tanto desde el punto de vista t&#x00E9;cnico como epistemol&#x00F3;gico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 1996</xref>). Baste decir aqu&#x00ED; que resulta evidente, en la propia definici&#x00F3;n, que el &#x00E1;mbito no formal se queda corto a la hora de concretar los espacios y tiempos en los que act&#x00FA;a la educaci&#x00F3;n social. Desde la perspectiva del <italic>aprendizaje a lo largo de la vida</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27805-Esp">Caride (2020)</xref> ha analizado en profundidad las incongruencias te&#x00F3;rico-conceptuales de la <italic>educaci&#x00F3;n no formal</italic> y ha apuntado el uso y abuso que los organismos internacionales hacen de dicha denominaci&#x00F3;n. Ha mostrado, asimismo, las insuficiencias de dicha expresi&#x00F3;n para recoger las complejidades de otras educaciones como, entre ellas, la propia educaci&#x00F3;n social.</p>
<p>En los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os la educaci&#x00F3;n social comienza a trascender los l&#x00ED;mites que hist&#x00F3;ricamente la hab&#x00ED;an confinado en el trabajo exclusivo con personas en situaci&#x00F3;n de necesidad, d&#x00E9;ficit, riesgo y vulnerabilidad. La idea cl&#x00E1;sica de que toda educaci&#x00F3;n es social por naturaleza comienza a hacerse realidad en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s. Hay que se&#x00F1;alar, no obstante, que, si ha habido una educaci&#x00F3;n propiamente social ha sido la escolar, dado que agrupaba a los ni&#x00F1;os/as para socializarlos y habilitarlos para vivir en la sociedad. Sin embargo, tempranamente se caracteriz&#x00F3; como &#x201C;sociales&#x201C; a las acciones educativas que se produc&#x00ED;an fuera del marco escolar. Probablemente por las connotaciones negativas que han acompa&#x00F1;ado a este concepto en la Modernidad.</p>
<p>La incorporaci&#x00F3;n de los educadores sociales a la escuela se comienza a institucionalizar en Espa&#x00F1;a en el a&#x00F1;o 2002 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27805-Esp">Gal&#x00E1;n Carretero, 2019</xref>). En la actualidad hay ya cinco Comunidades Aut&#x00F3;nomas que la contemplan en sus legislaciones respectivas: Castilla-La Mancha (2002), Extremadura (2002), Andaluc&#x00ED;a (2008), Las islas Canarias (2018) y las islas Baleares (2018) y hay otras, como por ejemplo Catalu&#x00F1;a, que est&#x00E1;n implementando en estos momentos un proyecto piloto. De hecho, el an&#x00E1;lisis y el debate sobre las conexiones y los aportes de los educadores/as sociales a la escuela se est&#x00E1; generalizando estos &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os en el conjunto de Espa&#x00F1;a<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn2"><sup>2</sup></xref>. Y este debate coincide con un movimiento paralelo que apuesta por conectar la escuela con la comunidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27805-Esp">Castro <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). Se habla ya de &#x201C;pedagog&#x00ED;a social escolar&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27805-Esp">March y Orte, 2014</xref>, p. 75) y parece altamente probable que la incorporaci&#x00F3;n de la profesi&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n social al conjunto del sistema educativo sea algo normalizado en los pr&#x00F3;ximos a&#x00F1;os en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s.</p>
<p>A pesar de la utilidad inicial de la tripartici&#x00F3;n del universo de las acciones educativas la pedagog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n social siempre han encajado en ella con dificultad. La simplicidad de aquel planteamiento hace que hoy resulte poco apropiada para caracterizar los espacios y los tiempos educativos de una manera precisa. Hay que recordar que ha pasado medio siglo desde que fue formulado por lo que, dado el cambio acelerado que han vivido nuestras sociedades en las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27805-Esp">Rosa, 2012</xref>), no es extra&#x00F1;o que hoy resulte pr&#x00E1;cticamente obsoleto.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-27805-Esp">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>P<sc>edagog&#x00ED;a y/o Ciencias De La Educaci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Esta diferenciaci&#x00F3;n no es, en su origen, resultado de una escisi&#x00F3;n dentro del &#x00E1;mbito educativo, sino que obedece a dos tradiciones cient&#x00ED;ficas europeas que llegan a Espa&#x00F1;a en el siglo XX. La primera, la alemana, de corte idealista y la segunda, la franco-brit&#x00E1;nica, de tipo positivista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27805-Esp">Ortega, &#x0026; Caride, 2015</xref>, p. 7). En otros t&#x00E9;rminos, una tradici&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s centrada en lo filos&#x00F3;fico y otra m&#x00E1;s focalizada en lo cient&#x00ED;fico, lo emp&#x00ED;rico y lo pr&#x00E1;ctico<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn3"><sup>3</sup></xref>. Si me refiero a ella como una escisi&#x00F3;n es por la manera como ambas tradiciones fueron tratadas en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s, por las relaciones que se establecieron entre ellas y por un cierto confusionismo conceptual derivado de dichas relaciones. Ambas influyeron notablemente en la creaci&#x00F3;n de dos t&#x00ED;tulos universitarios a principios de los a&#x00F1;os 90 del pasado siglo: la licenciatura en pedagog&#x00ED;a (4 a&#x00F1;os) y la diplomatura en educaci&#x00F3;n social (3 a&#x00F1;os). Abundar en aquella escisi&#x00F3;n puede ayudar a comprender algunas problem&#x00E1;ticas conceptuales y profesionales que se producen entre las que hoy, en el panorama espa&#x00F1;ol, son dos titulaciones universitarias diferentes de grado (4 a&#x00F1;os): la de pedagog&#x00ED;a y la de educaci&#x00F3;n social. Una escisi&#x00F3;n que podr&#x00ED;a llevarnos a pensar que se refiere a dos grados universitarios absolutamente diferentes.</p>
<p>La pedagog&#x00ED;a, en tanto que disciplina que entronca con una tradici&#x00F3;n filos&#x00F3;fica, se inscribe en la l&#x00ED;nea de influencia germ&#x00E1;nica y ser&#x00E1; en ella donde aparezcan las primeras alusiones a la pedagog&#x00ED;a social ya desde principios del siglo XX (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27805-Esp">Ortega, &#x0026; Caride, 2015</xref>). Por su parte, la franco-brit&#x00E1;nica llega a nuestro pa&#x00ED;s a inicios de la segunda mitad de aquel siglo. A pesar de provenir de dos fuentes diferentes, Francia e Inglaterra, y de los diferentes planteamientos que comportan, ambas coinciden en plantear una perspectiva pragm&#x00E1;tica, m&#x00E1;s cercana a la realidad social y a la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa de lo que lo estaba la alemana. Y coinciden, asimismo, en no hablar de pedagog&#x00ED;a sino en referirse de manera exclusiva a la educaci&#x00F3;n. Ser&#x00E1; esta segunda tradici&#x00F3;n, especialmente la dimensi&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s pr&#x00E1;ctica y aplicada de la l&#x00ED;nea franc&#x00F3;fona, la que desemboque en la educaci&#x00F3;n social que conocemos. Estos an&#x00E1;lisis se pueden ver en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-27805-Esp">Figura N&#x00BA; 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="fig-1-27805-Esp">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>T<sc>radiciones educativas europeas que convergen en la profesionalizaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n social en espa&#x00F1;a</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-27805-Esp.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: Elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</fig>
    <p>En el &#x00FA;ltimo cuarto del siglo XX ambas, pedagog&#x00ED;a y ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n, conviven en los estudios de educaci&#x00F3;n en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s sin que acabe de estar muy claro cu&#x00E1;les son las diferencias entre ellas o si la primera incluye a las segundas o al rev&#x00E9;s. Quintana se refiere incluso a &#x201C;la moda de sustituir la &#x201D;pedagog&#x00ED;a&#x201D; por las &#x201C;ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Esp">1984</xref>, p. 16) que, desde su punto de vista, se instaura en Espa&#x00F1;a a partir del a&#x00F1;o 1968.</p>
<p>Los posicionamientos de los acad&#x00E9;micos espa&#x00F1;oles del &#x00E1;mbito de la educaci&#x00F3;n oscilan al respecto entre: (A) una distinci&#x00F3;n que los lleva a una adhesi&#x00F3;n incondicional a una de ellas; (B) la integraci&#x00F3;n de ambas; o (C) una utilizaci&#x00F3;n indistinta.</p>
<p>En este &#x00FA;ltimo sentido <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Esp">Fermoso (2003)</xref> afirma, por ejemplo, que, &#x201C;entre nosotros [profesores universitarios], hablamos indistintamente de &#x201C;Pedagog&#x00ED;a&#x201D;, de &#x201C;Ciencia de la Educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; y de &#x201C;Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (p. 62). Sin embargo, a efectos pr&#x00E1;cticos, se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27805-Esp">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras (2007)</xref>, son las decisiones administrativas las que acaban inclin&#x00E1;ndose por la adopci&#x00F3;n o el abandono de una determinada denominaci&#x00F3;n. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27805-Esp">B&#x00F6;hm (2015)</xref> dice que &#x201C;la divergencia entre la(s) pedagog&#x00ED;a(s) y la(s) ciencia(s) de la educaci&#x00F3;n es agravada por el hecho de que el patrocinio pol&#x00ED;tico y financiero favorece claramente a las ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (p. 20). Esto ser&#x00E1; especialmente cierto en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s en los estudios universitarios de grado donde se privilegia la denominaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;educaci&#x00F3;n social&#x201D; en detrimento de la de &#x201C;pedagog&#x00ED;a social&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 1996</xref>).</p>
    <p>Hemos apuntado que la pedagog&#x00ED;a germ&#x00E1;nica lleg&#x00F3; a Espa&#x00F1;a a principios del siglo XX mientras que las tradiciones franc&#x00F3;fona y anglosajona lo hicieron a mediados del siglo<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn4"><sup>4</sup></xref>. Eso explica que la entrada de estas &#x00FA;ltimas se viviera en la profesi&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica como una p&#x00E9;rdida de la unidad inicial que hab&#x00ED;a brindado la pedagog&#x00ED;a. Ortega se&#x00F1;ala que, en los a&#x00F1;os 70 del pasado siglo, se produjo &#x201C;la desagregaci&#x00F3;n de la &#x201C;Pedagog&#x00ED;a&#x201D; en &#x201C;Ciencias de la Educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; siguiendo adhesiones &#x201C;cientistas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27805-Esp">2005</xref>, p. 112).</p>
<p>En otro lugar he caracterizado este hecho, al que se refiere Ortega, como el <italic>malentendido cientifista</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 2013</xref>). Este malentendido se deriva de la trayectoria hist&#x00F3;rica que sigue la pedagog&#x00ED;a en Espa&#x00F1;a en su af&#x00E1;n por convertirse en una ciencia social al mismo nivel que el resto de las denominadas ciencias sociales. Meirieu apunta que:</p>
<disp-quote>
    <p>para adquirir sus cartas de nobleza en el seno de la universidad, las &#x201C;ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; tuvieron que dar pruebas de su &#x201C;cientificidad&#x201D;. Y, por temor a que no se las considerara &#x201C;verdaderas ciencias&#x201D;, redoblaron la apuesta del puntillismo y el positivismo: as&#x00ED; es como se impuso el m&#x00E9;todo experimental, preferentemente cargado de datos cuantitativos, en detrimento de la lectura cr&#x00ED;tica de las obras, de la observaci&#x00F3;n atenta de las pr&#x00E1;cticas y de la decodificaci&#x00F3;n de las cuestiones en juego (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27805-Esp">2016</xref>, p.111).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Es posible que esta problem&#x00E1;tica sea una de las que m&#x00E1;s haya contribuido a la falta de prestigio acad&#x00E9;mico y social y que est&#x00E9;, asimismo, en la base de buena parte de los males que referencia <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27805-Esp">Trilla (2018)</xref>, en el libro antes citado, en relaci&#x00F3;n con la pedagog&#x00ED;a (social).</p>
<p>Desde mi punto de vista, este malentendido obedece, al mismo tiempo, a un anhelo y a un complejo de la pedagog&#x00ED;a. Al anhelo por tener un estatus equivalente al del resto de las ciencias sociales y a un cierto complejo derivado del hecho de no acabar de serle social y acad&#x00E9;micamente reconocido. Ambos est&#x00E1;n ligados a la historia de la pedagog&#x00ED;a y a la propia evoluci&#x00F3;n de las ciencias sociales en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27805-Esp">Brezinka (2002)</xref> analiza la evoluci&#x00F3;n de la pedagog&#x00ED;a desde sus inicios como una &#x201C;teor&#x00ED;a del arte de educar&#x201D; vinculada a la pr&#x00E1;ctica educadora, hasta su alejamiento total de la pr&#x00E1;ctica para convertirse en una pedagog&#x00ED;a cient&#x00ED;fica. Y se&#x00F1;ala que el valor de aquella teor&#x00ED;a, todav&#x00ED;a no cient&#x00ED;fica, radicaba en la seguridad que proporcionaba a los educadores a la hora de actuar en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa.</p>
