<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.1 20151215//EN" "https://jats.nlm.nih.gov/publishing/1.1/JATS-journalpublishing1.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32701</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32701</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Amores que matan: debates sobre el esencialismo escolar</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Loves that Kill: Debates on School Essentialism</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3122-052X</contrib-id>
<name>
    <surname>Narodowski</surname>
<given-names>Mariano</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<email>mnarodowski@utdt.edu</email>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos Aires. Argentina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Torcuato Di Tella</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026382</issue-id>
<elocation-id>e32701</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>25</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>15</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo analiza la defensa de la escuela formulada por Jan Masschelein y Maarten Simons, quienes la conciben como un espacio de tiempo libre no productivo. Se plantea como hip&#x00F3;tesis que dicha concepci&#x00F3;n descansa en un triple esencialismo &#x2014;nominal, racional y afectivo&#x2014; que fetichiza lo escolar y la invisibiliza como tecnolog&#x00ED;a que canaliza pr&#x00E1;cticas. El an&#x00E1;lisis confirma que este esencialismo apela a la <italic>schol&#x00E9;</italic> como mito, por la atribuci&#x00F3;n de una capacidad racional y por la centralidad del amor como fundamento de legitimidad. Esto produce efectos de impotencia reflexiva y bloqueo de la imaginaci&#x00F3;n en un escenario acelerado de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n y culturas prefigurativas.</p>
<p>Se sustenta un an&#x00E1;lisis te&#x00F3;rico-cr&#x00ED;tico que articula aportes de la historia y la sociolog&#x00ED;a, nociones foucaultianas de tecnolog&#x00ED;a y gubernamentalidad y estudios sobre evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural. La ense&#x00F1;anza es considerada como una capacidad adaptativa de la especie humana, anterior y exterior a la escuela, cuestionando su naturalizaci&#x00F3;n como h&#x00E1;bitat exclusivo.</p>
<p>Los hallazgos sugieren que el &#x00E9;nfasis en el amor como fundamento de legitimaci&#x00F3;n configura un blindaje normativo que, lejos de empoderar a los docentes intensifica la decepci&#x00F3;n y la impotencia, particularmente en una cultura prefigurativa, donde la centralidad simb&#x00F3;lica del adulto se ve erosionada, comprometiendo el horizonte testimonial de lo escolar.</p>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo propone identificar otros modos de anidar la ense&#x00F1;anza, sugiri&#x00E9;ndose tres v&#x00ED;as complementarias: rechazar el fetiche escolar mediante la historizaci&#x00F3;n de lo escolar; cartografiar espacios donde emergen tiempos no productivos; y explorar acoples entre formas escolares y postescolares, evaluando efectos sobre la atenci&#x00F3;n y la igualdad de acceso al conocimiento. Se propone abrir la imaginaci&#x00F3;n prescindiendo de la recurrencia mitificada y as&#x00ED; identificar flujos capaces de sostener lo educativo en su car&#x00E1;cter evolutivo, abierto y contingente.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>This article analyzes the defense of the school formulated by Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons, who conceive it as a space of non-productive free time. The hypothesis advanced is that this conception rests on a triple essentialism&#x2014;nominal, rational, and affective&#x2014;that fetishizes the school and obscures it as a technology that channels practices. The analysis confirms that this essentialism appeals to <italic>schol&#x00E9;</italic> as a myth, to the attribution of a rational capacity, and to the centrality of love as the ultimate foundation of legitimacy. This produces effects of reflexive impotence and blocks imagination in an accelerated scenario of digitalization and prefigurative cultures.</p>
<p>The study is based on a theoretical-critical analysis that draws on history and sociology, Foucauldian notions of technology and governmentality, and research on cultural evolution. Teaching is considered as an adaptive capacity of the human species, prior to and external to the school, thereby questioning its naturalization as the exclusive habitat of education.</p>
<p>The findings suggest that the emphasis on love as a source of legitimacy configures a normative shield which, far from empowering teachers, intensifies disappointment and impotence&#x2014;particularly in a prefigurative culture where the symbolic centrality of adults is eroded, undermining the testimonial horizon of schooling.</p>
<p>The article proposes identifying alternative ways of embedding teaching, suggesting three complementary paths: rejecting the school fetish through the historicization of schooling; mapping spaces where non-productive times emerge; and exploring couplings between school and post-school forms, assessing their effects on attention and equality of access to knowledge. It calls for opening educational imagination beyond mythologized recurrences in order to identify flows capable of sustaining education in its evolutionary, open, and contingent character.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>escuela como tecnolog&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural</kwd>
<kwd>fetichismo escolar</kwd>
<kwd>esencialismo</kwd>
<kwd>impotencia reflexiva</kwd>
<kwd>culturas prefigurativas</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>school as technology</kwd>
<kwd>cultural evolution</kwd>
<kwd>school fetishism</kwd>
<kwd>essentialism</kwd>
<kwd>reflexive impotence</kwd>
<kwd>prefigurative cultures</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32701-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo se concentra en la propuesta de Jan Masschelein y Maarten Simons, quienes han formulado una defensa de la escuela en tanto espacio singular de <italic>skhol&#x00E9;</italic> y tiempo libre no productivo. A diferencia de las lecturas filos&#x00F3;ficas que buscan continuar su reflexi&#x00F3;n, aqu&#x00ED; adoptamos expl&#x00ED;citamente un enfoque te&#x00F3;rico desde las ciencias sociales: nuestro argumento es que esta concepci&#x00F3;n invisibiliza las dimensiones materiales y tecnol&#x00F3;gicas que condicionan las pr&#x00E1;cticas contempor&#x00E1;neas de ense&#x00F1;anza, al tiempo que refuerza un imaginario normativo que puede derivar en una fetichizaci&#x00F3;n de la escuela.</p>
<p>La tesis central sostiene que la defensa de la escuela descansa en un triple esencialismo -nominal, racional y afectivo- que fetichiza lo escolar, invisibilizando las tecnolog&#x00ED;as que atraviesan y configuran pr&#x00E1;cticas. Desde una lectura sociohist&#x00F3;rica, proponemos mostrar las posibilidades y los l&#x00ED;mites de esta apuesta normativa y abrir la discusi&#x00F3;n hacia formas alternativas de conceptualizar la ense&#x00F1;anza: desde la sociolog&#x00ED;a, y la historia es posible comprender a la escuela como una tecnolog&#x00ED;a contingente, configurada por condiciones espec&#x00ED;ficas. Este marco se enriquece con los estudios sobre evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural, que muestran c&#x00F3;mo la ense&#x00F1;anza es una capacidad adaptativa de la especie humana que no s&#x00F3;lo precede, sino que sostiene la existencia de lo escolar entre m&#x00FA;ltiples formas sociales y tecnol&#x00F3;gicas generadas a lo largo del tiempo.</p>
<p>Por otro lado, nos preocupa entender c&#x00F3;mo la idea de defensa (o apolog&#x00ED;a), se formula justo en un contexto hist&#x00F3;rico donde se ve erosionada la eficacia del lugar docente como garante de saber: la escuela ya no parece asegurar continuidad cultural ni autoridad leg&#x00ED;tima (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32701-ES">Dubet, 2007</xref>); el adulto ha perdido consistencia como representante de un mundo y sus tradiciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32701-ES">Narodowski, 2016</xref>); y la ense&#x00F1;anza escolar se ve interpelada por formas tecnol&#x00F3;gicas, sociales y culturales que limitan su poder formativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32701-ES">Sadowski, 2020</xref>). En este marco, esta defensa podr&#x00ED;a leerse menos como respuesta creativa y m&#x00E1;s como un blindaje normativo que refuerza la impotencia para pensar lo nuevo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32701-ES">Fisher, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Frente a ello, se pretende ensayar una cr&#x00ED;tica te&#x00F3;rica centrada en lo que estas posiciones construyen; lo que dejan de lado y sus consecuencias, comprendiendo la l&#x00F3;gica de esta mirada sobre la ense&#x00F1;anza humana en un despliegue que no pretende interrogar el r&#x00E9;gimen de producci&#x00F3;n del saber (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32701-ES">Hunter, 2013</xref>) sino resaltar lo escolar como espacio educacionalmente privilegiado.</p>
<p>Independientemente de su contribuci&#x00F3;n a la discusi&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica, la justificaci&#x00F3;n de este art&#x00ED;culo tambi&#x00E9;n est&#x00E1; dada por la escasa presencia de estudios que analicen cr&#x00ED;ticamente estas posturas pese a su significativa circulaci&#x00F3;n en c&#x00ED;rculos acad&#x00E9;micos, educacionales e incluso pol&#x00ED;ticos iberoamericanos. Por eso, nos hemos centrado en los autores m&#x00E1;s influyentes que articulan con el trabajo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons (2014</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32701-ES">2015</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32701-ES">2017</xref>): <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32701-ES">B&#x00E1;rcena (2012</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32701-ES">2025</xref>), y en menor medida <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32701-ES">Skliar (2019)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32701-ES">Larrosa (2019)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32701-ES">Kohan (2017)</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32701-ES">Recalcati (2016)</xref>. Se utiliz&#x00F3; el software <italic>Publish or Perish</italic> basado en Google Scholar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32701-ES">Harzing, 2023</xref>) para la selecci&#x00F3;n de los autores m&#x00E1;s citados en castellano y portugu&#x00E9;s.</p>
<p>Es cierto que algunos estudios previos han destacado que estos enfoques suelen dejar en segundo plano la relevancia de los condicionantes hist&#x00F3;ricos o han conjeturado acerca de sus consecuencias en la despolitizaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32701-ES">Tysklind y Tryggvason, 2025</xref>). Sin embargo, estas cr&#x00ED;ticas suelen mantener a lo escolar en un nivel normativo convergente con el defendido por Masschelein y Simons. Nuestra mirada, en cambio, apunta a problematizar directamente la primac&#x00ED;a de lo escolar: retomaremos parcialmente los se&#x00F1;alamientos sobre elusi&#x00F3;n contextual y despolitizaci&#x00F3;n, pero subordinados a nuestra tesis central. Por otra parte, este tipo de observaciones ya han sido replicadas de manera rigurosa por los mismos <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons (2017)</xref>.</p>
<p>En este sentido, vale una aclaraci&#x00F3;n: nuestra posici&#x00F3;n no debe ser entendida como una militancia por la muerte de la escuela (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32701-ES">Illich, 1971</xref>) ni como un reemplazo del esencialismo por un nihilismo estructural. Nos interesa evitar tanto la restauraci&#x00F3;n nost&#x00E1;lgica como el vac&#x00ED;o nihilista. Sabemos de la estrechez de la cornisa por la que elegimos transitar: m&#x00E1;s que proponer esencias o restaurar legitimidades, tratamos de identificar tecnolog&#x00ED;as de ense&#x00F1;anza no necesariamente escolares, capaces de acoplarse de manera efectiva al presente, as&#x00ED; como la escuela de la modernidad se acopl&#x00F3; a su propio contexto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32701-ES">Narodowski, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32701-ES">Berardi, 2019</xref>). En la secci&#x00F3;n final, esbozamos v&#x00ED;as que permiten superar tensiones y escapar de formatos te&#x00F3;ricos paralizantes.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32701-ES">
<label>2.</label>
<title>A<sc>ntes de la escuela</sc>: <sc>evoluci&#x00F3;n</sc>, <sc>pedagog&#x00ED;a natural y cultura prefigurativa</sc></title>
<p>Desde la Ilustraci&#x00F3;n hasta los debates contempor&#x00E1;neos sobre la autoridad y la responsabilidad, la ense&#x00F1;anza ha sido pensada como la acci&#x00F3;n de ofrecer un mundo a los nuevos y sostener una continuidad narrativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32701-ES">Arendt, 2001</xref>). Este modo humanista de concebir la educaci&#x00F3;n, sin embargo, debe ponerse en la perspectiva de una historia extensa y exterior, en la que la ense&#x00F1;anza aparece como una capacidad evolutiva y cultural.</p>
<p>Antes que un gesto &#x00E9;tico o un acontecimiento moral, la ense&#x00F1;anza es un dato evolutivo del <italic>Homo Sapiens</italic>: una habilidad adaptativa inscrita en la biolog&#x00ED;a de la especie y compartida, con algunos pocos animales no humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32701-ES">Tomasello, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32701-ES">Csibra y Gergely, 2009</xref>). Esta se ha expresado siempre mediante tecnolog&#x00ED;as entendidas como el conjunto correlacionado de dispositivos que producen efectos de poder-saber en la cultura, los cuerpos, el saber y el deseo. Cada tecnolog&#x00ED;a configura estos dispositivos y en cada una se reproducen singularidades espec&#x00ED;ficas que la hacen relativamente previsible configurando l&#x00ED;mites precisos y efectos esperables. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32701-ES">Foucault 2004</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32701-ES">Behrent, 2013</xref>). Entre ellas: oralidad, imitaci&#x00F3;n diferida, metacognici&#x00F3;n, escritura, imprenta y escuela.</p>
<p>El concepto de &#x201C;evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32701-ES">Birch y Heyes, 2021</xref>), en tanto acumulaci&#x00F3;n y transmisi&#x00F3;n de conocimientos, t&#x00E9;cnicas y normas en interacci&#x00F3;n con factores gen&#x00E9;ticos y ambientales, antecede con mucho a la noci&#x00F3;n moderna de &#x201C;transmisi&#x00F3;n&#x201D; propia del pensamiento humanista. Incluso, estudios recientes muestran que los seres humanos portamos en nuestro equipo biol&#x00F3;gico una &#x201C;pedagog&#x00ED;a natural&#x201D;: la investigaci&#x00F3;n muestra que, por ejemplo, beb&#x00E9;s de un a&#x00F1;o ya manifiestan pr&#x00E1;cticas de ense&#x00F1;anza (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32701-ES">Strauss, Calero y Sigman, 2014</xref>). Desde esta perspectiva, ense&#x00F1;ar es una funci&#x00F3;n evolutiva ligada a la supervivencia colectiva del ser humano y leerla como un episodio simb&#x00F3;lico de emancipaci&#x00F3;n intergeneracional es una posibilidad entre muchas.</p>
<p>La misma idea de lo intergeneracional merece ser revisada. En este punto resulta clave recuperar el aporte de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-ES">Margaret Mead (2019)</xref>, quien distingui&#x00F3; entre culturas posfigurativas, cofigurativas y prefigurativas. Mientras que en las primeras el saber desciende desde los adultos hacia los j&#x00F3;venes (como, por ejemplo, en los inicios de la escolarizaci&#x00F3;n), en las actuales culturas prefigurativas el conocimiento relevante se produce o se anticipa en las generaciones m&#x00E1;s j&#x00F3;venes, no porque &#x201C;los chicos saben m&#x00E1;s&#x201D;, sino porque en una sociedad de cambios constantes y violentos son los m&#x00E1;s j&#x00F3;venes quienes, formados en y por esos cambios, pueden ofrecer mejores respuestas a las demandas de lo real. De este modo, la transmisi&#x00F3;n descendente tambi&#x00E9;n deja de ser un rasgo invariante y se revela como una configuraci&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica espec&#x00ED;fica. En el actual escenario, los adultos ya no son &#x201C;embajadores de la tradici&#x00F3;n&#x201D; porque la tradici&#x00F3;n misma pierde significatividad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-ES">Mead, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Acierta <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32701-ES">B&#x00E1;rcena (2012)</xref>: &#x201C;Al considerar &#x00AB;mayor&#x00BB; al joven y desresponsabilizar al adulto se invierten los t&#x00E9;rminos y se ocasiona un estado de no diferenciaci&#x00F3;n entre las generaciones&#x201D;. Sin embargo, este escenario no parece estar promovido por una pol&#x00ED;tica p&#x00FA;blica o un consenso intersubjetivo generalizado, sino que es el epifen&#x00F3;meno de nuevas formas evolutivas de la acumulaci&#x00F3;n cultural que resultan imposibles de contrarrestar, nos guste o no, por la pol&#x00ED;tica o por un nuevo consenso intersubjetivo.</p>
<p>En esta larga duraci&#x00F3;n, los humanos organizaron la ense&#x00F1;anza en m&#x00FA;ltiples formatos: familiares, tribales, rituales, religiosos, gremiales, individuales, etc. La escuela, lejos de ser el origen natural de la educaci&#x00F3;n, es una m&#x00E1;s de esas tecnolog&#x00ED;as hist&#x00F3;ricas, una forma singular de acoplamiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32701-ES">De Landa, 2017</xref>). Su consolidaci&#x00F3;n como forma dominante se produjo reci&#x00E9;n en la tardo-modernidad europeo-americana, cuando los Estados-naci&#x00F3;n dispusieron un dispositivo basado en edades, instrucci&#x00F3;n simult&#x00E1;nea, curr&#x00ED;culos secuenciados y arquitecturas espec&#x00ED;ficas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32701-ES">Hamilton, 2015</xref>). Esto respondi&#x00F3; a transformaciones culturales, tecnol&#x00F3;gicas y productivas: por primera vez en la historia, amplias masas poblacionales fueron separadas de sus progenitores, prohibi&#x00E9;ndoseles realizar tareas productivas para ser educados en espacios regulados por los nacientes Estados del siglo XIX bajo el mandato del control social y la obediencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32701-ES">Paglayan, 2024</xref>). Desde entonces, la escuela se configur&#x00F3; como una tecnolog&#x00ED;a de gobierno del saber y de los cuerpos, al mismo tiempo productora de conocimiento y reguladora de poblaciones (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32701-ES">Hunter, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32701-ES">Narodowski, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Desde un punto de vista socio-hist&#x00F3;rico, la ense&#x00F1;anza escolar puede verse como un acoplamiento de saber-poder organizado por reg&#x00ED;menes de producci&#x00F3;n del conocimiento, de clasificaci&#x00F3;n de cuerpos y de modulaci&#x00F3;n de conductas, inseparable de su gubernamentalidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32701-ES">Foucault, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32701-ES">Narodowski y Campetella, 2023</xref>). Ignorar que esta tecnolog&#x00ED;a escolar est&#x00E1; atravesada por variables productivas y, en la actualidad, por procesos de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n y automatizaci&#x00F3;n del trabajo, incluido el intelectual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32701-ES">Caffentzis, 2020</xref>), conduce a una desatenci&#x00F3;n fatal sobre las condiciones reales de la ense&#x00F1;anza y el aprendizaje escolar.</p>
<p>Comprender la ense&#x00F1;anza como una capacidad evolutiva de la especie, anterior a la existencia de la escuela, permite desencajar lo educativo de su forma moderna. Si la ense&#x00F1;anza nunca dependi&#x00F3; de una &#x00FA;nica tecnolog&#x00ED;a, sino que adopt&#x00F3; m&#x00FA;ltiples formas hist&#x00F3;ricas, la escuela deja de ser pensada como h&#x00E1;bitat natural del acto educativo. De all&#x00ED; la necesidad de interrogar c&#x00F3;mo ciertas tecnolog&#x00ED;as monopolizaron la transmisi&#x00F3;n del saber leg&#x00ED;timo y qu&#x00E9; consecuencias acarrea conservar esa naturalizaci&#x00F3;n en un escenario atravesado por nuevas l&#x00F3;gicas de producci&#x00F3;n y distribuci&#x00F3;n de conocimiento.</p>
<p>Reconocerla como una tecnolog&#x00ED;a entre otras, producto contingente de la evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural, permite analizar tanto las condiciones de su emergencia como los l&#x00ED;mites de lo escolar, abri&#x00E9;ndose a la posibilidad de explorar tecnolog&#x00ED;as alternativas sin sostener la ineluctabilidad de lo escolar como un fen&#x00F3;meno necesario e inherente por s&#x00ED; mismo.</p>
<p>La escuela puede no ser lo algunos intelectuales de la educaci&#x00F3;n queremos que sea porque, como tecnolog&#x00ED;a hist&#x00F3;ricamente establecida, corre la suerte de toda tecnolog&#x00ED;a; es decir, tiene bordes espec&#x00ED;ficos muchas veces impermeables o dif&#x00ED;ciles de transgredir, instituidos mediante una organizaci&#x00F3;n del saber surgida en condiciones espec&#x00ED;ficas del mundo moderno y configurada por medio de una matriz estatal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32701-ES">Narodowski, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Reconocer que es una tecnolog&#x00ED;a entre otras posibles; es decir, un efecto de la evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural sapiens y por tal motivo contingente, permitir&#x00E1; repensar la educaci&#x00F3;n fuera de los l&#x00ED;mites que impone lo escolar, interrogando hist&#x00E9;ricamente por sus condiciones de emergencia y sus posibles derivas, incluida, por qu&#x00E9; no, la obsolescencia o la desaparici&#x00F3;n; no en el sentido de una propuesta pol&#x00ED;tica a lo <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32701-ES">Ivan Illich (1971)</xref> sino como otra contingencia, como otra adaptaci&#x00F3;n evolutiva probable.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32701-ES">
<label>3.</label>
<title>R<sc>acionalidad</sc>, <sc>voluntad y amor</sc></title>
<p>Una propuesta te&#x00F3;ricamente l&#x00FA;cida, argumentativamente sofisticada y acad&#x00E9;micamente influyente de defensa del orden escolar moderno es la de Jan Masschelein y Maarten Simons, quienes reivindican la escuela como una instituci&#x00F3;n &#x00FA;nica, capaz de suspender las l&#x00F3;gicas del mundo productivo, familiar y social, y de ofrecer una forma espec&#x00ED;fica de tiempo libre no productivo. Para ellos, lo escolar es un espacio privilegiado en el que se habilita la aparici&#x00F3;n del sujeto como tal, en tanto se lo sustrae de las determinaciones externas y se lo expone a una relaci&#x00F3;n desinteresada con el mundo.</p>
<p>Su punto de partida es inobjetable y en principio podr&#x00ED;a equipararse a lo expuesto en la secci&#x00F3;n anterior: &#x201C;la escuela es una invenci&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica y, por tanto, puede desaparecer&#x201D; aunque la consecuencia articule con una voluntad racional: &#x201C;pero eso tambi&#x00E9;n significa que puede reinventarse&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons, 2014</xref>, p. 3). Para darle consistencia a su propuesta, afirman: &#x201C;Queremos reservar la noci&#x00F3;n de escuela para la invenci&#x00F3;n de una forma espec&#x00ED;fica de tiempo libre y no productivo, indefinido, al que no se puede tener acceso fuera de la escuela&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons, 2014</xref>, p. 12).</p>
<p>En un trabajo posterior (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simmons, 2015</xref>), retoman los aportes de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32701-ES">Bernard Stiegler (2010)</xref> para justificar mejor la tensi&#x00F3;n entre la invenci&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica y la reserva normativa. Se remontan a la antigua Grecia se&#x00F1;alando que all&#x00ED; fue inventada una forma singular de transmisi&#x00F3;n de saberes; la escuela, y que lo espec&#x00ED;fico de esa invenci&#x00F3;n fue la creaci&#x00F3;n de un espacio no productivo &#x201C;<italic>otium/schol&#x00E9;</italic> para el pueblo&#x201D;, un formato de emancipaci&#x00F3;n que separa un tiempo y un espacio propio, distintos del hogar (<italic>oikos</italic>) y de la sociedad (<italic>polis</italic>).</p>
<p>Los autores recurren al <italic>eidos</italic> de la escuela de modo de aislar una estructura de sentido m&#x00ED;nima que permitir&#x00ED;a reconocer a la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de sus transformaciones hist&#x00F3;ricas. Sin embargo, este recurso no parece superar la tensi&#x00F3;n planteada: no es f&#x00E1;cil demostrar, de acuerdo con el consenso extenso de historiadores y polit&#x00F3;logos ya referidos antes, que la organizaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica y social de la escuela griega del siglo V a.C. tenga alg&#x00FA;n parentesco con la escuela de la modernidad o con los grandes sistemas escolares del siglo XXI, salvo el nombre.</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32701-ES">Roland Barthes (1987)</xref>, por medio del ejemplo de la Nave Argos, ya ha mostrado c&#x00F3;mo una identidad puede permanecer cambiando materia, pero este ser&#x00ED;a el caso contrario porque se tratar&#x00ED;a de pura Doxa: expresiones que se manifiestan expl&#x00ED;citamente en la conciencia, naturalizando lo hist&#x00F3;rico, imaginando lo real, repiti&#x00E9;ndosele eternamente para impedir la transformaci&#x00F3;n creativa, como veremos luego. Es m&#x00E1;s, este podr&#x00ED;a ser un ejemplo barthiano de c&#x00F3;mo la modernidad opera a partir del estudio del mito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32701-ES">Barthes, 1987</xref>), donde la escuela se muestra purgada de toda impureza que la vincular&#x00ED;a a un r&#x00E9;gimen espec&#x00ED;fico de gubernamentalidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32701-ES">Foucault, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Otro problema que plantean los estudios hist&#x00F3;ricos tiene que ver con la diferencia entre los textos cl&#x00E1;sicos sobre <italic>skhole</italic> y la efectiva consecuci&#x00F3;n como pr&#x00E1;ctica social, no porque lo segundo sea necesario para lo primero sino porque este cotejo agrega mayor dificultad para construir un concepto como &#x201C;escuela&#x201D;. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32701-ES">Hamilton (2015)</xref> concluye que los artefactos sobrevivientes que podr&#x00ED;an confirmar la institucionalizaci&#x00F3;n de las pr&#x00E1;cticas escolares de la antig&#x00FC;edad est&#x00E1;n ausentes. A partir del exhaustivo trabajo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32701-ES">Teresa Morgan (1998)</xref> afirma que &#x201C;es imposible identificar cualquier texto filos&#x00F3;fico sobreviviente como un &#x2018;texto escolar&#x2019; distinto de un texto filos&#x00F3;fico &#x2018;profesional&#x2019; (p. 17) y que, lamentablemente &#x201C;no hay sitios arqueol&#x00F3;gicos que puedan identificarse, aunque sea tentativamente, como &#x2018;salas de escuela&#x2019;&#x201D; (p. 28). La inferencia es central para nuestro argumento: &#x201C;no sabemos casi nada sobre la instituci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n en el per&#x00ED;odo cl&#x00E1;sico&#x201D; (p. 19; la traducci&#x00F3;n del ingl&#x00E9;s es del autor). En otras palabras, no hay se&#x00F1;ales confiables de que el ideal se haya realizado sino de una forma mitificada.</p>
<p>Esto no pretende descartar el discurso sobre la <italic>skhol&#x00E9;</italic> en tanto categor&#x00ED;a filos&#x00F3;fica: la cuesti&#x00F3;n es su enlace con la escolarizaci&#x00F3;n moderna. Para que esta conexi&#x00F3;n se requiere una justificaci&#x00F3;n hist&#x00F3;rica rigurosa que confirme que la invariancia a lo largo del tiempo. El gesto normativo no merece ser negado <italic>ex ante,</italic> pero el privilegio del an&#x00E1;lisis socio-hist&#x00F3;rico permite ponderar el programa pedag&#x00F3;gico propuesto. Es decir, no se reniega del valor normativo, sino que se lo proyecta a sus condiciones de posibilidad.</p>
<p>En consecuencia, la visi&#x00F3;n presentada como hist&#x00F3;rica termina descansando en un gesto &#x00E9;tico y volitivo: la reinvenci&#x00F3;n de la escuela es posible, s&#x00ED;, pero s&#x00F3;lo si preserva la esencia que encarna la reserva purificada de cualquier mancha que mancille su buen nombre que, a la saz&#x00F3;n, se enra&#x00ED;za en su etimolog&#x00ED;a, <italic>skhole</italic>. Trabajos posteriores del propio <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32701-ES">Stiegler (2021)</xref> relativizan esta recuperaci&#x00F3;n de la escuela como invariante hist&#x00F3;rica: su perspectiva del <italic>pharmakon</italic> ambiciona lo contingente, la forma en que la materia es organizada: la tecnolog&#x00ED;a aparece como soporte constitutivo de la individuaci&#x00F3;n ps&#x00ED;quica y colectiva, pero siempre ambivalente: remedio y veneno; por lo tanto, el <italic>eidos</italic> escolar queda sometido fatalmente a cada onda de gramatizaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Siguiendo esta l&#x00F3;gica, las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales actuales no prolongan ni contestan linealmente a la m&#x00ED;tica <italic>schol&#x00E9;</italic>, sino que reorganizan la materia &#x201C;desacoplada&#x201D;, en el sentido que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32701-ES">De Landa (2017)</xref> da a los ensamblajes: configuraciones inestables de elementos heterog&#x00E9;neos. La clave no est&#x00E1; entonces en la permanencia de la escuela, y su necesidad, sino en c&#x00F3;mo las tecnolog&#x00ED;as configuran y son reconfiguradas en cada momento hist&#x00F3;rico.</p>
<p>Para superar la tensi&#x00F3;n se deber&#x00ED;a interrogar acerca de las estructuras hist&#x00F3;ricas que han conformado lo escolar en t&#x00E9;rminos de su inscripci&#x00F3;n estatal, su articulaci&#x00F3;n con el capital, su funcionalidad cognitiva o su car&#x00E1;cter de regulador demogr&#x00E1;fico y laboral. Al contrario, los autores proponen restaurar una forma ideal por medio de la misma convicci&#x00F3;n iluminista que llev&#x00F3; al gran pedagogo y te&#x00F3;logo bohemio Jan Amos Comenius a afirmar el mismo concepto en 1657: &#x201C;Hasta ahora hemos carecido de escuelas que respondan perfectamente a su fin&#x201D; [&#x201C;Scholas sini suo perfecte respondentes, defuisse hactenus&#x201D;] (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32701-ES">Comenius, 1986</xref>, p. 27).</p>
<p>La apolog&#x00ED;a/defensa de lo escolar, entonces, se sostiene merced a un supuesto esencialista: la idea de que puede operar como suspensi&#x00F3;n de lo real por una suerte de voluntad racional, una decisi&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica de quienes la habitan por la es que posible neutralizar las viejas l&#x00F3;gicas de la vigilancia y la sanci&#x00F3;n o las nuevas del rendimiento, el control y la normalizaci&#x00F3;n, sin modificar las condiciones que las producen, sino apostando por la forma misma, capaz de crear y resistir el mundo mediante la declaraci&#x00F3;n consciente de su diferencia. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32701-ES">Kohan (2017)</xref>, comentando a J. Masschelein, lo explica mejor: &#x201C;En otras palabras, donde el fil&#x00F3;sofo dice &#x201C;debes cambiar tu vida&#x201D;, el educador dice &#x201C;no eres in&#x2010;capaz&#x201D;, &#x201C;puedes poner atenci&#x00F3;n en el mundo&#x201D;. El pedagogo ser&#x00ED;a quien lleva al alumno hasta la escuela, el lugar donde el mundo se des&#x2010;pliega y la potencia se des&#x2010;cubre.&#x201D; El supuesto del &#x201C;des-pliegue&#x201D; o del &#x201C;des-cubre&#x201D; est&#x00E1; eximido de todo intento de contrastaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Se atribuye as&#x00ED; a los agentes escolares -principalmente a los docentes- la responsabilidad de maniobrar la suspensi&#x00F3;n creando un tiempo libre en medio de las exigencias burocr&#x00E1;ticas, tecnol&#x00F3;gicas, afectivas y materiales que instituyen el trabajo cotidiano: &#x201C;En la escuela, nos centramos en las matem&#x00E1;ticas por las matem&#x00E1;ticas, en la lengua por la lengua, en la cocina por la cocina, en la carpinter&#x00ED;a por la carpinter&#x00ED;a. As&#x00ED; es como calculamos una media, como conjugamos en ingl&#x00E9;s, como elaboramos una sopa o como construimos una puerta. Pero todo eso sucede independientemente de cualquier objetivo exterior que tenga que ser alcanzado inmediatamente&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons, 2014</xref>, p. 18).</p>
<p>Confianza en una voluntad omnipotente, capaz de superar los l&#x00ED;mites del entramado tecnol&#x00F3;gico de lo escolar: el maestro suspende el mundo implicando una fe categ&#x00F3;rica en una racionalidad soberana redimida de condicionamientos o haciendo de los condicionamientos un impulso, asumiendo que los escenarios tienen fronteras que pueden infringirse por medio de una centralidad inagotable de deseo y reflexi&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>Esto expresa tambi&#x00E9;n en su contracara, lo que los autores entienden como &#x201C;domesticaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">2014</xref>, p. 51): el inconveniente no es la escuela en s&#x00ED;, la escuela nominada escuela, sino sus formas degradadas, desviadas, no virtuosas. De all&#x00ED; que se proponga restaurar su integridad funcional mediante la renovaci&#x00F3;n de su prop&#x00F3;sito m&#x00ED;tico: crear igualdad, bloquear el afuera, sostener el tiempo libre en una visi&#x00F3;n que supone que la tecnolog&#x00ED;a escolar puede ser contenida, dirigida o revertida por un yo l&#x00FA;cido, consciente y aut&#x00F3;nomo. Se trata de una restauraci&#x00F3;n normativa, basada, impl&#x00ED;citamente, en el ideal pans&#x00F3;fico comeniano por el que el saber humano es para todos los seres humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32701-ES">Comenius, 1986</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32701-ES">&#x010C;&#x00ED;&#x017E;ek, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>El gesto de restauraci&#x00F3;n encuentra su anclaje afectivo en un elemento central: el amor. Seg&#x00FA;n Masschelein y Simmons, &#x201C;el amor por la materia de estudio, por el oficio, por la actividad, por el mundo, no deriva del valor que esa materia, ese oficio o esa actividad tiene, sino que los sostiene, los afirma y los mantiene disponibles&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">2014</xref>, p. 43). El amor es el fundamento &#x00FA;ltimo de la experiencia escolar: no se ense&#x00F1;a meramente por lo que se transmite, sino por lo que esa trasmisi&#x00F3;n conlleva: amar.</p>