<p>Esta evoluci&#x00F3;n de la pedagog&#x00ED;a hacia lo cient&#x00ED;fico es explicable por el estatus que, tanto las pr&#x00E1;cticas como el arte, ten&#x00ED;an en el siglo XIX. De la Orden, apunta que</p>
<disp-quote>
    <p>cuando en los a&#x00F1;os 50 (del siglo XX) yo estudiaba pedagog&#x00ED;a en la Universidad de Madrid, llegu&#x00E9; a estar convencido de que ten&#x00ED;amos que salir del ensayo y de la filosof&#x00ED;a si quer&#x00ED;amos convertirnos en una comunidad cient&#x00ED;fica. Probablemente costar&#x00ED;a un gran esfuerzo que nuestra disciplina llegara a parecerse a una ciencia f&#x00ED;sico-natural, pero ese era el modelo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27805-Esp">2007</xref>, p. 3).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Ser una pr&#x00E1;ctica o un arte no ayudaba a la consideraci&#x00F3;n cient&#x00ED;fica de la pedagog&#x00ED;a ya que ni una ni otro eran tenidos en cuenta por una academia decidida a focalizarse en aquel tiempo sobre la teor&#x00ED;a y el m&#x00E9;todo cient&#x00ED;fico. Si la pedagog&#x00ED;a pretend&#x00ED;a tener un estatus &#x201C;cient&#x00ED;fico&#x201D; entre las diferentes ciencias sociales necesitaba distanciarse de su consideraci&#x00F3;n como actividad pr&#x00E1;ctica o art&#x00ED;stica para acercarse a la teor&#x00ED;a; para ser una ciencia cuyo principal objetivo fuera el de elaborar teor&#x00ED;a. Parec&#x00ED;a que solamente haci&#x00E9;ndose cient&#x00ED;fica pod&#x00ED;a la pedagog&#x00ED;a conseguir el estatus necesario para ser una ciencia m&#x00E1;s entre las diferentes ciencias sociales.</p>
    <p>Brezinka muestra que la b&#x00FA;squeda de dicho anhelo se realiz&#x00F3; pagando un elevado precio: el del abandono de la pr&#x00E1;ctica. La pedagog&#x00ED;a resultante de dicho abandono era m&#x00E1;s acad&#x00E9;mica, menos pr&#x00E1;ctica y m&#x00E1;s erudita; una pedagog&#x00ED;a, en definitiva, que &#x201C;aumenta la inseguridad, acrecienta el desconcierto y engendra resignaci&#x00F3;n entre los educadores&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27805-Esp">2002</xref>, p. 401).</p>
<p>El mismo autor alem&#x00E1;n explica que la pedagog&#x00ED;a iniciada en el siglo XVIII gener&#x00F3; unas altas expectativas con relaci&#x00F3;n a lo que una pedagog&#x00ED;a convertida en ciencia podr&#x00ED;a llegar a conseguir. El tiempo vino a demostrar, sin embargo, que dichas expectativas no se cumpl&#x00ED;an: ni se generaron mejoras en la pr&#x00E1;ctica educadora ni fueron capaces de predecir mejor ni de manera m&#x00E1;s fiable los resultados de las acciones educativas.</p>
<p>Privada de la base sobre la que anclar y construir su discurso, la pedagog&#x00ED;a cient&#x00ED;fica y los propios pedagogos universitarios han tenido, en general en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s, una identidad y una producci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica difusa y poco conectada con las acciones y pr&#x00E1;cticas educativas. Brezinka concluye apuntando que los juicios peyorativos sobre la pedagog&#x00ED;a obedecen probablemente al desencanto generado por no haber alcanzado las expectativas previstas con relaci&#x00F3;n a la predicci&#x00F3;n y a la seguridad que hab&#x00ED;a de proporcionar a los educadores y a los procesos educativos. Esto es lo que apunta De la Orden (2004) en relaci&#x00F3;n con la denominada pedagog&#x00ED;a experimental: &#x201C;su andadura no ha resultado totalmente satisfactoria por no haber podido articular de manera completa su deseo de cientificidad y su compromiso de optimizaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (Cit. en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27805-Esp">L&#x00F3;pez Gonz&#x00E1;lez, 2012</xref>, p. 48).</p>
    <p>El an&#x00E1;lisis de Brezinka contribuye a explicar, posiblemente, por qu&#x00E9; la corriente franco-brit&#x00E1;nica se escindi&#x00F3;, en lo que se refiere a sus &#x00E1;mbitos de influencia. La perspectiva <italic>cientifista</italic> proveniente de la tradici&#x00F3;n anglosajona y de parte de la tradici&#x00F3;n franc&#x00F3;fona, que aboga por repensar el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n a partir de la ciencia, influye, principalmente, en el desarrollo de los estudios de pedagog&#x00ED;a en las universidades. &#x201C;Desde entonces, -se&#x00F1;ala Garc&#x00E9;s, refiri&#x00E9;ndose a la perspectiva cientifista en educaci&#x00F3;n- el campo de la reflexi&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica y pr&#x00E1;ctica sobre el hecho educativo no ha hecho m&#x00E1;s que fragmentarse y diversificarse de manera exponencial&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27805-Esp">2020</xref>, p. 32).</p>
<p>Al amparo de la disyuntiva pedagog&#x00ED;a/ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n y del choque entre las dos &#x00FA;ltimas tradiciones referenciadas con la germ&#x00E1;nica, se cuestionaba, por ejemplo, en la d&#x00E9;cada de los 80 del pasado siglo, si la <italic>Sociolog&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n</italic> deb&#x00ED;a sustituir a la <italic>Pedagog&#x00ED;a Social</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn5"><sup>5</sup></xref> en el curr&#x00ED;culo universitario de pedagog&#x00ED;a. El paso del tiempo ha hecho que finalmente ambas convivan en los curr&#x00ED;culos universitarios actuales de los grados de pedagog&#x00ED;a y educaci&#x00F3;n social.</p>
<p>Hemos apuntado que de la corriente franc&#x00F3;fona nos llega la perspectiva de <italic>las ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic> siguiendo, entre otras, las ideas de Durkheim (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27805-Esp">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras, 2007</xref>). Pero nos llegan, adem&#x00E1;s, toda una serie de experiencias pr&#x00E1;cticas de trabajo sociocultural y educativo que buscan dar respuesta a las problem&#x00E1;ticas que, en el marco de la dictadura imperante entonces en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s, se estaban produciendo en barrios perif&#x00E9;ricos de numerosas ciudades totalmente desatendidos por el centralismo del r&#x00E9;gimen. En otro lugar he se&#x00F1;alado que:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>las primeras acciones educativas desarrolladas en &#x00E1;mbitos comunitarios, en las d&#x00E9;cadas de los 60 y 70, se gestaron en un contexto de necesidad y como fruto de, al menos, dos procesos: uno de reconstrucci&#x00F3;n comunitaria y otro de reivindicaci&#x00F3;n o de lucha frente a la dictadura. Con uno u otro objetivo, agentes sociales informales, faltos en la mayor&#x00ED;a de los casos de formaci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica e instrumental t&#x00E9;cnico, acometieron, con grandes dosis de entusiasmo, voluntarismo y confianza en el futuro, el trabajo sociocomunitario. Eran los precursores de los actuales educadores sociales. Aquellos primeros interventores socioeducativos, conscientes de sus deficiencias formativas, beb&#x00ED;an con ansiedad de cualquier fuente que les ayudara a organizar, a sistematizar y, en definitiva, a mejorar sus propias pr&#x00E1;cticas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 2002</xref>, p. 5).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Una de dichas fuentes es el trabajo socioeducativo que se estaba desarrollando en aquellos a&#x00F1;os en Francia. J&#x00F3;venes espa&#x00F1;oles/as, que hab&#x00ED;an conocido y vivenciado diferentes pr&#x00E1;cticas de tipo cultural y educativo en el pa&#x00ED;s vecino, empezaron a reproducirlas en nuestro contexto. Pronto se extendieron por toda nuestra geograf&#x00ED;a iniciativas de animaci&#x00F3;n sociocultural y de educaci&#x00F3;n especializada provenientes del &#x00E1;mbito franc&#x00F3;fono.</p>
<p>Esto propici&#x00F3; en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s dos trayectorias paralelas, la de la pedagog&#x00ED;a social, que se ense&#x00F1;aba en las universidades (en competencia con la sociolog&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n, importada por la perspectiva cientifista) y la de la educaci&#x00F3;n social que, bajo un conjunto muy variado de denominaciones, actuaba de manera pr&#x00E1;ctica en muchos barrios de nuestro pa&#x00ED;s. Dos trayectorias que separaban a los acad&#x00E9;micos (te&#x00F3;ricos) de los profesionales (pr&#x00E1;cticos). Curiosamente esta separaci&#x00F3;n entre los acad&#x00E9;micos y profesionales de la pedagog&#x00ED;a/educaci&#x00F3;n social se ha producido tambi&#x00E9;n en otros pa&#x00ED;ses de Europa<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn6"><sup>6</sup></xref>. Hay que se&#x00F1;alar, sin embargo, que en estos &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os hay una apuesta clara por la convergencia y la elaboraci&#x00F3;n de un discurso conjunto entre acad&#x00E9;micos y profesionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27805-Esp">Ortega, Caride, y &#x00DA;car, 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>Resultado de estas trayectorias diferenciadas es la todav&#x00ED;a hoy discutida relaci&#x00F3;n entre la pedagog&#x00ED;a (social) y la educaci&#x00F3;n social. Una discusi&#x00F3;n que se produce tanto a nivel te&#x00F3;rico como profesional.</p>
<p>Las preguntas sobre las relaciones entre la educaci&#x00F3;n social y la pedagog&#x00ED;a o, m&#x00E1;s concretamente, sobre si los educadores sociales son pedagogos o viceversa, son recurrentes en los primeros a&#x00F1;os de formaci&#x00F3;n en el grado universitario. Baste decir por el momento que la legislaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica establece dos grados diferenciados que forman a dos profesionales, en principio, diferentes. A pesar de que ambos forman parte del sector de la educaci&#x00F3;n, el perfil profesional de los educadores sociales y los propios puestos de trabajo a los que pueden acceder en la actualidad, son hoy m&#x00E1;s identificables y concretos que aquellos a los que puede acceder el/la profesional de la pedagog&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>Las diferencias profesionales se&#x00F1;aladas no impiden que ambos trabajen en el marco integrador y vehicular de la pedagog&#x00ED;a. En otros t&#x00E9;rminos, resulta evidente que los educadores/as sociales no son pedagogos/as desde el punto de vista profesional, pero su acci&#x00F3;n profesional es claramente pedag&#x00F3;gica.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27805-Esp">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a vida estructurada en pedagog&#x00ED;as</sc></bold></title>
<p>La pedagog&#x00ED;a social es aquella que no es impartida ni por la familia ni por la escuela. Esta es la idea que B&#x00E4;umer alumbra en la d&#x00E9;cada de los 20 del pasado siglo en Alemania siguiendo las ideas de Nohl (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27805-Esp">Quintana, 1999</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27805-Esp">P&#x00E9;rez Serrano, 2003</xref>). Este &#x00FA;ltimo autor es uno de los primeros acad&#x00E9;micos de lo que se podr&#x00ED;a llamar la pedagog&#x00ED;a social pr&#x00E1;ctica; lo que hoy denominamos educaci&#x00F3;n social en el contexto espa&#x00F1;ol. La vida quedaba de esta forma estructurada en pedagog&#x00ED;as. Hab&#x00ED;a una pedagog&#x00ED;a familiar que se daba en la familia, una pedagog&#x00ED;a escolar que se daba en la escuela y una pedagog&#x00ED;a social que, a diferencia de las anteriores, no se ubicaba en ninguna instituci&#x00F3;n espec&#x00ED;fica. Lo &#x00FA;nico que estos autores apuntaban es que era a la sociedad y al Estado a quienes correspond&#x00ED;a desarrollarla. B&#x00E4;umer dec&#x00ED;a que esta pedagog&#x00ED;a se daba &#x201C;en instituciones especiales, p&#x00FA;blicas o privadas [&#x2026;] que proporcionaban asistencia socioeducativa&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27805-Esp">Quintana, 1999</xref>, pp. 91-92).</p>
<p>La pedagog&#x00ED;a social pr&#x00E1;ctica, que desarrolla sobre todo Nohl desde principios del siglo XX, es una pedagog&#x00ED;a que trata de remediar los problemas y necesidades creadas por la sociedad industrial. Una pedagog&#x00ED;a que pod&#x00ED;a ser considerada como una pedagog&#x00ED;a de la necesidad y que este autor caracterizaba como el &#x201C;tercer espacio&#x201D;; aquel que no es ni familia ni escuela. De hecho, esta es la perspectiva que llega a la universidad espa&#x00F1;ola. La pedagog&#x00ED;a social que se empieza a ense&#x00F1;ar en las universidades espa&#x00F1;olas, pasada la segunda mitad del siglo XX, es una pedagog&#x00ED;a centrada mayoritariamente en la inadaptaci&#x00F3;n infantil y juvenil (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Esp">Quintana, 1984</xref>).</p>
<p>No ser&#x00ED;a desencaminado establecer un paralelismo entre las etapas que la sociolog&#x00ED;a cl&#x00E1;sica establec&#x00ED;a para los procesos de socializaci&#x00F3;n y la propia estructuraci&#x00F3;n de la vida a trav&#x00E9;s de las pedagog&#x00ED;as. La socializaci&#x00F3;n primaria que se produce en la familia corresponde a la pedagog&#x00ED;a familiar. La socializaci&#x00F3;n secundaria, que se desarrolla en la escuela, se adquiere por mediaci&#x00F3;n de la pedagog&#x00ED;a escolar. Por &#x00FA;ltimo, la socializaci&#x00F3;n terciaria, tambi&#x00E9;n llamada resocializaci&#x00F3;n (R&#x00F6;ssner, 1977. Cit. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27805-Esp">Fermoso, 1990</xref>, p. 160), es la que, situados en la perspectiva del &#x201C;tercer espacio&#x201D; y la pedagog&#x00ED;a de la necesidad, corresponde a la pedagog&#x00ED;a social.</p>
<p>En otro lugar hemos explicado c&#x00F3;mo la evoluci&#x00F3;n de lo social, en la segunda mitad del siglo XX, da al traste con esta interpretaci&#x00F3;n cl&#x00E1;sica de lo social. En la actualidad la socializaci&#x00F3;n o, mejor dicho, las socializaciones, dado que aquella no es un proceso ni unificado ni homog&#x00E9;neo, son continuas; est&#x00E1;n muy distribuidas; se dan en entornos f&#x00ED;sicos y digitales; y se est&#x00E1;n produciendo a todo lo largo de nuestra existencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>Algo parecido se puede decir en relaci&#x00F3;n con las tres pedagog&#x00ED;as definidas. Son pedagog&#x00ED;as que resultan &#x00FA;tiles en las sociedades simples, donde los agentes, socializadores y pedag&#x00F3;gicos son claramente identificables y las instituciones que los acogen est&#x00E1;n separadas y netamente diferenciadas. En sociedades complejas como las nuestras, en las que las instituciones son cada vez m&#x00E1;s permeables al entorno f&#x00ED;sico, digital y sociocultural, y en las que las agencias pedag&#x00F3;gicas y socializadoras son diversas, difusas y no siempre completamente transparentes, las escisiones y diferenciaciones tienden tambi&#x00E9;n a difuminarse.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-27805-Esp">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>scisiones administrativas en educaci&#x00F3;n en nombre de la ciencia</sc></bold></title>
    <p>Ya me he referido a c&#x00F3;mo las decisiones administrativas pueden configurar situaciones que acaban generando realidades o, incluso, culturas espec&#x00ED;ficas que se alargan en el tiempo y que, aun viendo su inoperancia o ineficacia, pueden ser muy dif&#x00ED;ciles de retrotraer. En este caso me refiero a la Ley de Reforma Universitaria (LRU) del 1983, liderada por el ministro socialista Jose M.&#x00AA; Maravall. Esta reforma, que moderniza estructural y funcionalmente la universidad espa&#x00F1;ola (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27805-Esp">Vega Gil, 1997</xref>), instaura las denominadas &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento cient&#x00ED;fico en el panorama universitario espa&#x00F1;ol.</p>
    <p>Estas &#x00E1;reas eran delimitaciones administrativas que agrupaban al profesorado universitario. Las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento son &#x201C;aquellos campos del saber caracterizados por la homogeneidad de su objeto de conocimiento, una com&#x00FA;n tradici&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica y la existencia de comunidades de investigadores, nacionales o internacionales&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27805-Esp">Real Decreto 1888/1984, de 26 de septiembre, por el que se regulan los concursos para la provisi&#x00F3;n de plazas de los Cuerpos docentes universitarios</xref>, p. 31051). En el sector espec&#x00ED;fico de educaci&#x00F3;n se establecen las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento propias de pedagog&#x00ED;a esto es: <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a e historia de la educaci&#x00F3;n</italic>; <italic>Did&#x00E1;ctica y organizaci&#x00F3;n escolar</italic>; y <italic>M&#x00E9;todos de investigaci&#x00F3;n y diagn&#x00F3;stico en educaci&#x00F3;n</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn7"><sup>7</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Esta escisi&#x00F3;n en el sector de la educaci&#x00F3;n, m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de una arbitrariedad evidente, podr&#x00ED;a no haber tenido mayor importancia si no fuera por la cl&#x00E1;usula que prescrib&#x00ED;a que las carreras universitarias y las trayectorias de investigaci&#x00F3;n ten&#x00ED;an que hacerse en el seno de un &#x00E1;rea concreta de conocimiento. Y que, la supervisi&#x00F3;n y la decisi&#x00F3;n sobre dichas carreras, se hallaba bajo la jurisdicci&#x00F3;n de los profesores catedr&#x00E1;ticos de cada &#x00E1;rea.</p>
<p>Durante muchos a&#x00F1;os este sistema organizativo ha primado en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de los cuerpos docentes e investigadores de los departamentos universitarios y del mismo dise&#x00F1;o curricular de las entonces diplomaturas y licenciaturas y de los hoy denominados grados. Cada &#x00E1;rea de conocimiento sigue, hoy en d&#x00ED;a, configurando los tribunales que juzgan a las personas candidatas para hacer carrera docente e investigadora. Es cierto que, desde mediados de los 90 del pasado siglo, han empezado a entrar agencias y normativas que median en estas decisiones (los sexenios de investigaci&#x00F3;n y las agencias de calidad central y de las Comunidades Aut&#x00F3;nomas) pero el profesorado se sigue definiendo hoy como &#x201C;de Teor&#x00ED;a&#x201D;, &#x201C;de Did&#x00E1;ctica&#x201D; o &#x201C;de M&#x00E9;todos&#x201D;.</p>
<p>Desde mi punto de vista, este sistema organizativo ha contribuido de manera determinante a empobrecer la investigaci&#x00F3;n educativa en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s; a fragmentar de una manera arbitraria los temas y las preguntas de investigaci&#x00F3;n, a propiciar la creaci&#x00F3;n de grupos de presi&#x00F3;n en el seno de cada &#x00E1;rea, a generar luchas intestinas en cada &#x00E1;rea y entre &#x00E1;reas; y, por &#x00FA;ltimo, a obstaculizar e incluso penalizar el intento de transcender en la investigaci&#x00F3;n los l&#x00ED;mites impuestos por dichas &#x00E1;reas.</p>
    <p>A lo largo de mi trayectoria profesional he visto c&#x00F3;mo los grupos de presi&#x00F3;n de las diferentes &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento, encarnados en los departamentos universitarios se disputaban conocimientos, disciplinas o metodolog&#x00ED;as que aparec&#x00ED;an en el sector de la educaci&#x00F3;n. El campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n social, en tanto que sector emergente en los 80 y 90 del pasado siglo, fue objeto de deseo y de disputa de las diferentes &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento. Hace m&#x00E1;s de 30 a&#x00F1;os que se comenta que se van a eliminar las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento. Hoy ni tan siquiera se habla de ello, a pesar de que siguen imponiendo buena parte de las limitaciones que he referenciado. Se&#x00F1;ala Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Armesto que &#x201C;la especializaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica es un instrumento terrible de discordia que nos divide en guetos, aisl&#x00E1;ndonos junto a los que piensan como nosotros.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27805-Esp">2016</xref>, p. 280).</p>
<p>Estas escisiones en lo educativo no han facilitado, de ninguna manera, el dise&#x00F1;o y configuraci&#x00F3;n del grado universitario en educaci&#x00F3;n social. Si a&#x00F1;adimos que, tambi&#x00E9;n por decisi&#x00F3;n administrativa, no existe ninguna regulaci&#x00F3;n en lo que se refiere a troncalidad m&#x00ED;nima de contenidos<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn8"><sup>8</sup></xref> del grado a nivel nacional, los resultados, con relaci&#x00F3;n a la formaci&#x00F3;n de las personas graduadas en educaci&#x00F3;n social, pueden ser de lo m&#x00E1;s variados entre las diferentes comunidades aut&#x00F3;nomas. Las negociaciones y las disputas entre &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento, en relaci&#x00F3;n con las asignaturas que van a configurar cada t&#x00ED;tulo en cada comunidad aut&#x00F3;noma, se complican todav&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s con la posibilidad a&#x00F1;adida, al no haber regulaci&#x00F3;n previa al respecto, de proponer nombres de asignaturas que, por la manera como son formulados, las ubiquen en un &#x00E1;rea u otra.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-27805-Esp">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A <sc>modo de conclusi&#x00F3;n: articulando las escisiones educativas</sc></bold></title>
<p>A lo largo de las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas se ha intentado gestionar de diferentes maneras la falta de ajuste de estas escisiones educativas a unas realidades en las que encajaban con dificultad. La hibridaci&#x00F3;n, la interrelaci&#x00F3;n, la articulaci&#x00F3;n, la intermediaci&#x00F3;n, la intercomunicaci&#x00F3;n y la permeabilizaci&#x00F3;n han sido cada vez m&#x00E1;s, el camino seguido para facilitar aquel ajuste y posibilitar, al mismo tiempo, la compresi&#x00F3;n de una complejidad social y educativa que iba siendo gradualmente visibilizada. Se podr&#x00ED;a decir que, aunque algunas de aquellas escisiones siguen plenamente operativas, el transcurso del tiempo se est&#x00E1; encargando de hacerlas obsoletas o poco operativas<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn9"><sup>9</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>El aprendizaje a lo largo de la vida sustituye al criterio de &#x201C;lo formal&#x201D; en el universo de las acciones educativas. Una substituci&#x00F3;n que no es solamente terminol&#x00F3;gica. Es substancial, ya que ubica en el centro del acto educativo no a quien ense&#x00F1;a sino a quien aprende. Y, como he se&#x00F1;alado, abre la puerta a la investigaci&#x00F3;n educativa sobre todo aquello que se escapa a las formalizaciones. El denominado <italic>aprendizaje informal</italic> es un aspecto que, desde mi punto de vista, la educaci&#x00F3;n social tiene que plantear como l&#x00ED;nea prioritaria de investigaci&#x00F3;n. La educaci&#x00F3;n social, en tanto que pedagog&#x00ED;a de la vida cotidiana, pretende acompa&#x00F1;ar a las personas en sus aprendizajes vitales para ayudarles a ayudarse a s&#x00ED; mismos, como sosten&#x00ED;a, entre otros, Nohl. Buena parte de estos aprendizajes son experienciales y se gestan, a menudo de manera poco transparente, en las interacciones que las personas desarrollamos cotidianamente en nuestra vida. Es precisamente el campo en el que la educaci&#x00F3;n social tiene que investigar para construir conocimiento nuevo que ayude a los profesionales de la educaci&#x00F3;n social a mejorar y optimizar sus actuaciones.</p>
<p>Con las pedagog&#x00ED;as que estructuraban la vida en contenedores estancos e incomunicados sucede algo parecido a lo que ha pasado con lo formal. Ha sido la propia evoluci&#x00F3;n de lo social y la interpenetraci&#x00F3;n y articulaci&#x00F3;n de las diferentes etapas de la vida en un continuo la que ha hecho cada vez m&#x00E1;s obsoleto aquel planteamiento.</p>
<p>Tambi&#x00E9;n la discusi&#x00F3;n entre pedagog&#x00ED;a y ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n se ha ido desvaneciendo en el transcurso del tiempo. La emergencia de la complejidad, como nueva categor&#x00ED;a que impregna todo el &#x00E1;mbito del conocimiento; la puesta en cuesti&#x00F3;n de aquello que sea verdaderamente &#x201C;cient&#x00ED;fico&#x201D; y, asimismo, de la pretendida &#x201C;objetividad&#x201D; del conocimiento; la evoluci&#x00F3;n de las propias ciencias sociales con su aportaci&#x00F3;n de nuevas perspectivas y m&#x00E9;todos de investigaci&#x00F3;n; y la cada vez mayor permeabilizaci&#x00F3;n entre las diferentes maneras de producir o crear conocimiento, son factores que, entre otros, han contribuido a restar importancia a la pregunta sobre &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; significa hacer ciencia o ser una ciencia? Y ha relegado tambi&#x00E9;n a un segundo plano la necesidad o la exigencia de enfatizar lo &#x201C;cient&#x00ED;fica&#x201D; que es una determinada ciencia social. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27805-Esp">Janer y &#x00DA;car (2020)</xref> han mostrado, a partir de un estudio mundial comparado sobre la pedagog&#x00ED;a social, realizado desde las perspectivas acad&#x00E9;mica, de formaci&#x00F3;n (superior) y profesional, que la pedagog&#x00ED;a/educaci&#x00F3;n social es considerada como una ciencia, una pr&#x00E1;ctica y un arte.</p>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, la escisi&#x00F3;n administrativa del sector de la educaci&#x00F3;n universitaria sigue plenamente operativa<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn10"><sup>10</sup></xref>. Aunque la intermediaci&#x00F3;n en la selecci&#x00F3;n de las personas candidatas a docentes e investigadoras universitarias, que han ido progresivamente desarrollando las diferentes Agencias de calidad universitaria, est&#x00E1; contribuyendo a hacer que aquellas escisiones sean menos operativas. Tambi&#x00E9;n la articulaci&#x00F3;n cada vez mayor entre profesorado investigador de diferentes &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento que se conecta por temas o problemas de investigaci&#x00F3;n salt&#x00E1;ndose los muros que las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento han querido establecer.</p>