<p>La formulaci&#x00F3;n encuentra eco en trabajos de amplia difusi&#x00F3;n en Iberoam&#x00E9;rica: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32701-ES">Skliar (2019)</xref> habla de la escuela como &#x201C;patria de los afectos&#x201D;; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32701-ES">Larrosa (2019)</xref> afirma que &#x201C;el amor al oficio de profesor (&#x2026;) no puede separarse del amor a la escuela. Aqu&#x00ED; conviene distinguir entre el amor-como disponibilidad que proponen Masschelein y Simmons y el amor-er&#x00F3;tico formulado por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32701-ES">Recalcatti (2016)</xref> desde una perspectiva lacaniana, donde el deseo y la transferencia constituyen el n&#x00FA;cleo de la experiencia de ense&#x00F1;ar. Aunque diferentes en su formulaci&#x00F3;n, ambos coinciden en el afecto como fundamento de legitimidad y nuestro argumento apunta justamente a este movimiento: la apelaci&#x00F3;n al amor ya sea como disponibilidad o como er&#x00F3;tica, evita interrogar todo lo que lo ponga en riesgo.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons (2014</xref>, p. 76), con lucidez y honestidad, reconocen que su defensa de la escuela podr&#x00ED;a interpretarse como una &#x201C;petici&#x00F3;n <italic>pro domo&#x201D;</italic> (en realidad, <italic>pro domo sua</italic>, por la expresi&#x00F3;n latina de Cicer&#x00F3;n); es decir, una defensa de intereses personales, dado que ellos son pedagogos y, a causa de eso, afirman amar la escuela, sus profesores y sus estudiantes. Para responder a la objeci&#x00F3;n, los autores advierten que no se trata de un inter&#x00E9;s corporativo sino de una cuesti&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica porque la escuela cumple una funci&#x00F3;n social radical al encarnar la distinci&#x00F3;n entre tiempo libre y tiempo productivo, donde se hace visible la igualdad.</p>
<p>Este desplazamiento, sin embargo, presenta algunos problemas: necesita volver a purificar a la tecnolog&#x00ED;a rechazando a la &#x201C;escuela capitalista&#x201D; (sic, p. 59) para abrazar su potencial democr&#x00E1;tico y &#x201C;comunista&#x201D; (sic, p. 77). Es aqu&#x00ED; donde se expresa el fetichismo de lo escolar: un desplazamiento del deseo hacia un objeto idealizado, donde los atributos no precisan correlacionar, ni siquiera negativamente, con un orden social. Es decir, la deriva hacia lo p&#x00FA;blico se engarza con postulados pol&#x00ED;ticamente normativos que no precisan contrastaci&#x00F3;n, ni siquiera con los sistemas democr&#x00E1;ticos y comunistas realmente existentes.</p>
<p>La laguna de historicidad, entonces, se satura de principios ideol&#x00F3;gicos gen&#x00E9;ricos y, en esos t&#x00E9;rminos, es dable de advertir que cuando las condiciones son adversas y las proclamas se vuelven inalcanzables, se invoca esa pulsi&#x00F3;n fetichizada que corre el albur de convertirse en un pegamento que oculta, o al menos mitiga subjetivamente, las condiciones no ya socioecon&#x00F3;micas, sino de sostenimiento de la misma tecnolog&#x00ED;a escolar. Si la escuela ya no puede cumplir las promesas de acceso igualitario al saber, la equidad, ni de construcci&#x00F3;n de lo com&#x00FA;n, su defensa en nombre del amor no deja de ser una forma de resistencia simb&#x00F3;lica: no la sostiene por lo que es sino por lo que representa, por lo que invoca, por lo que deber&#x00ED;a ser.</p>
<p>Los autores no interrogan los factores de un deterioro que vislumbran en ciertas caracter&#x00ED;sticas de &#x00E9;poca -salvo, muy <italic>grosso modo</italic>, los rasgos &#x201C;capitalistas&#x201D;- y el discurso afectivo preserva lo escolar, incluso si su eficacia est&#x00E1; comprometida. El amor aparece como &#x00FA;ltimo refugio, como resto irreductible que mantiene viva la promesa aun cuando todo lo dem&#x00E1;s peligre. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32701-ES">B&#x00E1;rcena Orbe (2025)</xref> es quien mejor articula esta idea porque la compacta en un modo exento de frases melosas o ditir&#x00E1;mbicas: &#x201C;Al educar, transmitimos ese doble amor y ese doble cuidado, y, al hacerlo, influimos en el otro y establecemos una especie de <italic>pacto testimonial&#x201D;</italic> (cursiva del autor).</p>
<p>Es decir, se ama una escuela que no existe de acuerdo con sus propios t&#x00E9;rminos normativos y se la sostiene para que siga representando esa esencia. Lo escolar se vuelve una referencia vac&#x00ED;a: se invoca como si a&#x00FA;n operara o pudiera operar eficazmente, sin siquiera conjeturar la posibilidad de su ocurrencia, que es nuestro est&#x00E1;ndar cient&#x00ED;fico b&#x00E1;sico. De hecho, los autores reconocen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simmons, 2014</xref>, p. 48) que la escuela no transmite o trasmite lo que no se pretende, pero no inquieren acerca de su posibilidad efectiva: el lenguaje esencializado termina absorbido por la l&#x00F3;gica performativa del discurso pedag&#x00F3;gico contempor&#x00E1;neo, lo que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32701-ES">Baudrillard (2024)</xref> ha caracterizado como simulacro de tercer orden, donde los signos circulan sin referencia real.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, la defensa de la escuela por amor y el amor de y a los profesores parece justificar la continuidad de una forma sin condiciones y de hacer del gesto afectivo una estrategia de sost&#x00E9;n que, parad&#x00F3;jicamente est&#x00E1; condenada a desactivar cualquier intento de desligar al medio -la escuela, ahora fetichizada- respecto de las finalidades que se pretenden, merced a la defensa del estatus esencial que le fuera concedido.</p>
<p>Podr&#x00ED;amos decir, con cierta iron&#x00ED;a, que hay amores que matan. Hab&#x00ED;amos anticipado que para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32701-ES">Barthes (1987)</xref> lo dox&#x00E1;stico, en su af&#x00E1;n de sostener, termina por asfixiar cualquier posibilidad de examen y transformaci&#x00F3;n que cuestione el formato defendido. El punto aqu&#x00ED; no es una impugnaci&#x00F3;n del afecto, sino su uso compensatorio: cuando lo que se esperar&#x00ED;a del discurso cr&#x00ED;tico es la apertura a la imaginaci&#x00F3;n, a lo impensado, se lo repliega; cuando valdr&#x00ED;a la pena interrogar la tecnolog&#x00ED;a escolar por su car&#x00E1;cter contingente, se la congela; y all&#x00ED; donde se podr&#x00ED;an habilitar alternativas impensadas, se las cancela. As&#x00ED;, el amor por la escuela y por el maestro, termina obstaculizando la reflexi&#x00F3;n sobre lo radicalmente nuevo, no porque el amor no importe, sino porque su invocaci&#x00F3;n conlleva una negaci&#x00F3;n del duelo por la ausencia de aquello que se exalta o se rememora.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-32701-ES">
<label>4.</label>
<title>I<sc>mpotencia reflexiva y declive de la figura testimonial</sc></title>
<p>El horizonte antropol&#x00F3;gico de esta teor&#x00ED;a educativa es un humanismo que pone al adulto como responsable de sostener la continuidad del mundo, pero pensado por fuera de toda condici&#x00F3;n de posibilidad. El maestro aparece como un residuo ilustrado que act&#x00FA;a por fuera de las condiciones de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a escolar, aunque sea esta la que lo configura.</p>
<p>A esto se suma un problema adicional: la figura del adulto cercana a lo ejemplar ha perdido su consistencia simb&#x00F3;lica en un escenario &#x201C;sin adultos&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-ES">Mead, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32701-ES">Narodowski, 2016</xref>). No se trata simplemente de una crisis de autoridad, sino de una mutaci&#x00F3;n antropol&#x00F3;gica en su sentido social y cultural-evolutivo: en una sociedad que ha desfundado a muchas de sus agencias reproductoras de sentido, el adulto ya no representa un modelo a seguir sino un lugar cuestionado por su posible obsolescencia y despose&#x00ED;do de horizonte trascendente. La ejemplaridad como parte del fundamento de lo escolar propone un callej&#x00F3;n sin salida.</p>
<p>Este esencialismo puede ser le&#x00ED;do como la administraci&#x00F3;n subjetiva de la impotencia: los adultos ya no ofrecen un mundo, sino que gestionan su p&#x00E9;rdida de la mejor manera. Lejos de ser portadores de una experiencia que ordena, suelen aparecer err&#x00E1;ticos, interpelados por tecnolog&#x00ED;as que reorganizan el saber, el lenguaje y la afectividad desde l&#x00F3;gicas no adultas y, muchas veces, ni siquiera humanas. Volviendo a <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-ES">Mead (2019)</xref>, el adulto de la cultura prefigurativa, donde la tradici&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; siempre en riesgo de obsolescencia o subordinada a su actualizaci&#x00F3;n, contiene vestigios de lo que est&#x00E1; dejando de ser (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32701-ES">Narodowski, 2014</xref>).</p>
<p>Insistir en la ejemplaridad y el amor sin asumir esta mutaci&#x00F3;n equivale a depositar la promesa educativa en una figura en declive. Su mandato amasa nostalgia restauradora en el sentido de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32701-ES">Svetliana Boym (2001)</xref>, la que trae el rumor del pasado de manera forzada: en lugar de interrogar las condiciones de posibilidad de la posici&#x00F3;n simb&#x00F3;lica, se la asume como punto de partida, como si el adulto, el docente, a&#x00FA;n estuviera en condiciones de ofrecer lo nuevo a los nuevos, siempre y en todo lugar.</p>
<p>Resulta &#x00FA;til recuperar el concepto de &#x201C;impotencia reflexiva <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32701-ES">Fisher (2023)</xref>: una conciencia opaca sobre la disfuncionalidad de lo real y que, en este caso, deriva a la idea de que la escuela no funciona como debe, pero con una conciencia que no produce transformaci&#x00F3;n, sino par&#x00E1;lisis. &#x00BF;El docente percibe el simulacro? &#x00BF;Intuye la inutilidad, pero sigue actuando como si a&#x00FA;n se tratara de alcanzar esos logros? La impotencia no es ignorancia sino saber sin efecto, pensamiento sin consecuencias, cr&#x00ED;tica sin salida.</p>
<p>Es all&#x00ED; donde emerge una nueva modalidad de legitimaci&#x00F3;n, ya no para los profesores sino para el discurso que la sostiene, bajo la ret&#x00F3;rica del compromiso, el amor, la presencia y la alteridad. <italic>Pro domo sua</italic> se convierte en una t&#x00E9;cnica de contenci&#x00F3;n subjetiva: un modo de mantener la apariencia de sentido en un espacio atravesado por la descomposici&#x00F3;n de lo escolar, la deslegitimaci&#x00F3;n de la docencia y la creciente automatizaci&#x00F3;n de la pr&#x00E1;ctica pedag&#x00F3;gica. Es notorio c&#x00F3;mo la impotencia reflexiva del intelectual de la educaci&#x00F3;n se resiste a enfrentar al v&#x00E9;rtigo frente a los algoritmos de evaluaci&#x00F3;n, la segmentaci&#x00F3;n digital del conocimiento o la desvinculaci&#x00F3;n sistem&#x00E1;tica de los estudiantes cuando su atenci&#x00F3;n es un bien escaso por el que se compite sin tregua. Al asomarse al abismo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simmons (2014</xref>, p. 59) ven all&#x00ED; a &#x201C;la escuela y al profesor capitalista&#x201D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32701-ES">
<label>5.</label>
<title>E<sc>l reverso subjetivo del amor a la escuela</sc></title>
<p>Lejos de empoderar se incrementa la decepci&#x00F3;n; el desamor. La representaci&#x00F3;n esencializada, despojada en tanto tal de contradicciones o relatada por la posibilidad de sintetizarlas, deshistoriza la experiencia concreta del trabajo docente: como esta visi&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; expl&#x00ED;citamente desconectada del an&#x00E1;lisis de las condiciones reales de la existencia, no se ofrecen herramientas para pensarlas y transformarlas concretamente por lo que puede que se est&#x00E9; desplegando una escena dif&#x00ED;cil de habitar, un modelo inalcanzable que recae como exigencia moral sobre quienes sostienen un andamiaje extenso, complejo y a veces angustiante.</p>
<p>Este entramado permite conjeturar la aparici&#x00F3;n de formas de culpabilizaci&#x00F3;n subjetiva: si el maestro no logra &#x201C;producir igualdad&#x201D;, &#x201C;abrir al mundo com&#x00FA;n&#x201D; o &#x201C;crear tiempo libre&#x201D;, el problema podr&#x00ED;a ser adjudicado a su falta de vocaci&#x00F3;n, su escaso amor por la materia, su d&#x00E9;bil presencia; no porque sea una consecuencia anticipada perversamente, sino como una reacci&#x00F3;n frente a un imperativo fuerte: la pregunta que no puede no instalarse en el docente atento a estos autores, comprometido con estas ideas que pone en su coraz&#x00F3;n, podr&#x00ED;a ser brutal y silenciosa: <italic>&#x00BF;por qu&#x00E9; yo no puedo promover aquello que estos grandes intelectuales dicen que debe suceder?</italic> <italic>&#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; he hecho yo para merecer esto?</italic></p>
<p>Este desajuste vuelve sobre la impotencia reflexiva y la distancia entre la promesa y la pr&#x00E1;ctica cotidiana puede introyectarse como d&#x00E9;ficit personal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32701-ES">Dubet, 2007</xref>): varios estudios muestran el crecimiento del sentimiento de decepci&#x00F3;n en la poblaci&#x00F3;n docente y que sus causas son numerosos y heterog&#x00E9;neos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32701-ES">Grossman y Oplatka, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32701-ES">Perryman, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32701-ES">&#x015E;ahin, Demir y &#x015E;evik, 2024</xref>). Obviamente, no se est&#x00E1; arguyendo que esta sea consecuencia del enfoque bajo an&#x00E1;lisis, pero urge investigar el virtual efecto de grandes relatos apolog&#x00E9;ticos acerca de la escuela y la docencia en los sentimientos crecientes de frustraci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>En este escenario, la figura del docente termina en una especie de h&#x00E9;roe sacrificial, convocado a sostener, en soledad, las promesas incumplidas de una escuela inscripta en una esencia r&#x00ED;gida. La consecuencia no es la esperable -la recuperaci&#x00F3;n del deseo de ense&#x00F1;ar- sino su silencioso deterioro. Se espera del maestro que encarne un mundo sin condiciones para sostenerlo, que genere igualdad con o sin recursos, que cree atenci&#x00F3;n sin interrupci&#x00F3;n, que ame su materia y a sus alumnos y se deje amar por ellos. Que articule su acci&#x00F3;n en t&#x00E9;rminos colectivos cuando la individuaci&#x00F3;n y la customizaci&#x00F3;n son un signo de &#x00E9;poca. En vez de imaginar nuevas formas e identificar las existentes como para sostener los v&#x00ED;nculos que se propugnan, se refuerza un modelo fetichizado y emocionalmente costoso.</p>
<p>Despu&#x00E9;s de todo, en 2024 hab&#x00ED;a noventa y siete millones de docentes, la profesi&#x00F3;n con mayor n&#x00FA;mero de miembros del mundo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32701-ES">International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030 &#x0026; UNESCO, 2023</xref>). &#x00BF;Todos deber&#x00ED;an amar y ser amados? &#x00BF;Esperar&#x00ED;amos que todos ellos se levanten cada ma&#x00F1;ana dispuestos a suspender el tiempo, a desprivatizar el saber, a producir lo com&#x00FA;n, a encarnar el amor por la ense&#x00F1;anza de su materia y a transmitir valores generacionales?</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32701-ES">
<label>6.</label>
<title>L<sc>o que ya no es</sc>, <sc>lo que a&#x00FA;n no existe</sc></title>
<p>La propuesta de Masschelein y Simons, aun con su sofisticaci&#x00F3;n conceptual y los hallazgos que hemos enumerado, termina apoy&#x00E1;ndose en un triple esencialismo: uno nominal, al reservar &#x201C;escuela&#x201D; a un conjunto de cualidades virtuosas; uno racional, que deposita en la forma escolar una capacidad de suspensi&#x00F3;n voluntaria de las l&#x00F3;gicas del mundo; y otro afectivo, que convierte el amor en el fundamento de su legitimidad. Los tres operan como mecanismos de blindaje ante el agotamiento y, al hacerlo, se inhibe la percepci&#x00F3;n de las posibilidades y los l&#x00ED;mites, los cambios en los reg&#x00ED;menes de gubernamentalidad, y las posibles obsolescencias. Y, sobre todo, se bloquea la posibilidad de identificar o imaginar nuevas tecnolog&#x00ED;as de la ense&#x00F1;anza.</p>
<p>Desde una perspectiva sociohist&#x00F3;rica, la cuesti&#x00F3;n no es restaurar una escuela idealizada y mitificada, sino interrogar las condiciones en las que la ense&#x00F1;anza efectivamente ocurre, apoy&#x00E1;ndonos en el hecho de que es una capacidad incrustada en la evoluci&#x00F3;n y la acumulaci&#x00F3;n cultural humana y no un privilegio exclusivo de la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar. En una sociedad prefigurativa, donde proliferan mediaciones digitales y tecnol&#x00F3;gicas, aferrarse a una tecnolog&#x00ED;a esencializada corre el riesgo de transformarse en nostalgia normativa m&#x00E1;s que en horizonte cr&#x00ED;tico: se destila, involuntariamente, un nihilismo <italic>de facto.</italic></p>
<p>Es aqu&#x00ED;, donde nos permitimos se&#x00F1;alar tres v&#x00ED;as complementarias que permiten formular una mirada no-nihilista. En primer lugar, desnaturalizar el fetiche escolar, describiendo sus condiciones de producci&#x00F3;n. Particularmente, entender lo escolar como una tecnolog&#x00ED;a entre todas las que la evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural sapiens ha generado -y sigue generando aceleradamente- y no como su forma &#x00FA;ltima, deseable o innegociable.</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, cartografiar espacios donde emerge efectivamente el &#x201C;tiempo no productivo&#x201D;, sea o no en las aulas, y comprender por qu&#x00E9; se producen all&#x00ED; y no en otros lugares. Por qu&#x00E9; son permanentes y por qu&#x00E9; contingentes. Por qu&#x00E9; a veces desbordan y otras son protegidos. Esto implica estar atentos a la emergencia de flujos a veces sin sujeto, pr&#x00E1;cticas de circulaci&#x00F3;n de saber y creaci&#x00F3;n cultural que exceden el marco escolar y que ni siquiera pueden reducirse a simples redes de intercambio: nuevos fen&#x00F3;menos que generan conocimiento de manera horizontal, sin jerarqu&#x00ED;as ni ejes unificadores. M&#x00E1;s que <italic>networking</italic>, son ensamblajes contingentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32701-ES">De Landa, 2017</xref>) donde m&#x00FA;ltiples actores y recursos se articulan, sin centro ni finalidad burocr&#x00E1;ticamente codificada, produciendo derivas imposibles de reabsorber en las estructuras verticales y estandarizadas de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a escolar estatalizada.</p>
<p>Finalmente, explorar combinatorias que articulen lo escolar con tecnolog&#x00ED;as postescolares y circuitos de conocimiento no jer&#x00E1;rquicos, evaluando sus efectos sobre dos dimensiones centrales que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-ES">Masschelein y Simons (2014)</xref> defienden como posibilidad de construir lo com&#x00FA;n: la atenci&#x00F3;n de los estudiantes y la igualdad de acceso al saber. Ambas marcan un punto de tensi&#x00F3;n central: la primera se vuelve un problema decisivo porque la escuela compite con flujos aplanados y desterritorializados de informaci&#x00F3;n y debe sostener un r&#x00E9;gimen de concentraci&#x00F3;n en un entorno saturado de est&#x00ED;mulos. La igualdad de acceso se mantiene como criterio, dado que los circuitos no jer&#x00E1;rquicos tienden, se supone, a reproducir desigualdades, mientras que la proclama hist&#x00F3;rica de lo escolar ha descansado en su vocaci&#x00F3;n igualadora.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, estas dimensiones no deben entenderse como virtudes garantizadas por la escuela; afirmarlo nos har&#x00ED;a retornar al horizonte normativo. M&#x00E1;s que atributos intr&#x00ED;nsecos deben considerarse problemas abiertos, cuyo tratamiento depende de, tecnolog&#x00ED;as y culturas contingentes y en creciente aceleraci&#x00F3;n. Arreglos que, muchas veces, no est&#x00E1;n disponibles para la pol&#x00ED;tica educativa ni la voluntad racional -individual y colectiva- de educadores e intelectuales de la educaci&#x00F3;n. El trabajo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32701-ES">B&#x00E1;rcena Orbe (2025)</xref> ilumina este debate al recordar que la experiencia educativa no responde a un m&#x00E9;todo prefijado, sino a un trayecto cuyo recorrido se define por el inter&#x00E9;s y la atenci&#x00F3;n del sujeto: &#x201C;viajar de este modo es un medio sin fin ni destino predeterminado&#x201D;. La met&#x00E1;fora del viaje nos obliga a preguntarnos si la escuela real -no la idealizada, sino la hist&#x00F3;ricamente situada, con sus l&#x00ED;mites y fricciones- sigue siendo el mejor veh&#x00ED;culo para sostener ese trayecto o si conviene experimentar nuevas combinaciones tecnol&#x00F3;gicas.</p>
<p>En definitiva, se trata de desplazar la discusi&#x00F3;n de la defensa apolog&#x00E9;tica de la escuela hacia el reconocimiento del flujo tecnol&#x00F3;gico de la ense&#x00F1;anza. Pensar lo educativo sin garant&#x00ED;as no es renunciar a su potencia, sino abrir la posibilidad de imaginar aquello que a&#x00FA;n no existe.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ack>
<title>A<sc>gradecimientos</sc></title>
<p>El autor agradece a Nicole Elztein (Universidad Torcuato Di Tella) por su invaluable asistencia en la investigaci&#x00F3;n que dio luz a este trabajo.</p>
</ack>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="other">
<p><bold>D<sc>eclaraci&#x00F3;n de transparencia</sc></bold></p>
<p>Para la elaboraci&#x00F3;n de este art&#x00ED;culo se utiliz&#x00F3; la herramienta de inteligencia artificial ChatGPT (OpenAI, versi&#x00F3;n GPT-4) como apoyo en el an&#x00E1;lisis de la consistencia l&#x00F3;gica de la argumentaci&#x00F3;n y en la edici&#x00F3;n final del texto. Todas las decisiones conceptuales, interpretativas y de redacci&#x00F3;n fueron tomadas por el autor.</p>
</fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title>R<sc>eferencias bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas</sc></title>
<ref id="ref-1-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Arendt</surname> <given-names>H.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2001</year> <source><italic>La condici&#x00F3;n humana</italic></source> <publisher-name>Paid&#x00F3;s</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Arendt, H. (2001). <italic>La condici&#x00F3;n humana</italic>. Paid&#x00F3;s.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-2-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>B&#x00E1;rcena</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2012</year> <chapter-title>Entre generaciones. Notas sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n en la filiaci&#x00F3;n del tiempo</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="compiler"><name><surname>Southwell</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Comp.</role> <source><italic>Entre generaciones. Exploraciones sobre educaci&#x00F3;n, cultura e instituciones</italic></source> <publisher-name>Homo Sapiens</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>B&#x00E1;rcena, F. (2012). Entre generaciones. Notas sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n en la filiaci&#x00F3;n del tiempo. En M. Southwell (Comp.), <italic>Entre generaciones. Exploraciones sobre educaci&#x00F3;n, cultura e instituciones.</italic> Homo Sapiens.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-3-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>B&#x00E1;rcena</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2025</year> <article-title>Una filosof&#x00ED;a de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa: mediaci&#x00F3;n existencial, transmisi&#x00F3;n y testimonio</article-title> <source><italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de La Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</italic></source> <volume>37</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>1</fpage><lpage>18</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32244</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>B&#x00E1;rcena, F. (2025). Una filosof&#x00ED;a de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa: mediaci&#x00F3;n existencial, transmisi&#x00F3;n y testimonio. <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de La Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria, 37</italic>(2), 1&#x2013;18. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.32244">https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.32244</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-4-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barthes</surname> <given-names>R.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1987</year> <source><italic>Roland Barthes por Roland Barthes</italic></source> <publisher-name>Kair&#x00F3;s</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Barthes, R. (1987). <italic>Roland Barthes por Roland Barthes</italic>. Kair&#x00F3;s.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-5-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baudrillard</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2024</year> <source><italic>Cultura y simulacro</italic></source> <publisher-name>Kair&#x00F3;s</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Baudrillard, J. (2024). <italic>Cultura y simulacro</italic>. Kair&#x00F3;s.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-6-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Behrent</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2013</year> <article-title>Foucault and Technology</article-title> <source><italic>History and Technology</italic></source> <volume>29</volume><issue>1</issue> <fpage>54</fpage><lpage>104</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/07341512.2013.780351</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Behrent, M. (2013). Foucault and Technology. <italic>History and Technology, 29</italic>(1), 54&#x2013;104. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2013.780351">https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2013.780351</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-7-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Berardi</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Futurabilidad. El deseo de una comunidad posible</italic></source> <publisher-name>Caja Negra</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Berardi, F. (2019). <italic>Futurabilidad. El deseo de una comunidad posible</italic>. Caja Negra.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-8-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Birch</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Heyes</surname> <given-names>C.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <source><italic>The cultural evolution of cultural evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</italic></source> <volume>376</volume><issue>1828</issue> <elocation-id>20200051</elocation-id> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1098/rstb.2020.0051</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Birch, J., &#x0026; Heyes, C. (2021). <italic>The cultural evolution of cultural evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376</italic>(1828), 20200051. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0051">https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0051</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-9-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Boym</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2001</year> <source><italic>The Future of Nostalgia</italic></source> <publisher-name>Basic Books</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Boym, S. (2001). <italic>The Future of Nostalgia</italic>. Basic Books.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-10-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Caffentzis</surname> <given-names>G.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2020</year> <source><italic>Entre letras de sangre y fuego</italic></source> <publisher-name>Tinta Lim&#x00F3;n Ediciones</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Caffentzis, G. (2020). <italic>Entre letras de sangre y fuego</italic>. Tinta Lim&#x00F3;n Ediciones.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-11-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>&#x010C;&#x00ED;&#x017E;ek</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <article-title>From Pansophia to Panorthosia: The Evolution of Comenius&#x2019;s Pansophic Conception</article-title> <source><italic>Erudition and the Republic of Letters</italic></source> <volume>4</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>199</fpage><lpage>227</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>&#x010C;&#x00ED;&#x017E;ek, J. (2019). From Pansophia to Panorthosia: The Evolution of Comenius&#x2019;s Pansophic Conception. <italic>Erudition and the Republic of Letters, 4</italic>(2), 199-227.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-12-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Comenius</surname> <given-names>J. A.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1986</year> <source><italic>Did&#x00E1;ctica magna</italic></source> <publisher-name>Akal</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Comenius, J. A. (1986). <italic>Did&#x00E1;ctica magna</italic>. Akal.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-13-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Csibra</surname> <given-names>G.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Gergely</surname> <given-names>G.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2009</year> <source><italic>Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences</italic></source> <volume>13</volume><issue>4</issue> <fpage>148</fpage><lpage>153</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.005</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Csibra, G., &#x0026; Gergely, G. (2009). <italic>Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13</italic>(4), 148&#x2013;153. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.005">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.005</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-14-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>De Landa</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <source><italic>Mil a&#x00F1;os de historia no lineal</italic></source> <publisher-name>Gedisa</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>De Landa, M. (2017). <italic>Mil a&#x00F1;os de historia no lineal</italic>. Gedisa.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-15-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dubet</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2007</year> <article-title>El declive y las mutaciones de la instituci&#x00F3;n</article-title> <source><italic>Revista de antropolog&#x00ED;a social</italic></source> <volume>16</volume> <fpage>39</fpage><lpage>66</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Dubet, F. (2007). El declive y las mutaciones de la instituci&#x00F3;n. <italic>Revista de antropolog&#x00ED;a social, 16</italic>, 39-66.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-16-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fisher</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2023</year> <source><italic>Realismo capitalista &#x00BF;No hay alternativa?</italic></source> <publisher-name>Caja Negra</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Fisher, M. (2023). <italic>Realismo capitalista &#x00BF;No hay alternativa?</italic> Caja Negra.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-17-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Foucault</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2004</year> <source><italic>Naissance de la biopolitique: cours au Coll&#x00E8;ge de France (1978&#x2013;1979)</italic></source> <publisher-name>Gallimard</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Foucault, M. (2004). <italic>Naissance de la biopolitique: cours au Coll&#x00E8;ge de France (1978&#x2013;1979).</italic> Gallimard.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-18-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Grossman</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Oplatka</surname> <given-names>I.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <article-title>Teacher disappointment: subjective definitions, factors and consequences</article-title> <source><italic>Journal of Professional Capital and Community</italic></source> <volume>6</volume><issue>3</issue> <fpage>205</fpage><lpage>220</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Grossman, S., &#x0026; Oplatka, I. (2021). Teacher disappointment: subjective definitions, factors and consequences. <italic>Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 6</italic>(3), 205-220.