<p>No sabemos si el futuro nos va a deparar nuevas escisiones, pero las tendencias actuales apuntan hacia escenarios cada vez m&#x00E1;s conectados y articulados en el conjunto del sector de la educaci&#x00F3;n. La evoluci&#x00F3;n parece apuntar hacia una galaxia educativa con dos grandes nebulosas absolutamente permeables e interrelacionadas: la de la formaci&#x00F3;n, orientada al aprendizaje de contenidos y a la adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias para la vida productiva, art&#x00ED;stica y profesional; y la de la vida relacional y la convivencia c&#x00ED;vica, que apunta m&#x00E1;s al aprendizaje y experimentaci&#x00F3;n de los valores, las emociones y la vida ciudadana y comunitaria. No ser&#x00ED;a descabellado pensar que el primero estar&#x00E1; de manera mayoritaria mediado tecnol&#x00F3;gicamente mientras que el segundo se desarrollar&#x00E1;, tambi&#x00E9;n mayoritaria, pero no &#x00FA;nicamente, de manera presencial. Entre ellos, resulta plausible pensar que lo que hoy llamamos educaci&#x00F3;n social se halle fundamentalmente en este &#x00FA;ltimo.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn1"><label>1.</label> <p>Ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27805-Esp">Sloterdijk, 2013</xref>, pp. 446-458 y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27805-Esp">Piaget, 1993</xref>.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn2"><label>2.</label> <p>El Consejo General de Colegios de Educadoras y Educadores sociales de Espa&#x00F1;a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27805-Esp">(CGCEES) (2020)</xref> acaba un escrito del 27 de mayo del 2020 diciendo: &#x201C;solicitamos, la incorporaci&#x00F3;n de las y los Educadores Sociales al sistema educativo como una herramienta de promoci&#x00F3;n educativa y de compensaci&#x00F3;n de las desigualdades en la educaci&#x00F3;n mediante su inclusi&#x00F3;n en la LOMLOE, y como un derecho de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a, demandando la Educaci&#x00F3;n Social, una educaci&#x00F3;n para el Siglo XXI&#x201D;.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn3"><label>3.</label> <p>Ciertamente no son las &#x00FA;nicas influencias que est&#x00E1;n en la base de lo que hoy es la educaci&#x00F3;n social en Espa&#x00F1;a. Pero son, sin duda, las m&#x00E1;s importantes. Entre otras influencias se pueden citar, al menos, la pedagog&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica y la educaci&#x00F3;n popular y de adultos, que llegan de Latinoam&#x00E9;rica de la mano de Paulo Freire, y los procesos de desarrollo comunitario que se dan en Espa&#x00F1;a en la d&#x00E9;cada de los 60 del siglo pasado, sobre todo, en el marco del trabajo social. Ver: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 2021</xref>.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn4"><label>4.</label> <p>Para abundar en estas tres tradiciones y en la manera como influyeron en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la pedagog&#x00ED;a social y la educaci&#x00F3;n social en Espa&#x00F1;a pueden consultarse: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27805-Esp">Ortega, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27805-Esp">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras y Garc&#x00ED;a Molina, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27805-Esp">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27805-Esp">&#x00DA;car, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27805-Esp">Ortega, Caride y &#x00DA;car, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27805-Esp">Ortega y Caride, 2015</xref>.</p></fn>
    <fn fn-type="other" id="fn5"><label>5.</label> <p>Ver <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Esp">Quintana, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Esp">Fermoso, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27805-Esp">Caride, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27805-Esp">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras, y Molina, 2006</xref>. Quintana justifica aquellas diferencias diciendo que &#x201C;la Sociolog&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n es una ciencia descriptiva mientras que la pedagog&#x00ED;a social es una ciencia normativa&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Esp">1984</xref>, p. 26). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Esp">Fermoso (2003)</xref>, por su parte, explica las luchas entre los departamentos de Sociolog&#x00ED;a y de Pedagog&#x00ED;a de las universidades espa&#x00F1;olas por obtener o mantener la titularidad de dichas disciplinas.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn6"><label>6.</label> <p>Ver, al respecto, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27805-Esp">Braches-Chyrek, &#x0026; S&#x00FC;nker, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27805-Esp">Rosendal, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27805-Esp">Kornbeck, 2009</xref>. Es muy probable que el <italic>malentendido de la cientificidad</italic>, al que me he referido previamente, sea una de las razones que explique tambi&#x00E9;n en Europa estos problemas y tensiones.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn7"><label>7.</label> <p>Aunque en este texto me referir&#x00E9; &#x00FA;nicamente a estas tres &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento existen otras que tambi&#x00E9;n forman parte de dicho sector. Son las gen&#x00E9;ricamente denominadas Did&#x00E1;cticas especiales: Did&#x00E1;ctica de la Expresi&#x00F3;n Corporal; Did&#x00E1;ctica de la Expresi&#x00F3;n Musical; Did&#x00E1;ctica de la Expresi&#x00F3;n Musical, Pl&#x00E1;stica y Corporal (Desagregada); Did&#x00E1;ctica de la Expresi&#x00F3;n Pl&#x00E1;stica; Did&#x00E1;ctica de la Lengua y la Literatura; Did&#x00E1;ctica de la Matem&#x00E1;tica; Did&#x00E1;ctica de las Ciencias Experimentales; y Did&#x00E1;ctica de las Ciencias Sociales</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn8"><label>8.</label> <p>Con esto me refiero a las asignaturas o contenidos m&#x00ED;nimos que han de compartir, a nivel nacional, todas las personas que obtienen el grado de educaci&#x00F3;n social, independientemente del lugar de Espa&#x00F1;a donde lo hagan.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn9"><label>9.</label> <p>Una tal afirmaci&#x00F3;n puede resultar demasiado osada si hacemos caso a las pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas de nuestro pa&#x00ED;s que, como siempre, siguen muy de lejos y muy tarde a los cambios socioculturales. La reciente <italic>Ley Org&#x00E1;nica para la Mejora de la Calidad Educativa (LOMCE)</italic> afirma en el Art&#x00ED;culo 5 bis: &#x201C;La educaci&#x00F3;n no formal en el marco de una cultura del aprendizaje a lo largo de la vida, comprender&#x00E1; todas aquellas actividades, medios y &#x00E1;mbitos de educaci&#x00F3;n que se desarrollan fuera de la educaci&#x00F3;n formal y que se dirigen a personas de cualquier edad con especial inter&#x00E9;s en la infancia y la juventud, que tienen valor educativo en s&#x00ED; mismos y han sido organizados expresamente para satisfacer objetivos educativos en diversos &#x00E1;mbitos de la vida social tales como la capacitaci&#x00F3;n personal, promoci&#x00F3;n de valores comunitarios, animaci&#x00F3;n sociocultural, participaci&#x00F3;n social, mejora de las condiciones de vida, art&#x00ED;stica, tecnol&#x00F3;gica, l&#x00FA;dica o deportiva, entre otros. Se promover&#x00E1; la articulaci&#x00F3;n y complementariedad de la educaci&#x00F3;n formal y no formal con el prop&#x00F3;sito de que esta contribuya a la adquisici&#x00F3;n de competencias para un pleno desarrollo de la personalidad&#x201D; (p. 122882).</p></fn>
    <fn fn-type="other" id="fn10"><label>10.</label> <p>El BOE del 15 de diciembre del 2020 en su Anexo I plantea las comisiones de acreditaci&#x00F3;n a los cuerpos docentes universitarios, se&#x00F1;alando las &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento asignadas a cada una de ellas. En Educaci&#x00F3;n reafirma las &#x00E1;reas ya se&#x00F1;aladas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27805-Esp">Orden UNI/1191/2020, de 3 de diciembre, por la que se modifica el Anexo I del Real Decreto 1312/2007, de 5 de octubre, por el que se establece la acreditaci&#x00F3;n nacional para el acceso de cuerpos docentes universitarios</xref>, p. 114802).</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.27805</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.27805</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Articles</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>THE RUPTURE OF EDUCATION: PERSPECTIVES FROM PEDAGOGY AND SOCIAL EDUCATION</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n escindida: perspectivas desde la pedagog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n social</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">0000-0003-3678-8277</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>&#x00DA;CAR</surname>
<given-names>Xavier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff01"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c01"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff01">
<institution content-type="original">Universitat Aut&#x00F2;noma de Barcelona. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universitat Aut&#x00F2;noma de Barcelona</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c01"><email>xavier.ucar@uab.cat</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>09</month>
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2022</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>35</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
    <elocation-id>e27805</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>26</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2021</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>04</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2022</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2022 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2022</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Licencia CC BY-NC-ND. Licencia Creative Commons Atribuci&#x00F3;n-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional Universidad de Salamanca. Su comercializaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; sujeta al permiso del editor</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>Is social education a specific and differentiated type of education? What differentiates it from other types of education? Is there any education or pedagogy that is not social? How are pedagogy and social education related to these other, also specific, types of education? These are some of the questions that guide the conceptual and historical journey undertaken in this work from the perspective of pedagogy and social education, based around what we have characterized as ruptures in education. The underlying idea is that various ruptures have occurred in the field of education over the past century within the framework of the predominant analytical perspective. Four specific ruptures are identified and analysed: (a) that which classifies the universe of educational actions in three areas: formal, non-formal and informal; (b) the difference between pedagogy and educational sciences; (c) that which identifies three differentiated types of pedagogy: family, school and social; and (d) that which divides the field of Education at university into so-called areas of scientific knowledge. The work closes with an interpretation of the connections that currently structure these ruptures in education.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>&#x00BF;Es la educaci&#x00F3;n social un tipo espec&#x00ED;fico y diferenciado de educaci&#x00F3;n? &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; es lo que la diferencia de otros tipos de educaci&#x00F3;n? &#x00BF;Hay alguna educaci&#x00F3;n o pedagog&#x00ED;a que no sea social? &#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo se relacionan la pedagog&#x00ED;a y educaci&#x00F3;n social con esos otros tipos, tambi&#x00E9;n espec&#x00ED;ficos, de educaci&#x00F3;n? Estas son algunas de las preguntas que, desde la perspectiva de la pedagog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n social, orientan el recorrido conceptual e hist&#x00F3;rico que se desarrolla en este trabajo alrededor de lo que hemos caracterizado como escisiones educativas. Se parte de la idea que, al amparo de la perspectiva anal&#x00ED;tica predominante, se han producido a lo largo del pasado siglo, diversas escisiones en el campo de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Se identifican y analizan cuatro escisiones concretas: (a) la que estructura el universo de las acciones educativas en tres &#x00E1;reas: formal, no formal e informal; (b) la que diferencia entre pedagog&#x00ED;a y ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n; (c) la que clasifica tres tipos diferenciados de pedagog&#x00ED;a: la familiar, la escolar y la social; y (d) la que estructura el sector universitario de la educaci&#x00F3;n en las denominadas &#x00E1;reas de conocimiento cient&#x00ED;fico. Se cierra el trabajo con una lectura de las articulaciones que estructuran en la actualidad aquellas escisiones educativas.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>Pedagogy</kwd>
<kwd>educational sciences</kwd>
<kwd>social education</kwd>
<kwd>social pedagogy</kwd>
<kwd>formal education</kwd>
<kwd>non-formal education</kwd>
<kwd>informal education</kwd>
<kwd>undergraduate university training</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>Pedagog&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>ciencias de la educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n social</kwd>