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-19-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hamilton</surname> <given-names>D.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2015</year> <article-title>The beginning of schooling - as we know it?</article-title> <source><italic>Journal of Curriculum Studies</italic></source> <volume>47</volume><issue>5</issue> <fpage>577</fpage><lpage>593</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/00220272.2015.1052851</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hamilton, D. (2015). The beginning of schooling - as we know it? <italic>Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47</italic>(5), 577&#x2013;593. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1052851">https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1052851</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-20-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harzing</surname> <given-names>A. W.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2023</year> <source><italic>Using the Publish or Perish software: Crafting your career in academia</italic></source> <publisher-name>Tarma Software Research Ltd</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Harzing, A. W. (2023). <italic>Using the Publish or Perish software: Crafting your career in academia.</italic> Tarma Software Research Ltd.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-21-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hunter</surname> <given-names>I.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2013</year> <chapter-title><italic>Assembling the school</italic></chapter-title> <comment>In</comment> <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Barry</surname> <given-names>A.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Osborne</surname> <given-names>T.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Rose</surname> <given-names>N.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Eds.</role> <source><italic>Foucault and political reason: Liberalism, neoliberalism and rationalities of government</italic></source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>143</fpage><lpage>166</lpage> <publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hunter, I. (2013). <italic>Assembling the school</italic>. In A. Barry, T. Osborne, &#x0026; N. Rose (Eds.), <italic>Foucault and political reason: Liberalism, neoliberalism and rationalities of government</italic> (pp. 143&#x2013;166). Routledge.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-22-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Illich</surname> <given-names>I.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1971</year> <source><italic>Deschooling Society</italic></source> <publisher-name>Harper &#x0026; Row</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Illich, I. (1971). <italic>Deschooling Society</italic>. Harper &#x0026; Row.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-23-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="report"><person-group person-group-type="author"><collab>International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030, &#x0026; UNESCO</collab></person-group> <date-in-citation content-type="access-date">2023, April 3</date-in-citation> <source><italic>Global report on teachers: Addressing teacher shortages</italic></source> <publisher-name>UNESCO</publisher-name> <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523">https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523</ext-link></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030, &#x0026; UNESCO. (2023, April 3). <italic>Global report on teachers: Addressing teacher shortages</italic>. UNESCO. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523">https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-24-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kohan</surname> <given-names>W. O.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <chapter-title>Em defesa de uma defesa: elogio de uma vida feita escola</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kohan</surname> <given-names>W. O.</given-names></name></person-group> <source>Elogio da escola</source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>65</fpage><lpage>85</lpage> <publisher-name>Aut&#x00EA;ntica Editora</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kohan, W. O. (2017). Em defesa de uma defesa: elogio de uma vida feita escola. En W. O. Kohan, Elogio da escola (pp. 65&#x2013;85). Aut&#x00EA;ntica Editora.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-25-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Larrosa</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Esperando no se sabe qu&#x00E9;. Sobre el oficio de profesor</italic></source> <publisher-name>Noveduc</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Larrosa, J. (2019). <italic>Esperando no se sabe qu&#x00E9;. Sobre el oficio de profesor</italic>. Noveduc.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-26-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Masschelein</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Simons</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2014</year> <source><italic>Defensa de la escuela: una cuesti&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica</italic></source> <publisher-name>Mi&#x00F1;o y D&#x00E1;vila Editores</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Masschelein, J., &#x0026; Simons, M. (2014). <italic>Defensa de la escuela: una cuesti&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica</italic>. Mi&#x00F1;o y D&#x00E1;vila Editores.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-27-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Masschelein</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Simons</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2015</year> <article-title>Education in Times of Fast Learning: The Future of the School</article-title> <source><italic>Ethics and Education</italic></source> <volume>10</volume><issue>1</issue> <fpage>84</fpage><lpage>95</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Masschelein, J., &#x0026; Simons, M. (2015). Education in Times of Fast Learning: The Future of the School. <italic>Ethics and Education, 10</italic>(1), 84-95.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-28-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Masschelein</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Simons</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <article-title>The language of the school: alienating or emancipating?</article-title> <source><italic>Childhood &#x0026; Philosophy</italic></source> <volume>13</volume> <fpage>193</fpage><lpage>212</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Masschelein, J., &#x0026; Simons, M. (2017). The language of the school: alienating or emancipating? <italic>Childhood &#x0026; Philosophy, 13</italic>, 193-212.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-29-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mead</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Cultura y compromiso: estudios sobre la ruptura generacional</italic></source> <publisher-name>Gedisa</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mead, M. (2019). <italic>Cultura y compromiso: estudios sobre la ruptura generacional</italic>. Gedisa.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-30-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Morgan</surname> <given-names>T.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1998</year> <source><italic>Literate education in the Hellenistic and Roman worlds</italic></source> <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Morgan, T. (1998). <italic>Literate education in the Hellenistic and Roman worlds</italic>. Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-31-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2014</year> <article-title>Infancia, pasado y nostalgia: cambios en la transmisi&#x00F3;n intergeneracional</article-title> <source><italic>Revista Brasileira de Hist&#x00F3;ria da Educa&#x00E7;&#x00E3;o</italic></source> <volume>14</volume><issue>02</issue> <fpage>191</fpage><lpage>214</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4025/rbhe.v14i2.695</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M. (2014). Infancia, pasado y nostalgia: cambios en la transmisi&#x00F3;n intergeneracional. <italic>Revista Brasileira de Hist&#x00F3;ria da Educa&#x00E7;&#x00E3;o, 14</italic>(02), 191-214. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.4025/rbhe.v14i2.695">https://doi.org/10.4025/rbhe.v14i2.695</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-32-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2016</year> <source><italic>Un mundo sin adultos</italic></source> <publisher-name>Debate</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M. (2016). <italic>Un mundo sin adultos</italic>. Debate.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-33-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <article-title>Fantasmas de lo escolar: &#x00BF;A qui&#x00E9;n vas a llamar?</article-title> <source><italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n: Revista Interuniversitaria</italic></source> <volume>33</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>49</fpage><lpage>63</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.25136</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M. (2021). Fantasmas de lo escolar: &#x00BF;A qui&#x00E9;n vas a llamar? <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n: Revista Interuniversitaria, 33</italic>(2), 49-63. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.25136">https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.25136</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-34-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Campetella</surname> <given-names>M. D.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2023</year> <chapter-title>La educaci&#x00F3;n escolar como raz&#x00F3;n de mercado: Mapeando las racionalidades de gobierno de la escuela p&#x00FA;blica</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Thoilliez</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Manso</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Coords.</role> <source><italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n, &#x00BF;bien com&#x00FA;n, derecho individual o servicio p&#x00FA;blico?</italic></source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>101</fpage><lpage>118</lpage> <publisher-name>S&#x00ED;ntesis</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M., &#x0026; Campetella, M. D. (2023). La educaci&#x00F3;n escolar como raz&#x00F3;n de mercado: Mapeando las racionalidades de gobierno de la escuela p&#x00FA;blica. En B. Thoilliez, &#x0026; J. Manso (Coords.), <italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n, &#x00BF;bien com&#x00FA;n, derecho individual o servicio p&#x00FA;blico?</italic> (pp. 101&#x2013;118). S&#x00ED;ntesis.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-35-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Paglayan</surname> <given-names>A.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2024</year> <source><italic>Raised to obey: the rise and spread of mass education</italic></source> <publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Paglayan, A. (2024). <italic>Raised to obey: the rise and spread of mass education</italic>. Princeton University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-36-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Perryman</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2022</year> <source><italic>Teacher Retention in an Age of Performative Accountability: Target culture and the discourse of disappointment</italic></source> <publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Perryman, J. (2022). <italic>Teacher Retention in an Age of Performative Accountability: Target culture and the discourse of disappointment</italic>. Routledge.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-37-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Recalcati</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2016</year> <source><italic>La hora de clase: por una er&#x00F3;tica de la ense&#x00F1;anza</italic></source> <publisher-name>Anagrama</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Recalcati, M. (2016). <italic>La hora de clase: por una er&#x00F3;tica de la ense&#x00F1;anza</italic>. Anagrama.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-38-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sadowski</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2020</year> <source><italic>Too Smart: How Digital Capitalism is Extracting Data, Controlling Our Lives, and Taking Over the World</italic></source> <publisher-name>MIT Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Sadowski, J. (2020). <italic>Too Smart: How Digital Capitalism is Extracting Data, Controlling Our Lives, and Taking Over the World</italic>. MIT Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-39-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>&#x015E;ahin</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Demir</surname> <given-names>&#x00D6;.</given-names></name> <name><surname>&#x015E;evik</surname> <given-names>Y. K.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2024</year> <source><italic>Teacher Disappointments from Teacher&#x2019;s Perspective. Osmangazi Journal of Educational Research</italic></source> <volume>11</volume><issue>1</issue> <fpage>118</fpage><lpage>155</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.59409/ojer.1486105</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>&#x015E;ahin, S., Demir, &#x00D6;., &#x0026; &#x015E;evik, Y. K. (2024). <italic>Teacher Disappointments from Teacher&#x2019;s Perspective. Osmangazi Journal of Educational Research, 11</italic>(1), 118-155. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.59409/ojer.1486105">https://doi.org/10.59409/ojer.1486105</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-40-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Skliar</surname> <given-names>C.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Pedagog&#x00ED;as de las diferencias: (Notas, fragmentos, incertidumbres)</italic></source> <publisher-name>Noveduc</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Skliar, C. (2019). <italic>Pedagog&#x00ED;as de las diferencias: (Notas, fragmentos, incertidumbres)</italic>. Noveduc.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-41-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stiegler</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2010</year> <source><italic>Taking Care of Youth and the Generations</italic></source> <publisher-name>Stanford University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Stiegler, B. (2010). <italic>Taking Care of Youth and the Generations</italic>. Stanford University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-42-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stiegler</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <chapter-title>Afterword: On positive pharmacology</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Ross</surname> <given-names>D.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Painter</surname> <given-names>S. M.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Eds.</role> <source><italic>Psychopolitical anaphylaxis: Steps towards a metacosmics</italic></source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>357</fpage><lpage>368</lpage> <publisher-name>Open Humanities Press</publisher-name> <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis">https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis</ext-link></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Stiegler, B. (2021). Afterword: On positive pharmacology. En D. Ross, &#x0026; S. M. Painter (Eds.), <italic>Psychopolitical anaphylaxis: Steps towards a metacosmics</italic> (pp. 357&#x2013;368). Open Humanities Press. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis">https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-43-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Strauss</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Calero</surname> <given-names>C. I.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Sigman</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2014</year> <source><italic>Teaching, naturally. Trends in Neuroscience and Education</italic></source> <volume>3</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>38</fpage><lpage>43</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.tine.2014.05.001</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Strauss, S., Calero, C. I., &#x0026; Sigman, M. (2014). <italic>Teaching, naturally. Trends in Neuroscience and Education</italic>, 3(2), 38-43. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2014.05.001">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2014.05.001</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-44-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tysklind</surname> <given-names>E. N.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Tryggvason</surname> <given-names>&#x00C1;.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2025</year> <article-title>Politicised or Political: On Agonism and School as &#x2018;Free Time&#x2019;</article-title> <source><italic>Stud. Philos. Educ</italic></source> <volume>44</volume> <fpage>305</fpage><lpage>316</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Tysklind, E. N., &#x0026; Tryggvason, &#x00C1;. (2025). Politicised or Political: On Agonism and School as &#x2018;Free Time&#x2019;. <italic>Stud. Philos. Educ., 44,</italic> 305&#x2013;316.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-45-32701-ES"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tomasello</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny</italic></source> <publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Tomasello, M. (2019). <italic>Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny</italic>. Harvard University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32701</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32701</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Loves that Kill: Debates on School Essentialism</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es">Amores que matan: debates sobre el esencialismo escolar</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3122-052X</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>NARODOWSKI</surname>