<kwd>pedagog&#x00ED;a social</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n formal, educaci&#x00F3;n no formal</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n informal</kwd>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n universitaria de grado</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;After passing through the analytical tunnel, freer synthetic forms are possible again, forms of life endowed with a supplement of poetry and more freedom of movement&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27805-Eng">Sloterdijk, 2016</xref>, p. 95).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Is social education a specific and differentiated type of education? If so, which of its features make it specific? What makes it different from other types of education? Is there any education or pedagogy that is not social? How are pedagogy and social education related to these other, also specific, types of education? These are some of the basic questions that guide the conceptual and historical journey that will be undertaken in this article based on what we have characterized as educational splits.</p>
<p>To achieve the above goal, I take as a starting point the idea that education and pedagogy have been ruptured or, in other words, that there are many educations and pedagogies that supposedly have a specific entity in themselves and differ from one another on the basis of a very diverse set of criteria. A rupture is more than a mere division or fragmentation from an initial unit; it is an exclusive differentiation that can end up asserting its own identity over time, one which is specific, constitutive and differentiated from both the original unit and all of the other objects that have split away.</p>
<p>It is probably in the early modern period when this general tendency towards dividing phenomena first emerged. And it did so in the guise of the analytical perspective, which at the time seemed to be the most up-to-date, fastest and best means of discovering and mastering the mysteries of life (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-27805-Eng">Sloterdijk, 2016</xref>). Dividing phenomena in order to specify, clarify, differentiate and understand them. Always under the premise, which may seem somewhat I today, that analysis leads to mastery and that only through the latter is it possible to achieve a deep and true knowledge of things.</p>
<p>From this perspective, everything is removable, deconstructible and fragmentable. Throughout the last two centuries, many dimensions and phenomena of human existence have operated through rupture. Everything is deconstructed for the sake of greater and better knowledge, which does not in fact seek anything other than a greater control over reality. Although the disciplines seemed to be the last redoubt in the academic field, under the banner of a prevailing specialization, they also ruptured into areas of knowledge and areas of research, action and intervention that enjoyed greater or lesser autonomy.</p>
<p>The field of education and pedagogy has been no exception and, in its journey from the simple to the complex, has experienced numerous ruptures, many of which are still in force today. Gone is the &#x201C;<italic>school of life</italic>&#x201D; and the &#x201C;<italic>total knowledge</italic>&#x201D; that Comenius to referred in the 17<sup>th</sup> century<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn01"><sup>1</sup></xref>.</p>
    <p>A current look at education reveals not only a very complex panorama, but also numerous ambiguities, overlaps and conceptual and methodological inaccuracies that do not seem to have been fully resolved. It is not only the fact that anyone can talk about education, apparently fully informed for the sole reason of being a parent. It has often been the educational profession itself and also the media who, preferring to amplify certain discourses, have largely contributed to the confusion about the <italic>what, who, how</italic> and <italic>where</italic> of education in our current societies. This was first discussed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27805-Eng">Trilla (2018)</xref> in a work on what he called &#x201C;<italic>the reactionary trend in education</italic>&#x201D;. It refers to:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>exposing the spectacular frivolity of certain great men of culture when they comment on education. Refuting the, truly arbitrary, phobias of some teaching professionals who attribute all evils to any educational innovation that might arise. Referring, explicitly and by name, to two groups with opposing ideologies, but both with clearly sectarian behaviours. And also confronting the two types of &#x201C;lefties&#x201D;: those who dedicate their time to reinventing garlic soup; and those who also claim to do so scientifically (p. 190).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The trend the author is referring to has undoubtedly contributed to generating a lot of spurious noise, and also to hindering a well-founded and serious debate in society regarding the current realities and problems surrounding education. Beyond this, however, we must point to a whole series of ruptures that were developed or incorporated into the theoretical and practical educational heritage throughout the 20<sup>th</sup> century, and probably in line with what was happening in the other social sciences in Spain. The school and the community, the academic and the social, reason and emotion, theory and practice, content and activities, the qualitative and the quantitative, academia and the professional arena, these are but a few examples of the ruptures to which we refer.</p>
<p>Such ruptures are becoming more evident today, given the path towards the visibility and understanding of complexity that began in the final quarter of the last century. It is a path that emerged as a result of the ideas and concepts available at the time proving themselves to be manifestly incapable of an in-depth and adjusted approach to the complexity of phenomena. In the face of such incapacity, conceptual and methodological hybridizations and permeabilizations were devised that proposed a rethinking of the borders that had been erected between phenomena, and in some way reconnecting and reinterpreting what had previously been ruptured. Concrete examples of this path include mixed research methods, which aim to overcome the rupture between qualitative and quantitative methods; the so-called bio-sciences, which seek to amalgamate biology with the rest of the natural sciences; and finally, and among many others, the perspective of &#x201C;learning to learn&#x201D;, which aims to transcend differentiation between content and procedures. Since that point in time, we have continued to strive in this general search for articulations that provide more precise, integrated and complete perspectives of a socio-educational reality that we know to be complex.</p>
<p>Regrettably, it should be noted that Spanish authors of the last century generally made few significant and original contributions in the field of education. Furthermore, education in this country was mainly developed through the importing of theoretical models and conceptualizations from other countries. These were therefore models and conceptualizations developed in other traditions that, combined with and/or adapted to our own reality, rarely fit well within a more or less ordered and coherent framework. Perhaps because it is poorly structured, holds a less than clear status somewhere between practice, science and art, or ultimately functions on the periphery of or directly outside the education system, the field of pedagogy and social education has been especially sensitive to these ruptures.</p>
<p>I will exemplify the above idea be presenting four phenomena, each the result of ruptures in education, which have had a broad impact on shaping the education and pedagogy field in this country. They are ruptures that have clearly affected the development and evolution of both education and social pedagogy. What social education represents today in Spain, both in terms of an initial university education and as a profession in itself, is a direct result, among others, of the ruptures in education that I propose here.</p>
<p>I am not so much interested in delving into each of these ruptures, as showing how they have influenced or determined the evolution of pedagogy and social education in this country. The ruptures I am referring to are as follows:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>That which classifies the universe of educational actions in three areas: formal, non-formal and informal.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>That which differentiates between pedagogy and the educational sciences.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>That which identifies three differentiated types of pedagogy: family, school and social.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>That which structures the field of Education at university into so-called areas of scientific knowledge.</p></list-item>
</list>
<sec id="sec-1-27805-Eng">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>H<sc>ow the universe of educational actions is structured</sc></bold></title>
<p>This rupture in the universe of education became popular in the 1970s when Edgar Faure published his well-known text <italic>Learning to be</italic> as part of a UNESCO initiative. Since then, all educational actions have been classified as falling within one of three areas: <italic>formal, non-formal</italic> or <italic>informal</italic>.</p>
    <p>The way in which the areas were characterized left no room for doubt about how the three types of actions are to be considered within the educational panorama, and especially in relation to schooling and the education system. <italic>Formal</italic> referred exclusively to the latter two. <italic>Non-formal</italic> was proposed as an extraordinarily diverse bank of educational experiences that accommodated anything not considered <italic>formal</italic>; that is, that did not fall within the education system. Ortega ironically pointed out that it was in the formal sphere where &#x201C;true pedagogy and education&#x201D; were to be found (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27805-Eng">2005</xref>, p. 21), this being clearly attested to by the undervaluing throughout much of the 20<sup>th</sup> century of socio-educational activities included within social education today.</p>
<p>Social education itself is a good example of the fragility inherent in the rupture of <italic>formal</italic> and <italic>informal</italic>. In 1991, university studies in social education were made official in the Spanish Official State Gazette (BOE) and therefore became part of the formal education system. Until then, the training of what are now called social educators (then called specialized educators; sociocultural animators; adult literacy instructors; leisure time education monitors; occupational trainers; and a long etcetera) was offered by municipal bodies and included within so-called non-formal education.</p>
<p>Despite the importance still awarded to non-formal education in some Latin American countries today, where it is seen as an educational sector with an entity in itself, in Europe it has ended up as a simple administrative delimitation based around obtaining valid academic certificates. Training that offers such certificates is considered <italic>formal</italic>, and the rest <italic>non-formal</italic>.</p>
<p>Although the <italic>informal</italic> sphere was recognized as existing back then, due to its characteristics as an intangible environment that was unlikely to be formalized, or so it was thought, its influence was either not taken into account or was minimized. The perspective of complexity provides a different view. <italic>Informal learning</italic> is currently considered an emerging and promising area in the field of education, and especially in social education, which focuses its work on people&#x2019;s everyday lives. An area that, still today, is underexplored and requiring of further research.</p>
<p>How is social education related to these ruptures in education, and more to the point, with which of them is it most related? It is no easy question to answer given its development in Spain. Until not long ago, the immediate answer might have been that social education falls within the sphere of non-formal education. In historical terms, it is true that, as an alternative to school, social pedagogy had been developed outside the formal arena, in dealing precisely with all those individuals who could not access or had been expelled from school for whatever reason. Perhaps this is why <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-27805-Eng">Fermoso (1994</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Eng">2003</xref>) stated that social pedagogy deals specifically with <italic>non-formal</italic> education.</p>
    <p>The B.O.E. of October 10, 1991 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-27805-Eng">Royal Decree 24669-1420/1991</xref>), which contained the first guidelines on studies related to the Diploma in Social Education, stated that:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Teaching should be oriented towards training educators in the fields of non-formal education, adult education (including the elderly), the social integration of maladjusted and disabled people, and socio-educational action (p. 32891).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>I have published an in-depth analysis of the inconsistencies in this wording from both a technical and epistemological point of view elsewhere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 1996</xref>). Suffice it to say here that it is evident, in the definition itself, that the non-formal sphere falls short when it comes to specifying those spaces and times in which social education acts. From the perspective of <italic>lifelong learning</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-27805-Eng">Caride (2020)</xref> provided a detailed anlaysis of the theoretical-conceptual inconsistencies of <italic>non-formal education</italic>, highlighting international organizations&#x2019; use and abuse of the term. Said author also revealed the insufficiencies of this expression in encapsulating the complexities of other educations, including among them social education itself.</p>
<p>In recent years, social education has begun to transcend the limits that had historically confined it to working exclusively with people in situations of need, deficit, risk and vulnerability. The classic idea that all education is social by nature is beginning to become a reality in our country. It should be noted, however, that if any one type has truly represented social education, then it has been that of school education, since it brings children together to socialize them and enable them to live together in society. However, since the earliest of times, it was those educational actions taking place outside the school framework that were characterized as &#x201C;social&#x201D;. Probably due to the negative connotations that accompanied this concept in the early modern period.</p>
<p>The incorporation of social educators in schools was first institutionalized in Spain in 2002 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-27805-Eng">Gal&#x00E1;n Carretero, 2019</xref>), and five Autonomous Regions now contemplate this in their respective legislation: Castilla-La Mancha (2002), Extremadura (2002), Andalusia (2008), the Canary Islands (2018) and the Balearic Islands (2018). Others, such as Catalonia, are currently implementing pilot projects to do likewise. In fact, there has been widespread analysis and debate on social educators&#x2019; connections and contributions to schools in recent years throughout Spain<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn02"><sup>2</sup></xref>. This debate coincides with a parallel movement committed to connecting the school with the community (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-27805-Eng">Castro <italic>et al</italic>., 2007</xref>). There is already talk of &#x201C;school social pedagogy&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-27805-Eng">March &amp; Orte, 2014</xref>, p. 75), and it seems highly likely that incorporation of the profession of social education within the education system as a whole will become the norm in our country in the coming years.</p>
<p>Despite the initial usefulness of dividing the universe of educational actions into the three aforementioned spheres, it has always been difficult to fit pedagogy and social education within this framework. The simplicity of the approach means it is inappropriate for precisely characterizing spaces and times in education today. It is worth remembering that half a century has passed since it was first formulated, and given the accelerated change that our societies have experienced in recent decades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-27805-Eng">Rosa, 2012</xref>), it is therefore not surprising that it has become practically obsolete today.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-27805-Eng">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>P<sc>edagogy and/or educational sciences</sc></bold></title>
<p>This differentiation is not, at its origin, the result of a rupture within the educational field, but rather due to two European scientific traditions that arrived in Spain during the 20<sup>th</sup> century. The first, German, was idealistic in nature, and the second, the Franco-British tradition, was positivist (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27805-Eng">Ortega, &#x0026; Caride, 2015</xref>, p. 7). In other words, one tradition more focused on philosophical aspects, and another more focused on the scientific, the empirical and the practical<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn03"><sup>3</sup></xref>. If I refer to this as a rupture, it is due to the way in which the two traditions were treated in this country, the relationships that were established between them and a certain conceptual confusion derived from said relationships. Both had a notable influence on the creation of two university qualifications at the beginning of the 1990s: the Bachelor&#x2019;s degree (in Spanish, <italic>licenciatura</italic>, a 4-year course) in Pedagogy, and the Diploma in Social education (3 years). Expanding on this rupture can help us understand some conceptual and professional problems that occur between what, in the Spanish context, comprise two different 4-year university degrees today: those of Pedagogy and Social education. A rupture that could lead us to think that these are two completely different university degrees.</p>
<p>As a discipline that connects with a philosophical tradition, pedagogy stems from the Germanic influence and it was in this line that the first allusions to social pedagogy appeared from the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century onwards (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27805-Eng">Ortega, &#x0026; Caride, 2015</xref>). For its part, the Franco-British tradition came to our country at the beginning of the second half of that century. Despite being from two different sources, France and England, and the different approaches they entail, both coincide in proposing a pragmatic perspective, closer to social reality and educational practice than the German. And they also coincide in not referring to pedagogy, but rather to education exclusively. It was this latter tradition, especially the more practical and applied dimension of the Francophone line, that led to the social education we know today. An overview of this analysis can be found in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-27805-Eng">Figure 1</xref>.</p>
<fig id="fig-1-27805-Eng">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>E<sc>uropean educational traditions that converged in the professionalization of social education in spain</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-27805-Eng.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: author&#x2019;s own work</attrib>
</fig>
    <p>In the last quarter of the 20th century, pedagogy and educational sciences coexisted in education studies in our country, without it being very clear what the differences were between them or whether the former included the latter or vice versa. Quintana even referred to &#x201C;the trend of replacing &#x2018;pedagogy&#x2019; with &#x2018;educational sciences&#x2019;&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Eng">1984</xref>, p. 16), which in his view became commonplace in Spain from 1968 onwards.</p>
<p>The stances adopted by Spanish academics in the field of education oscillated in this regard between: (a) a distinction that led them to adhere unconditionally to one of them; (b) the integration of both; or (c) an indiscriminate use of the two terms.</p>
<p>In respect of the latter, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Eng">Fermoso (2003)</xref>, for example, stated that &#x201C;among us [university professors], we speak indistinctly of &#x2018;Pedagogy&#x2019;, &#x2018;Educational Sciences&#x2019; and &#x2018;Theory of Education&#x2019;&#x201D; (p. 62). That being said, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27805-Eng">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras (2007)</xref> pointed out that, for practical purposes, it is due to administrative decisions that a certain term ends up being adopted or abandoned. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-27805-Eng">B&#x00F6;hm (2015)</xref> stated that &#x201C;the divergence between pedagogy(ies) and educational science(s) is aggravated by the fact that political and financial patronage clearly favours educational sciences&#x201D; (p. 20). This was especially true in undergraduate university studies in this country, where the term &#x201C;social education&#x201D; was preferred over that of &#x201C;social pedagogy&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 1996</xref>).</p>
    <p>We have pointed out that German pedagogy arrived in Spain at the beginning of the 20th century, while the French and English traditions did so in the middle of the century<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn04"><sup>4</sup></xref>. This explains why the entry of the latter was experienced in the pedagogical profession as a loss of the initial unity that had been provided by pedagogy. Ortega pointed out that, in the 1970s, &#x201C;the disaggregation of &#x2018;Pedagogy&#x2019; into &#x2018;Educational Sciences&#x2019; took place following &#x2018;scientific&#x2019; adhesions&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27805-Eng">2005</xref>, p. 112).</p>
<p>I have characterized this fact, which Ortega refers to as the <italic>scientific misunderstanding</italic>, elsewhere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 2013</xref>). It is a misunderstanding that stems from the historical trajectory followed by pedagogy in Spain in its quest to become a social science on a par with the rest of the so-called social sciences. As Meirieu pointed out:</p>
<disp-quote>
    <p>in order to acquire their pedigree within the university, the &#x201C;educational sciences&#x201D; had to prove their &#x201C;scientificity&#x201D;. And, for fear that they would not be considered &#x201C;true sciences&#x201D;, they redoubled their commitment to pointillism and positivism: this is how the experimental method was imposed, preferably loaded with quantitative data, to the detriment of the critical reading of works, careful observation of practices and decoding of the issues at stake (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-27805-Eng">2016</xref>, p. 111).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This may be one of the problems that has contributed most to the lack of academic and social prestige awarded to (social) pedagogy and is also at the base of a large part of the evils that <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-27805-Eng">Trilla (2018)</xref> referred to in the aforementioned book.</p>
<p>In my view, this misunderstanding equally reveals a desire and a complex that can be associated with pedagogy. The desire to have a status equivalent to that of the rest of the social sciences, and a certain complex deriving from the fact of not being socially and academically recognized. Both of these factors are linked to the history of pedagogy and the evolution of the social sciences in our country.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27805-Eng">Brezinka (2002)</xref> analysed the evolution of pedagogy from its beginnings as a &#x201C;theory of the art of educating&#x201D; linked to educational practice, up until its total departure from practice to become a scientific pedagogy. And he also pointed out that the value of that theory, not yet scientific, lay in the security it provided educators with when acting in educational practice.</p>
<p>This evolution of pedagogy towards the scientific field is explainable by the status held by both practices and arts in the 19th century. As De la Orden pointed out:</p>
<disp-quote>
    <p>When I was studying pedagogy at the University of Madrid in the 1950s, I became convinced that we had to leave behind essay writing and philosophy if we wanted to become a scientific community. It would probably take a lot of effort for our discipline to come to resemble a physical-natural science, but that was the model (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-27805-Eng">2007</xref>, p. 3).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Being seen as a practice or an art did not help pedagogy when it came to being considered a science, since neither was taken into account by an academia at that time determined to focus on theory and the scientific method. If pedagogy was to achieve &#x201C;scientific&#x201D; status among the different social sciences, it would need to distance itself from being considered as a practical or artistic activity and become a science whose main objective was to produce theory. It seemed that only by becoming scientific could pedagogy achieve the necessary status to be one more science among the different social sciences.</p>
    <p>Brezinka revealed how the search to satisfy this desire brought with it a high price: that of abandoning practice. The resulting pedagogy was more academic, less practical, and more scholarly; a pedagogy, in short, that &#x201C;increases insecurity and confusion, and creates resignation among educators&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-27805-Eng">2002</xref>, p. 401).</p>
<p>The same German author explained that the pedagogy initiated in the 18th century generated high expectations in relation to what could be achieved by a pedagogy turned science. Time has come to show that these expectations were not met, however: there were no improvements in educational practice and it did not become possible to better or more reliably predict the results of educational actions.</p>