<given-names>Mariano</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<email>mnarodowski@utdt.edu</email>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Torcuato Di Tella, Buenos Aires. Argentina</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Torcuato Di Tella</institution>
<addr-line>
<named-content content-type="city">Buenos Aires</named-content>
</addr-line>
<country country="AR">Argentina</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>07</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026382</issue-id>
<elocation-id>e32701</elocation-id>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>25</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>15</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>This article analyzes the defense of the school formulated by Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons, who conceive it as a space of non-productive free time. The hypothesis advanced is that this conception rests on a triple essentialism -nominal, rational, and affective- that fetishizes the school and obscures it as a technology that channels practices. The analysis confirms that this essentialism appeals to <italic>schol&#x00E9;</italic> as a myth, to the attribution of a rational capacity, and to the centrality of love as the ultimate foundation of legitimacy. This produces effects of reflexive impotence and blocks imagination in an accelerated scenario of digitalization and prefigurative cultures.</p>
<p>The study is based on a theoretical-critical analysis that draws on history and sociology, Foucauldian notions of technology and governmentality, and research on cultural evolution. Teaching is considered as an adaptive capacity of the human species, prior to and external to the school, thereby questioning its naturalization as the exclusive habitat of education.</p>
<p>The findings suggest that the emphasis on love as a source of legitimacy configures a normative shield which, far from empowering teachers, intensifies disappointment and impotence, particularly in a prefigurative culture where the symbolic centrality of adults is eroded, undermining the testimonial horizon of schooling.</p>
<p>The article proposes identifying alternative ways of embedding teaching, suggesting three complementary paths: rejecting the school fetish through the historicization of schooling; mapping spaces where non-productive times emerge; and exploring couplings between school and post-school forms, assessing their effects on attention and equality of access to knowledge. It calls for opening educational imagination beyond mythologized recurrences in order to identify flows capable of sustaining education in its evolutionary, open, and contingent character.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>Este art&#x00ED;culo analiza la defensa de la escuela formulada por Jan Masschelein y Maarten Simons, quienes la conciben como un espacio de tiempo libre no productivo. Se plantea como hip&#x00F3;tesis que dicha concepci&#x00F3;n descansa en un triple esencialismo -nominal, racional y afectivo- que fetichiza lo escolar y la invisibiliza como tecnolog&#x00ED;a que canaliza pr&#x00E1;cticas. El an&#x00E1;lisis confirma que este esencialismo apela a la <italic>schol&#x00E9;</italic> como mito, por la atribuci&#x00F3;n de una capacidad racional y por la centralidad del amor como fundamento de legitimidad. Esto produce efectos de impotencia reflexiva y bloqueo de la imaginaci&#x00F3;n en un escenario acelerado de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n y culturas prefigurativas.</p>
<p>Se sustenta un an&#x00E1;lisis te&#x00F3;rico-cr&#x00ED;tico que articula aportes de la historia y la sociolog&#x00ED;a, nociones foucaultianas de tecnolog&#x00ED;a y gubernamentalidad y estudios sobre evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural. La ense&#x00F1;anza es considerada como una capacidad adaptativa de la especie humana, anterior y exterior a la escuela, cuestionando su naturalizaci&#x00F3;n como h&#x00E1;bitat exclusivo.</p>
<p>Los hallazgos sugieren que el &#x00E9;nfasis en el amor como fundamento de legitimaci&#x00F3;n configura un blindaje normativo que, lejos de empoderar a los docentes intensifica la decepci&#x00F3;n y la impotencia, particularmente en una cultura prefigurativa, donde la centralidad simb&#x00F3;lica del adulto se ve erosionada, comprometiendo el horizonte testimonial de lo escolar.</p>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo propone identificar otros modos de anidar la ense&#x00F1;anza, sugiri&#x00E9;ndose tres v&#x00ED;as complementarias: rechazar el fetiche escolar mediante la historizaci&#x00F3;n de lo escolar; cartografiar espacios donde emergen tiempos no productivos; y explorar acoples entre formas escolares y postescolares, evaluando efectos sobre la atenci&#x00F3;n y la igualdad de acceso al conocimiento. Se propone abrir la imaginaci&#x00F3;n prescindiendo de la recurrencia mitificada y as&#x00ED; identificar flujos capaces de sostener lo educativo en su car&#x00E1;cter evolutivo, abierto y contingente.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>school as technology</kwd>
<kwd>cultural evolution</kwd>
<kwd>school fetishism</kwd>
<kwd>essentialism</kwd>
<kwd>reflexive impotence</kwd>
<kwd>prefigurative cultures</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>escuela como tecnolog&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>evoluci&#x00F3;n cultural</kwd>
<kwd>fetichismo escolar</kwd>
<kwd>esencialismo</kwd>
<kwd>impotencia reflexiva</kwd>
<kwd>culturas prefigurativas</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32701-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></title>
<p>This article focuses on the proposal of Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons, who have formulated a defense of the school as a singular space of <italic>skhol&#x00E9;</italic> and non-productive free time. Unlike philosophical readings that seek to continue their reflection, we explicitly adopt a theoretical approach from the social sciences: our argument is that this conception renders invisible the material and technological dimensions that condition contemporary teaching practices, while reinforcing a normative imaginary that may lead to a fetishization of the school.</p>
<p>The central thesis holds that the defense of the school rests on a triple essentialism -nominal, rational, and affective- that fetishizes the scholastic, concealing the technologies that traverse and shape practices. From a sociohistorical reading, we aim to show both the possibilities and limits of this normative stance and to open the discussion toward alternative ways of conceptualizing teaching. From sociology and history, it is possible to understand the school as a contingent technology configured by specific conditions. This framework is enriched by studies on cultural evolution, which show that teaching is an adaptive capacity of the human species that not only precedes but also sustains the existence of schooling among multiple social and technological forms developed over time.</p>
<p>At the same time, we are concerned with understanding how the idea of defense (or apology) is formulated precisely in a historical context where the efficacy of the teacher&#x2019;s position as guarantor of knowledge is eroded: the school no longer seems to ensure cultural continuity or legitimate authority (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32701-EN">Dubet, 2007</xref>); the adult has lost consistency as a representative of a world and its traditions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32701-EN">Narodowski, 2016</xref>); and school teaching is challenged by technological, social, and cultural forms that limit its formative power (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32701-EN">Sadowski, 2020</xref>). Within this framework, such a defense could be read less as a creative response and more as a normative shield that reinforces the impotence to think the new (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32701-EN">Fisher, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>In light of this, we aim to attempt a theoretical critique focused on what these positions construct, what they leave aside, and their consequences, understanding the logic of this perspective on human teaching as one that does not seek to interrogate the regime of knowledge production (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32701-EN">Hunter, 2013</xref>) but rather to highlight the school as an educationally privileged space.</p>
<p>Regardless of its theoretical contribution, the justification for this article also lies in the scarce presence of studies that critically analyze these positions, despite their significant circulation in Ibero-American academic, educational, and even political circles. For this reason, we have focused on the most influential authors who articulate with the work of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein and Simons (2014</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32701-EN">2015</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32701-EN">2017</xref>): <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32701-EN">B&#x00E1;rcena (2012</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32701-EN">2025</xref>), and to a lesser extent <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32701-EN">Skliar (2019)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32701-EN">Larrosa (2019)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32701-EN">Kohan (2017)</xref>, and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32701-EN">Recalcati (2016)</xref>. The software <italic>Publish or Perish</italic> based on Google Scholar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32701-EN">Harzing, 2023</xref>) was used to select the most cited authors in Spanish and Portuguese.</p>
<p>It is true that some previous studies have pointed out that these approaches tend to downplay the relevance of historical determinants or have speculated about their consequences in the depoliticization of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32701-EN">Tysklind &#x0026; Tryggvason, 2025</xref>). However, these critiques often maintain the school at a normative level convergent with that defended by Masschelein and Simons. Our perspective, by contrast, seeks to problematize the very primacy of the school: we will partially take up observations regarding contextual elusion and depoliticization, but subordinate them to our central thesis. Furthermore, such observations have already been rigorously addressed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32701-EN">Masschelein and Simons themselves (2017)</xref>.</p>
<p>In this sense, a clarification is in order: our position should not be understood as advocacy for the death of the school (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32701-EN">Illich, 1971</xref>) nor as the replacement of essentialism with structural nihilism. We seek to avoid both nostalgic restoration and nihilistic void. We are aware of the narrow ridge we choose to walk: rather than proposing essences or restoring legitimacies, we aim to identify non-school technologies of teaching capable of effectively coupling with the present, just as the modern school coupled with its own context (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32701-EN">Narodowski, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32701-EN">Berardi, 2019</xref>). In the final section, we outline paths that allow tensions to be overcome and escape from paralyzing theoretical frameworks.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32701-EN">
<label>2.</label>
<title>B<sc>efore the school</sc>: <sc>evolution</sc>, <sc>natural</sc> <sc>pedagogy</sc>, <sc>and prefigurative culture</sc></title>
<p>From the Enlightenment to contemporary debates on authority and responsibility, teaching has been conceived as the act of offering a world to the new and sustaining narrative continuity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32701-EN">Arendt, 2001</xref>). This humanistic way of understanding education, however, must be placed in the perspective of a broader and external history in which teaching appears as an evolutionary and cultural capacity.</p>
<p>Rather than an ethical gesture or a moral event, teaching is an evolutionary fact of <italic>Homo sapiens</italic>: an adaptive skill inscribed in the species&#x2019; biology and shared with a few non-human animals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32701-EN">Tomasello, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32701-EN">Csibra &#x0026; Gergely, 2009</xref>). It has always been expressed through technologies understood as the correlated set of devices that produce power-knowledge effects in culture, bodies, knowledge, and desire. Each technology configures these devices, and in each one, specific singularities are reproduced that make it relatively predictable, establishing precise limits and expected effects (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32701-EN">Foucault, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32701-EN">Behrent, 2013</xref>). Among them: orality, deferred imitation, metacognition, writing, printing, and schooling.</p>
<p>The concept of &#x201C;cultural evolution&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32701-EN">Birch &#x0026; Heyes, 2021</xref>), as the accumulation and transmission of knowledge, techniques, and norms in interaction with genetic and environmental factors, long predates the modern notion of &#x201C;transmission&#x201D; typical of humanistic thought. Indeed, recent studies show that human beings carry within their biological equipment a &#x201C;natural pedagogy&#x201D;: research shows, for example, that one-year-old infants already display teaching practices (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32701-EN">Strauss, Calero &#x0026; Sigman, 2014</xref>). From this perspective, teaching is an evolutionary function linked to the collective survival of humans, and reading it as a symbolic episode of intergenerational emancipation is only one possibility among many.</p>
<p>The very idea of the intergenerational deserves to be revisited. At this point, it is crucial to recover <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-EN">Margaret Mead&#x2019;s (2019)</xref> contribution, who distinguished between postfigurative, cofigurative, and prefigurative cultures. While in the first, knowledge descends from adults to the young (as, for example, in the early stages of schooling), in today&#x2019;s prefigurative cultures, relevant knowledge is produced or anticipated by younger generations, not because &#x201C;kids know more,&#x201D; but because in a society of constant and violent change, it is the youngest who, being formed in and by these changes, can offer better responses to the demands of reality. In this way, downward transmission ceases to be an invariant feature and is revealed as a specific historical configuration. In the current scenario, adults are no longer &#x201C;ambassadors of tradition&#x201D; because tradition itself loses significance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-EN">Mead, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32701-EN">B&#x00E1;rcena (2012)</xref> is right: &#x201C;By considering the young as &#x2018;elders&#x2019; and releasing the adult from responsibility, the terms are inverted and a state of non-differentiation between generations is produced.&#x201D; However, this scenario does not seem to be promoted by public policy or a generalized intersubjective consensus, but rather it is the epiphenomenon of new evolutionary forms of cultural accumulation that are impossible to counteract (whether we like it or not) by politics or by a new intersubjective consensus.</p>
<p>Over this long duration, humans have organized teaching in multiple formats: familial, tribal, ritual, religious, guild-based, individual, etc. The school, far from being the natural origin of education, is one among these historical technologies, a singular form of coupling (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32701-EN">De Landa, 2017</xref>). Its consolidation as the dominant form occurred only in late Euro-American modernity, when nation-states established a device based on age grouping, simultaneous instruction, sequenced curricula, and specific architectures (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32701-EN">Hamilton, 2015</xref>). This responded to cultural, technological, and productive transformations: for the first time in history, large population masses were separated from their parents and forbidden from performing productive tasks, in order to be educated in spaces regulated by the emerging nineteenth-century states under the mandate of social control and obedience (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32701-EN">Paglayan, 2024</xref>). Since then, the school has been configured as a technology for the governance of knowledge and bodies, simultaneously producing knowledge and regulating populations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32701-EN">Hunter, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32701-EN">Narodowski, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>From a sociohistorical point of view, school teaching can be seen as a coupling of power-knowledge organized by regimes of knowledge production, classification of bodies, and modulation of behaviors, inseparable from its governmentality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32701-EN">Foucault, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32701-EN">Narodowski &#x0026; Campetella, 2023</xref>). Ignoring that this school technology is traversed by productive variables and, today, by processes of digitization and automation of labor, including intellectual work (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32701-EN">Caffentzis, 2020</xref>), leads to a fatal disregard for the real conditions of school teaching and learning.</p>
<p>Understanding teaching as an evolutionary capacity of the species, prior to the existence of the school, allows the educational to be decoupled from its modern form. If teaching has never depended on a single technology but has instead adopted multiple historical forms, the school ceases to be thought of as the natural habitat of the educational act. Hence the need to question how certain technologies monopolized the transmission of legitimate knowledge and what consequences arise from maintaining that naturalization in a context marked by new logics of knowledge production and distribution.</p>
<p>Recognizing it as one technology among others, a contingent product of cultural evolution, allows both the conditions of its emergence and the limits of the scholastic to be analyzed, opening the possibility of exploring alternative technologies without sustaining the ineluctability of schooling as a necessary and inherent phenomenon.</p>
<p>The school may not be what some educational intellectuals want it to be because, as a historically established technology, it shares the fate of all technology; that is, it has specific boundaries -often impermeable or difficult to transgress- instituted through an organization of knowledge arising under specific conditions of the modern world and configured through a state matrix (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32701-EN">Narodowski, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Recognizing that it is one technology among other possible ones, an effect of <italic>Homo sapiens&#x2019;</italic> cultural evolution and therefore contingent, will allow education to be rethought beyond the limits imposed by schooling, interrogating its conditions of emergence and possible trajectories, including, why not, obsolescence or disappearance: not in the sense of a political proposal <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32701-EN"><italic>&#x00E0; la Ivan Illich</italic> (1971)</xref>, but as another contingency, another probable evolutionary adaptation.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32701-EN">
<label>3.</label>
<title>R<sc>ationality</sc>, <sc>will</sc>, <sc>and love</sc></title>
<p>A theoretically lucid, argumentatively sophisticated, and academically influential proposal in defense of the modern school order is that of Jan Masschelein and Maarten Simons, who reclaim the school as a unique institution, capable of suspending the logics of the productive, familial, and social world, and of offering a specific form of non-productive free time. For them, the scholastic is a privileged space in which the subject as such is enabled to appear, insofar as they are removed from external determinations and exposed to a disinterested relation with the world.</p>
<p>Their starting point is indisputable and could in principle be equated with what was set out in the previous section: &#x201C;the school is a historical invention and, therefore, it may disappear,&#x201D; although the consequence articulates with a rational will: &#x201C;but that also means it can be reinvented&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein &#x0026; Simons, 2014</xref>, p. 3). To give their proposal consistency, they affirm: &#x201C;We want to reserve the notion of school for the invention of a specific form of free and non-productive, indefinite time to which one cannot have access outside school&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein &#x0026; Simons, 2014</xref>, p. 12).</p>
<p>In a later work (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32701-EN">Masschelein &#x0026; Simmons, 2015</xref>), they take up <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32701-EN">Bernard Stiegler&#x2019;s (2010)</xref> contributions to better justify the tension between historical invention and normative reserve. They go back to ancient Greece, noting that a singular form of knowledge transmission was invented there: the school, and that what was specific to that invention was the creation of a non-productive space &#x201C;otium/schol&#x00E9; for the people,&#x201D; a format of emancipation that separates a time and a space of its own, distinct from the home (<italic>oikos</italic>) and from society (<italic>polis</italic>).</p>
<p>The authors resort to the <italic>eidos</italic> of the school in order to isolate a minimal structure of meaning that would allow the school institution to be recognized beyond its historical transformations. However, this recourse does not seem to overcome the tension posed: it is not easy to demonstrate, according to the broad consensus of historians and political scientists already mentioned, that the political and social organization of the Greek school of the fifth century BCE bears any kinship with the school of modernity or with the large school systems of the twenty-first century, except for the name.</p>
<p>Moreover, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32701-EN">Roland Barthes (1987)</xref>, through the example of the Ship Argo, has already shown how an identity can persist while changing matter, but this would be the opposite case because it would be pure <italic>Doxa</italic>: expressions that manifest explicitly in consciousness, naturalizing the historical, imagining the real, repeating themselves eternally so as to prevent creative transformation, as we shall see. Indeed, this could be a Barthesian example of how modernity operates from the study of myth (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32701-EN">Barthes, 1987</xref>), where the school appears purged of any impurity that would link it to a specific regime of governmentality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32701-EN">Foucault, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Another problem raised by historical studies has to do with the difference between classical texts on <italic>skhol&#x00E9;</italic> and their actual implementation as social practice, not because the second is necessary for the first but because this comparison adds greater difficulty to constructing a concept such as &#x201C;school.&#x201D; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32701-EN">Hamilton (2015)</xref> concludes that the surviving artifacts that might confirm the institutionalization of ancient school practices are absent. Drawing on Teresa Morgan&#x2019;s exhaustive work (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32701-EN">1998</xref>), he asserts that &#x201C;it is impossible to identify any surviving philosophical text as a &#x2018;school text&#x2019; as distinct from a &#x2018;professional&#x2019; philosophical text&#x201D; (p. 17) and that, unfortunately, &#x201C;we have scarcely any archaeological sites even tentatively identifiable as &#x2018;school rooms&#x2019;&#x201D; (p. 28). The inference is central to our argument: &#x201C;in sum, we know almost nothing about the institution of education in the classical period&#x201D; (p. 19; translation from English by the author). In other words, there are no reliable signs that the ideal was realized other than in a mythified form.</p>
<p>This does not aim to discard the discourse on <italic>skhol&#x00E9;</italic> as a philosophical category: the issue is its linkage with modern schooling. For this connection a rigorous historical justification is required that confirms invariance over time. The normative gesture does not merit being denied <italic>a priori</italic>, but the privilege of socio-historical analysis allows the proposed pedagogical program to be weighed. That is, the normative value is not rejected, but rather projected onto its conditions of possibility.</p>
<p>Consequently, the vision presented as historical ends up resting on an ethical and volitional gesture: the reinvention of the school is possible, yes, but only if it preserves the essence that embodies the reserve purified of any stain that might tarnish its good name which, in turn, is rooted in its etymology, <italic>skhol&#x00E9;</italic>. Later works by Stiegler himself (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32701-EN">2021</xref>) relativize this recovery of the school as historical invariant: his perspective of the <italic>pharmakon</italic> aims at the contingent, the way in which matter is organized; technology appears as a constitutive support of psychic and collective individuation, yet always ambivalent: remedy and poison; therefore, the scholastic <italic>eidos</italic> is fatally subject to each wave of grammatization.</p>
<p>Following this logic, current digital technologies neither prolong nor linearly contest the mythical <italic>schol&#x00E9;</italic>, but rather reorganize &#x201C;decoupled&#x201D; matter, in the sense that <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32701-EN">De Landa (2017)</xref> gives to assemblages: unstable configurations of heterogeneous elements. The key, then, does not lie in the permanence of the school and its necessity, but in how technologies configure and are reconfigured at each historical moment.</p>
<p>To overcome the tension, one should inquire into the historical structures that have shaped the scholastic in terms of its state inscription, its articulation with capital, its cognitive functionality, or its character as a demographic and labor regulator. On the contrary, the authors propose to restore an ideal form by means of the same Enlightenment conviction that led the great Bohemian pedagogue and theologian Jan Amos Comenius to assert the same concept in 1657: &#x201C;Thus far we have lacked schools that respond perfectly to their end&#x201D; [&#x201C;Scholas sini suo perfecte respondentes, defuisse hactenus&#x201D;] (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32701-EN">Comenius, 1986</xref>, p. 27).</p>
<p>The apology/defense of the scholastic, then, is sustained by an essentialist supposition: the idea that it can operate as a suspension of the real by a sort of rational will, an ethical decision by those who inhabit it whereby it is possible to neutralize the old logics of surveillance and sanction or the new ones of performance, control, and normalization, without modifying the conditions that produce them, but instead betting on the form itself, capable of creating and resisting the world by the conscious declaration of its difference. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32701-EN">Kohan (2017)</xref>, commenting on J. Masschelein, explains it better: &#x201C;In other words, where the philosopher says &#x2018;you must change your life,&#x2019; the educator says &#x2018;you are not in-capable,&#x2019; &#x2018;you can pay attention to the world.&#x2019; The pedagogue would be the one who takes the student to the school, the place where the world un-folds and power is dis-covered.&#x201D; The supposition of the &#x201C;un-folding&#x201D; or of the &#x201C;dis-covering&#x201D; is exempt from any attempt at verification.</p>
<p>Thus, school agents-mainly teachers- are assigned the responsibility of maneuvering the suspension by creating free time amid the bureaucratic, technological, affective, and material demands that institute daily work: &#x201C;At school, we focus on mathematics for mathematics&#x2019; sake, on language for language&#x2019;s sake, on cooking for cooking&#x2019;s sake, on carpentry for carpentry&#x2019;s sake. This is how we calculate an average, how we conjugate in English, how we make a soup, or how we build a door. But all that happens independently of any external goal that has to be immediately achieved&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein &#x0026; Simons, 2014</xref>, p. 18).</p>
<p>Confidence in an omnipotent will capable of overcoming the limits of the technological framework of the scholastic: the teacher suspends the world, implying a categorical faith in a sovereign rationality redeemed from constraints or turning constraints into impetus, assuming that scenarios have borders that can be infringed by means of an inexhaustible centrality of desire and reflection.</p>
<p>This is also expressed in its reverse, what the authors understand as &#x201C;domestication&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">2014</xref>, p. 51): the problem is not the school in itself, the school named school, but its degraded, diverted, non-virtuous forms. Hence the proposal to restore its functional integrity through the renewal of its mythical purpose: to create equality, to block the outside, to sustain free time in a view that assumes that the school technology can be contained, directed, or reversed by a lucid, conscious, and autonomous self. This is a normative restoration, based implicitly on the Comenian pansophic ideal whereby human knowledge is for all human beings (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32701-EN">Comenius, 1986</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32701-EN">&#x010C;&#x00ED;&#x017E;ek, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>The gesture of restoration finds its affective anchor in a central element: love. According to Masschelein and Simmons, &#x201C;love for the subject matter, for the craft, for the activity, for the world, does not derive from the value that that subject matter, that craft, or that activity has, but sustains them, affirms them, and keeps them available&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">2014</xref>, p. 43). Love is the ultimate foundation of the school experience: one does not teach merely because of what is transmitted, but because of what that transmission entails: loving.</p>
<p>The formulation finds resonance in widely disseminated works in Ibero-America: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32701-EN">Skliar (2019)</xref> speaks of the school as a &#x201C;homeland of affections&#x201D;; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32701-EN">Larrosa (2019)</xref> asserts that &#x201C;love for the craft of teaching (&#x2026;) cannot be separated from love for the school.&#x201D; Here it is useful to distinguish between the love-as-availability proposed by Masschelein and Simmons and the erotic-love formulated by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32701-EN">Recalcatti (2016)</xref> from a Lacanian perspective, where desire and transference constitute the core of the teaching experience. Although different in their formulation, both coincide in affection as a foundation of legitimacy, and our argument points precisely to this move: the appeal to love, whether as availability or as erotics, avoids interrogating anything that puts it at risk.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein and Simons (2014</xref>, p. 76), with lucidity and honesty, acknowledge that their defense of the school could be interpreted as a &#x201C;<italic>petitio pro domo</italic>&#x201D; (<italic>in fact, pro domo sua</italic>, following Cicero&#x2019;s Latin expression); that is, a defense of personal interests, given that they are pedagogues and, because of that, claim to love the school, its teachers, and its students. To respond to the objection, the authors warn that it is not a corporate interest but a public matter because the school fulfills a radical social function by embodying the distinction between free time and productive time, where equality becomes visible.</p>