<p>Deprived of a base on which to anchor and build its discourse, scientific pedagogy &#x2013; and university pedagogues themselves &#x2013; have, in general in this country, had a diffuse identity and academic production little connected with educational actions and practices. Brezinka concluded by pointing out that pejorative views of pedagogy can probably be attributed to the disenchantment generated by not having met expectations in relation to the predictive capacity and security that it was supposed to provide for educators and educational processes. This is what De la Orden (2004) highlighted in relation to so-called experimental pedagogy: &#x201C;its journey has not been totally satisfactory, because it has not been able to fully articulate its desire for scientificity and its commitment to optimization&#x201D; (cited in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-27805-Eng">L&#x00F3;pez Gonzalez, 2012</xref>, p.48).</p>
    <p>Brezinka&#x2019;s analysis may help explain why there was a subsequent rupture in the Franco-British current in terms of its spheres of influence. The <italic>scientific</italic> perspective stemming from the English-speaking tradition and part of the Francophone tradition, which advocates rethinking the field of education from science, mainly influences how pedagogy studies are carried out at universities. &#x201C;Since then,&#x201D; Garc&#x00E9;s states, referring to the scientific perspective in education, &#x201C;the field of theoretical and practical reflection on education has done nothing but fragment and diversify exponentially&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-27805-Eng">2020</xref>, p. 32).</p>
<p>In relation to the quandary over pedagogy/educational sciences and the clash between the aforementioned two traditions and the German one, in the 1980s the question was asked of whether <italic>Social Pedagogy</italic> should be replaced <italic>by the Sociology of Education</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn05"><sup>5</sup></xref> on the university pedagogy curriculum. The passage of time has finally led to the two coexisting on current university curricula, where we find degrees in both Pedagogy and Social education.</p>
<p>We have already pointed out that the perspective of <italic>educational sciences</italic> derives from the Francophone current, following, among others, the ideas of Durkheim (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27805-Eng">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras, 2007</xref>). But said current also brought with it a whole series of practical experiences in sociocultural and educational work aiming to respond to the problems that, in the framework of the prevailing dictatorship in our country at the time, were occurring in the peripheral neighbourhoods of numerous cities totally neglected by the centralism of the regime. I have noted elsewhere that:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>The first educational actions to be carried out in community settings, in the 1960s and 1970s, were conceived within a context of need and as a result of at least two processes: one being community reconstruction, and the other the protest or struggle against the dictatorship. Seeking to meet one of these objectives or another, informal social agents, in most cases lacking theoretical training and technical tools, voluntarily engaged in socio-community work with large doses of enthusiasm and confidence in the future. They were the forerunners of today&#x2019;s social educators. Those first socio-educational intervenors, aware of their training deficiencies, eagerly drank from any source that would help them organize, systematize and, ultimately, improve their own practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 2002</xref>, p. 5).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>One of these sources was the socio-educational work being carried out in France at the time. Young Spaniards, who had experienced different cultural and educational practices in their neighbouring country, began to reproduce them in Spain, and socio-cultural and specialized education initiatives from the French-speaking world were soon spreading throughout this country.</p>
<p>All of the above resulted in two parallel trajectories here in Spain, that of social pedagogy, which was taught at universities (in competition with the sociology of education, imported as part of the scientific perspective) and that of social education which, under a very varied set of names, was put into practice in many neighbourhoods. Two trajectories that separated the academics (theoreticians) from the professionals (practitioners). Interestingly, this separation between academics and professionals in pedagogy/social education has also occurred in other European countries<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn06"><sup>6</sup></xref>. It should be noted, however, that there has been a clear commitment to convergence and the development of a joint discourse between academics and professionals in recent years (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27805-Eng">Ortega, Caride, &amp; &#x00DA;car, 2013</xref>).</p>
<p>The result of these different trajectories is the still discussed relationship between (social) pedagogy and social education. A discussion that occurs in both the theoretical and professional spheres.</p>
<p>Questions regarding the relationship between social education and pedagogy or, more specifically, about whether social educators are pedagogues or vice versa, arise often in the first years of university degree training. Suffice it to say for the moment that the academic legislation establishes two different degrees that train two, in theory at least, different professionals. Although both are part of the education sector, the professional profile of social educators and the jobs that they can access today are more identifiable and concrete than those that can be accessed by professionals in pedagogy.</p>
<p>However, the aforementioned professional differences do not prevent the two from working within the integrative and vehicular framework of pedagogy. In other words, although social educators are clearly not pedagogues from a professional point of view, their professional activity is clearly pedagogical.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-27805-Eng">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>ife structured into pedagogies</sc></bold></title>
<p>Social pedagogy is a pedagogy that is taught neither by the family nor by the school. This was the idea posited by B&#x00E4;umer in 1920s Germany, following the ideas of Nohl (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27805-Eng">Quintana, 1999</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-27805-Eng">P&#x00E9;rez Serrano, 2003</xref>). The latter author was one of the first scholars of what could be called practical social pedagogy, and what we now call social education in the Spanish context. Life was thus structured into pedagogies. There was a family pedagogy that took place within the family, a school pedagogy that took place in the school, and a social pedagogy that, unlike the other two, was not situated within any specific institution. These authors pointed out that it was up to society and the State to implement it. B&#x00E4;umer stated that this pedagogy existed &#x201C;in special, public or private, institutions [&#x2026;] that provided socio-educational assistance&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-27805-Eng">Quintana, 1999</xref>, pp. 91-92).</p>
<p>Practical social pedagogy, developed above all by Nohl from the beginning of the 20th century onwards, is a pedagogy that seeks to remedy the problems and needs created by industrial society. A pedagogy that could be considered a pedagogy of need and that the aforementioned author characterized as the &#x201C;third space&#x201D;; one that is related to neither family nor school. In fact, this is the perspective that reached Spanish universities. The social pedagogy that began to be taught in Spanish universities from the second half of the 20th century onwards was a pedagogy focused mainly on maladjusted children and youth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Eng">Quintana, 1984</xref>).</p>
<p>It would not be inaccurate to identify a parallelism between the stages that classical sociology established for the processes of socialization and the very structuring of life through pedagogies. The primary socialization that occurs in the family corresponds to family pedagogy. Secondary socialization, which takes place at school, is acquired through school pedagogy. Finally, tertiary socialization, also called resocialization (R&#x00F6;ssner, 1977, cited in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-27805-Eng">Fermoso, 1990</xref>, p. 160), is the one that, situated within the perspective of the &#x201C;third space&#x201D; and the pedagogy of need, corresponds to social pedagogy.</p>
<p>We have explained elsewhere how the evolution of what is termed social in the second half of the 20th century brought an end to this classic interpretation of what we understand by the term social. Nowadays, socialization or, more accurately, socializations, given that it is not a unified or homogeneous process, are continuous; they are distributed widely; they occur in physical and digital environments; and they take place throughout our existence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 2016</xref>).</p>
<p>We can state something similar in relation to the three pedagogies defined above. The distinction is useful in simple societies, where agents, socializers and educators are clearly identifiable and the institutions that host them are separate and clearly differentiated. In complex societies like ours, however, where institutions are increasingly permeable to the physical, digital and sociocultural environment, and whose educational and socializing agencies are diverse, diffuse and not always completely transparent, ruptures and differentiations tend to become blurred.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-27805-Eng">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>dministrative ruptures in education in the name of science</sc></bold></title>
    <p>I have already referred to how administrative decisions can end up generating situations or even specific cultures that stretch out over time and can be very difficult to reverse, even when they are identified as being ineffective or inefficient. I am referring here to the University Reform Law (LRU) of 1983, led by the socialist minister Jose M&#x00AA; Maravall. This reform, which modernized the Spanish university system both structurally and functionally (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-27805-Eng">Vega Gil, 1997</xref>), established the so-called areas of scientific knowledge employed at Spanish universities.</p>
    <p>These areas were administrative delimitations used to categorize university professors. The areas of knowledge are &#x201C;those fields of knowledge characterized by the homogeneity of their object of knowledge, a common historical tradition and the existence of national or international research communities&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-27805-Eng">Royal Decree 1888/1984, of September 26, which regulates calls for the allocation of places in university teaching bodies</xref>, page 31051). In the specific sector of education, the areas of knowledge pertaining to pedagogy were established as: <italic>Theory and history of education; Didactics and school organization;</italic> and <italic>Research and Diagnostic Methods in Education</italic><xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn07"><sup>7</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Beyond its obvious arbitrariness, this rupture in the education sector may not have been of any great importance if it were not for the clause that prescribed how university careers and research pathways had to be followed within a specific area of knowledge. And that supervision of and decisions on these careers fell under the jurisdiction of the full professors responsible for each area.</p>
<p>For many years, this organizational system prevailed in shaping the teaching and research bodies of university departments and designing the curricula of what were then known as <italic>diplomatura</italic> and <italic>licenciatura</italic> courses, but are nowadays referred to as degrees. Even today, the individual areas of knowledge still configure the tribunals that judge candidates for a career in teaching and research. It is true that, since the mid-1990s, agencies and regulations have begun to come into play that mediate these decisions (the six-year research periods and the quality agencies of the State and the individual autonomous regions), but the teaching staff continues to be defined as &#x201C;from Theory&#x201D;, &#x201C;from Didactics&#x201D; or &#x201C;from Methods&#x201D;.</p>
<p>In my view, this organizational system has contributed decisively to impoverishing educational research in our country; to arbitrarily fragmenting research topics and questions; to promoting the creation of pressure groups within each area; to generating internal struggles in each area and between areas; and, finally, to hindering and even penalizing attempts to transcend the limits that these areas impose on research.</p>
    <p>Throughout my professional career, I have seen how pressure groups from different areas of knowledge, embodied in university departments, have disputed knowledge, disciplines or methodologies appearing in the education sector. As an emerging sector in the 1980s and 1990s, the field of social education was an object of desire and dispute among the different areas of knowledge. Although for over 30 years there was talk of eliminating these areas of knowledge, today it is not even discussed, despite the fact that they continue to impose a good part of the limitations that I have mentioned. As Fern&#x00E1;ndez-Armesto pointed out, &#x201C;academic specialization is a terrible instrument of discord that divides us into ghettos, isolating us together with those who think like us&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-27805-Eng">2016</xref>, p. 280).</p>
<p>These ruptures in education have not facilitated the design and configuration of the university degree in social education in any way. If we add to this the fact that, also by dint of administrative decision, no regulation exists regarding the minimum core<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn08"><sup>8</sup></xref> content of the degree at the national level, then it will come as no surprise that results in the training of graduates in social education vary greatly between the different autonomous regions. Negotiations and disputes between areas of knowledge in relation to which subjects will comprise each degree in each autonomous region are further complicated by the added possibility &#x2013; since there is no prior regulation in this regard &#x2013; of proposing names of subjects that situate them in one area or another due purely to the way in which they are formulated.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-27805-Eng">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>B<sc>y way of conclusion: articulating ruptures in education</sc></bold></title>
<p>Over the last few decades, attempts have been made to find different ways of managing the failure of these ruptures in education to adapt to realities within which they do not readily fit. Hybridization, interrelation, articulation, intermediation, intercommunication and permeabilization have increasingly shaped the path that has been followed to facilitate said adaptation and enable, at the same time, understanding of a social and educational complexity that was gradually becoming more visible. One might say that, although some of these ruptures are still in full operation, the passage of time is making them obsolete or scarcely operational<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn09"><sup>9</sup></xref>.</p>
<p>Lifelong learning replaces the &#x201C;formal&#x201D; criterion in the universe of educational actions. A substitution that is not merely one of terminology, but also one of substance, since it places not the one who teaches but the one who learns at the centre of the educational act. And what is more, as I have pointed out, it opens the door to educational research on everything that escapes formalization. So-called <italic>informal learning</italic> is an aspect that, from my point of view, social education must consider as a priority line of research. Social education, as a pedagogy of everyday life, aims to accompany people in their learning to help them help themselves, as Nohl, among others, sustained. Much of this learning is experiential and generated, often in a non-transparent way, in the interactions that people have in our daily lives. It is precisely the field in which social education has to investigate in order to build new knowledge that helps social education professionals improve and optimize their actions.</p>
<p>Something similar has happened to the concept of formal as happened with the pedagogies that structured life in watertight and isolated containers. It has been the very evolution of what is considered to be social and the interpenetration and articulation of the different stages of life in a continuum that has made the formal approach increasingly obsolete.</p>
<p>The debate between pedagogy and educational sciences has also faded over time. The emergence of complexity as a new category that permeates the entire field of knowledge; the questioning of what is truly &#x201C;scientific&#x201D; and, likewise, of the alleged &#x201C;objectivity&#x201D; of knowledge; the evolution of the social sciences themselves, with their contribution of new perspectives and research methods; and the increasing permeabilization between different ways of producing or creating knowledge&#x2026; are all factors that, among others, have contributed to downplaying the question: What does it mean to do science or to be a science? And in the meantime, the need or demand to emphasize how &#x201C;scientific&#x201D; a given social science is has also been relegated to the background. By means of a global comparative study on social pedagogy, carried out from academic, (higher) education and professional training perspectives, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-27805-Eng">Janer and &#x00DA;car (2020)</xref> have shown that pedagogy/social education is considered a science, a practice and an art.</p>
<p>Finally, it is worth noting that the administrative rupture of the university education sector remains in place<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn010"><sup>10</sup></xref>. That being said, the intermediation progressively being implemented by the different University Quality Agencies in the autonomous regions with respect to the selection of university teaching and research candidates is contributing to reducing the impact of these ruptures. As is the increasingly common networking between research faculty from different areas of knowledge connected by research topics or problems, breaking down the walls that the areas of knowledge have sought to establish.</p>
<p>We do not know if the future will bring new ruptures, but current trends point towards increasingly connected and linked scenarios in the education sector as a whole. This evolution would seem to point towards an educational galaxy with two completely permeable and interrelated nebulae: that of training, oriented towards content learning and the acquisition of skills for productive, artistic and professional life; and that of relational life and civic coexistence, aimed more at learning and experiencing values, emotions and citizen and community life. It would not be unreasonable to think that the former will be mostly technologically mediated, while the latter will develop, also mostly, but not only, as face-to-face interaction. It is plausible to think that what we now call social education will be mainly found in the latter sphere.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn01"><label>1.</label> <p>See: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-27805-Eng">Sloterdijk, 2013</xref>, pp. 446-458 and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-27805-Eng">Piaget, 1993</xref>.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn02"><label>2.</label> <p>The General Council of Educator and Social Educator Colleges of Spain <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-27805-Eng">(CGCEES) (2020)</xref> ends a document dated May 27, 2020 as follows: &#x201C;we request the incorporation of Social Educators within the education system as a tool for promoting education and compensating for inequalities in education through their inclusion in the LOMLOE (Organic Act Modifying the Organic Act on Education, approved in December 2020), and as a right of citizens demanding Social Education, an education for the 21st Century&#x201D;. See: <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://www.consejoeducacionsocial.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/NPAportacionesCGCEESaLOMLOE27mayo2020.pdf">https://www.consejoeducacionsocial.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/05/NPAportacionesCGCEESaLOMLOE27mayo2020.pdf</ext-link></p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn03"><label>3.</label> <p>These are certainly not the only influences underlying what is now Social Education in Spain. But they are, without a doubt, the most important. Among other influences we can cite, at least, critical pedagogy and popular and adult education, which came from Latin America at the hands of Paulo Freire, and the community development processes that took place in Spain in the 1960s, above all, within the social work framework. See <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 2021</xref>.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn04"><label>4.</label> <p>To expand on these three traditions and the way in which they influenced the shaping of social pedagogy and social education in Spain, see: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-27805-Eng">Ortega, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27805-Eng">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras and Garc&#x00ED;a Molina, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-27805-Eng">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras, 2007</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-27805-Eng">&#x00DA;car, 2011</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-27805-Eng">Ortega, Caride and &#x00DA;car, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-27805-Eng">Ortega and Caride, 2015</xref>.</p></fn>
    <fn fn-type="other" id="fn05"><label>5.</label> <p>See <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Eng">Quintana, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Eng">Fermoso, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-27805-Eng">Caride, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-27805-Eng">S&#x00E1;ez Carreras and Molina, 2006</xref>. Quintana justified these differences by stating that &#x201C;the Sociology of education is a descriptive science, while social pedagogy is a normative science&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-27805-Eng">1984</xref>, p. 26). <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-27805-Eng">Fermoso (2003)</xref>, for his part, explained the struggles taking place between the Sociology and Pedagogy departments to obtain or maintain ownership of these disciplines at Spanish universities.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn06"><label>6.</label> <p>See, in this regard, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-27805-Eng">Braches-Chyrek &#x0026; S&#x00FC;nker, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-27805-Eng">Rosendal, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-27805-Eng">Kornbeck, 2009</xref>. It is very likely that the <italic>misunderstanding of scientificity</italic> to which I referred previously is one of the reasons that also explains these problems and tensions in Europe.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn07"><label>7.</label> <p>Although I refer only to these three areas of knowledge in this text, there are others that also make up this sector. They are generically referred to as Special didactics: Didactics of Corporal Expression; Didactics of Musical Expression; Didactics of Musical, Plastic and Corporal Expression (Disaggregated); Didactics of Plastic Expression; Didactics of Language and Literature; Didactics of Mathematics; Didactics of the Experimental Sciences; and Didactics of the Social Sciences.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn08"><label>8.</label> <p>By this I mean the basic subjects or content that must be shared, at a national level, by all people who obtain a degree in social education, regardless of where they do so in Spain.</p></fn>
<fn fn-type="other" id="fn09"><label>9.</label> <p>Such a statement may be too bold if we are to heed the educational policies of our country which, as always, lag very far behind sociocultural changes and arrive very late. Article 5 bis of the recent Organic Act for the Improvement of Educational Quality (LOMCE) states the following: &#x201C;Non-formal education within the framework of a culture of lifelong learning will include all those activities, means and areas of education that take place outside formal education and that are aimed at people of any age with a special interest in childhood and youth, that have educational value in themselves and have been expressly organized to meet educational objectives in various areas of life such as self-improvement, promoting community values, socio-cultural animation, social participation, improving living conditions in relation to art, technology, recreation and sports, among others. The articulation and complementary nature of formal and non-formal education will be promoted so that the latter contributes to the acquisition of skills for the full development of the personality&#x201D; (p. 122882).</p></fn>
    <fn fn-type="other" id="fn010"><label>10.</label> <p>Annex I of the BOE of December 15, 2020 contemplates accreditation committees for university teaching bodies, indicating the areas of knowledge assigned to each of them. In Education, it reaffirms the areas already indicated (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-27805-Eng">Order UNI/1191/2020, of December 3, which modifies Annex I of Royal Decree 1312/2007, of October 5, establishing national accreditation for the access of university teaching bodies</xref>, page 114802).</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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