<p>This shift, however, presents some problems: it needs to purify technology again by rejecting the &#x201C;capitalist school&#x201D; (sic, p. 59) in order to embrace its democratic and &#x201C;communist&#x201D; (sic, p. 77) potential. It is here that the fetishism of the scholastic is expressed: a displacement of desire toward an idealized object, where attributes need not correlate, not even negatively, with a social order. That is, the move toward the public is linked with politically normative postulates that do not require verification, not even against actually existing democratic and communist systems.</p>
<p>The gap in historicity, then, is saturated with generic ideological principles, and, in these terms, it is worth noting that when conditions are adverse and proclamations become unattainable, that fetishized drive is invoked, which runs the risk of becoming a glue that hides, or at least subjectively mitigates, the conditions not only socio-economic but also those for sustaining the school technology itself. If the school can no longer fulfill the promises of equal access to knowledge, equity, or the construction of the common, its defense in the name of love remains a form of symbolic resistance: it is sustained not for what it is but for what it represents, for what it invokes, for what it ought to be.</p>
<p>The authors do not interrogate the factors of a deterioration that they glimpse in certain characteristics of the era except, very roughly, the &#x201C;capitalist&#x201D; features, and the affective discourse preserves the scholastic even if its efficacy is compromised. Love appears as the last refuge, as an irreducible remainder that keeps the promise alive even when everything else is in danger. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32701-EN">B&#x00E1;rcena Orbe (2025)</xref> is the one who best articulates this idea because he compresses it in a mode free of syrupy or dithyrambic phrases: &#x201C;When educating, we transmit that double love and that double care, and, in doing so, we influence the other and establish a kind of testimonial pact&#x201D; (author&#x2019;s italics).</p>
<p>That is, a school is loved that does not exist according to its own normative terms, and it is sustained so that it continues to represent that essence. The scholastic becomes an empty reference: it is invoked as if it still operated or could operate effectively, without even conjecturing the possibility of its occurrence, which is our basic scientific standard. In fact, the authors acknowledge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein &#x0026; Simmons, 2014</xref>, p. 48) that the school does not transmit or transmits what is not intended, but they do not inquire into its effective possibility: the essentialized language ends up absorbed by the performative logic of contemporary pedagogical discourse, which <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32701-EN">Baudrillard (2024)</xref> has characterized as a third-order simulacrum, where signs circulate without real reference.</p>
<p>Thus, the defense of the school out of love and the love of and for teachers seems to justify the continuity of a form without conditions and to make the affective gesture a support strategy that, paradoxically, is condemned to deactivate any attempt to detach the medium -the school, now fetishized- from the ends that are sought, by virtue of the defense of the essential status that was granted to it.</p>
<p>We could say, with a certain irony, that there are loves that kill. We anticipated that for <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32701-EN">Barthes (1987)</xref> the doxastic, in its eagerness to sustain, ends up suffocating any possibility of examination and transformation that questions the defended format. The point here is not an indictment of affection, but of its compensatory use: when what would be expected of critical discourse is openness to imagination, to the unthought, it is folded back; when it would be worthwhile to interrogate school technology for its contingent character, it is frozen; and where unthought alternatives could be enabled, they are canceled. Thus, love for the school and for the teacher ends up obstructing reflection on the radically new, not because love does not matter, but because its invocation entails a denial of mourning for the absence of that which is exalted or recalled.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-32701-EN">
<label>4.</label>
<title>R<sc>eflective impotence and the decline of the testimonial figure</sc></title>
<p>The anthropological horizon of this educational theory is a humanism that places the adult as responsible for sustaining the continuity of the world, yet conceived outside any condition of possibility. The teacher appears as an enlightened residue who acts beyond the conditions of school technology, even though it is precisely that technology which configures them.</p>
<p>To this is added another problem: the adult figure, once close to the exemplary, has lost its symbolic consistency in a &#x201C;world without adults&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-EN">Mead, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32701-EN">Narodowski, 2016</xref>). This is not simply a crisis of authority but an anthropological mutation in its social and cultural-evolutionary sense: in a society that has stripped many of its meaning-reproducing agencies of their functions, the adult no longer represents a model to follow but rather an identity questioned for its possible obsolescence and deprived of a transcendent horizon. Exemplarity, as part of the foundation of the scholastic, offers a dead end.</p>
<p>This essentialism can be read as the subjective administration of impotence: adults no longer offer a world; instead, they manage its loss as best they can. Far from being bearers of an ordering experience, they often appear erratic, interpellated by technologies that reorganize knowledge, language, and affectivity according to logics that are non-adult and, often, not even human. Returning to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32701-EN">Mead (2019)</xref>, the adult of the prefigurative culture -where tradition is always at risk of obsolescence or subordinated to its updating-contains vestiges of what is ceasing to be (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32701-EN">Narodowski, 2014</xref>).</p>
<p>To insist on exemplarity and love without acknowledging this mutation amounts to placing the educational promise in a figure in decline. Its mandate kneads restorative nostalgia in Svetlana <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32701-EN">Boym&#x2019;s (2001)</xref> sense, the kind that forcibly brings back the murmur of the past: instead of interrogating the conditions of possibility of the symbolic position, it is taken as a starting point, as if the adult, the teacher, were still in a position to offer the new to the new, always and everywhere.</p>
<p>It is useful here to recall <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32701-EN">Fisher&#x2019;s (2023)</xref> concept of &#x201C;reflective impotence&#x201D;: an opaque awareness of the dysfunctionality of the real, which, in this case, leads to the idea that the school does not function as it should but with an awareness that produces not transformation but paralysis. Does the teacher perceive the simulacrum? Do they intuit the futility yet continue acting as if those achievements were still attainable? Impotence is not ignorance but knowledge without effect, thought without consequence, critique without exit.</p>
<p>It is there that a new mode of legitimation emerges not for teachers, but for the discourse that sustains them under the rhetoric of commitment, love, presence, and otherness. <italic>Pro domo sua</italic> becomes a technique of subjective containment: a way of maintaining the appearance of meaning within a space traversed by the decomposition of the scholastic, the delegitimization of teaching, and the growing automation of pedagogical practice. It is striking how the reflective impotence of the educational intellectual resists confronting the vertigo before evaluation algorithms, the digital segmentation of knowledge, or the systematic disengagement of students when attention itself has become a scarce good for which there is relentless competition. As they peer into the abyss, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein and Simmons (2014</xref>, p. 59) see there &#x201C;the school and the capitalist teacher&#x201D;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32701-EN">
<label>5.</label>
<title>T<sc>he subjective reverse of love for the school</sc></title>
<p>Far from empowering, disappointment grows disenchantment. The essentialized representation, stripped as such of contradictions or narrated as if they could be synthesized, dehistoricizes the concrete experience of teaching work: since this vision is explicitly disconnected from the analysis of real conditions of existence, it offers no tools to think and concretely transform them. As a result, what may be unfolding is a scene difficult to inhabit, an unattainable model that falls as a moral demand upon those who sustain an extensive, complex, and sometimes distressing framework.</p>
<p>This configuration allows us to conjecture the emergence of forms of subjective guilt: if the teacher fails to &#x201C;produce equality,&#x201D; &#x201C;open to the common world,&#x201D; or &#x201C;create free time,&#x201D; the problem might be attributed to their lack of vocation, insufficient love for the subject matter, or weak presence not because this outcome is perversely intended, but as a reaction to a strong imperative. The question that cannot fail to arise in the teacher attentive to these authors, committed to these ideas that they take to heart, could be brutal and silent: <italic>Why can I not promote what these great intellectuals say must happen? What have I done to deserve this?</italic></p>
<p>This mismatch brings us back to reflective impotence, and the gap between the promise and everyday practice can be introjected as personal deficiency (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32701-EN">Dubet, 2007</xref>). Several studies show the growth of disappointment among the teaching population and that its causes are numerous and heterogeneous (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32701-EN">Grossman &#x0026; Oplatka, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32701-EN">Perryman, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32701-EN">&#x015E;ahin, Demir &#x0026; &#x015E;evik, 2024</xref>). Obviously, this is not to argue that such a condition results directly from the approach under analysis, but it is urgent to investigate the possible effects of grand apologetic narratives about school and teaching on the growing feelings of frustration.</p>
<p>In this scenario, the teacher&#x2019;s figure ends up as a kind of sacrificial hero, summoned to sustain, in solitude, the unfulfilled promises of a school inscribed within a rigid essence. The consequence is not the expected one -the recovery of the desire to teach-but rather its silent deterioration. The teacher is expected to embody a world without the conditions to sustain it, to generate equality with or without resources, to create attention without interruption, to love their subject and their students and to allow themselves to be loved by them. To articulate their action in collective terms when individuation and customization are hallmarks of the era. Instead of imagining new forms and identifying existing ones to sustain the relationships they advocate, a fetishized and emotionally costly model is reinforced.</p>
<p>After all, in 2024 there were ninety-seven million teachers, the profession with the largest number of members in the world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32701-EN">International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030 &#x0026; UNESCO, 2023</xref>). Should they all love and be loved? Would we expect all of them to rise each morning ready to suspend time, to deprivatize knowledge, to produce the common, to embody love for the teaching of their subject, and to transmit generational values?</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32701-EN">
<label>6.</label>
<title>W<sc>hat no longer is</sc>, <sc>what does not yet exist</sc></title>
<p>The proposal of Masschelein and Simons, despite its conceptual sophistication and the insights we have discussed, ultimately rests on a triple essentialism: a nominal one, by reserving &#x201C;school&#x201D; for a set of virtuous qualities; a rational one, by placing in the scholastic form a capacity for voluntary suspension of worldly logics; and an affective one, by making love the foundation of its legitimacy. All three function as shielding mechanisms against exhaustion and, in doing so, inhibit the perception of possibilities and limits, changes in regimes of governmentality, and potential obsolescences. Above all, they block the capacity to identify or imagine new teaching technologies.</p>
<p>From a sociohistorical perspective, the issue is not to restore an idealized and mythified school, but to interrogate the conditions under which teaching actually occurs, relying on the fact that it is a capacity embedded in human evolution and cultural accumulation, not an exclusive privilege of the school institution. In a prefigurative society, where digital and technological mediations proliferate, clinging to an essentialized technology risks becoming normative nostalgia rather than a critical horizon it distills, unintentionally, a <italic>de facto</italic> nihilism.</p>
<p>At this point, we may point to three complementary paths that allow for a non-nihilistic view. First, to denaturalize the scholastic fetish by describing its conditions of production, specifically to understand the scholastic as one technology among all those that <italic>Homo sapiens</italic>&#x2019; cultural evolution has generated (and continues to generate at an accelerating pace), rather than as its ultimate, desirable, or non-negotiable form.</p>
<p>Second, to map spaces where &#x201C;non-productive time&#x201D; effectively emerges -whether inside or outside classrooms- and to understand why it occurs there and not elsewhere. Why some of these spaces are permanent and others contingent. Why some overflow and others are protected. This entails paying attention to the emergence of sometimes subjectless flows, practices of knowledge circulation and cultural creation that exceed the scholastic framework and cannot even be reduced to simple networks of exchange: new phenomena that generate knowledge horizontally, without hierarchies or unifying axes. More than <italic>networking</italic>, they are contingent assemblages (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32701-EN">De Landa, 2017</xref>) in which multiple actors and resources interconnect without a center or bureaucratically codified purpose, producing trajectories impossible to reabsorb into the vertical, standardized structures of state-schooled technology.</p>
<p>Finally, to explore combinations that articulate the scholastic with post-school technologies and non-hierarchical circuits of knowledge, assessing their effects on two central dimensions that <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32701-EN">Masschelein and Simons (2014)</xref> defend as possibilities for constructing the common: students&#x2019; attention and equality of access to knowledge. Both mark a key point of tension. The first becomes a decisive problem because the school competes with flattened and deterritorialized information flows and must sustain a regime of concentration in an environment saturated with stimuli. Equality of access remains a crucial criterion, since non-hierarchical circuits tend, supposedly, to reproduce inequalities, while the historical claim of the scholastic has rested on its equalizing vocation.</p>
<p>However, these dimensions should not be understood as virtues guaranteed by the school; to affirm this would be to return to the normative horizon. Rather than intrinsic attributes, they must be considered open problems, whose treatment depends on contingent and accelerating technologies and cultures. These arrangements are often beyond the reach of educational policy or the rational will (individual and collective) of educators and educational intellectuals. The work of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32701-EN">B&#x00E1;rcena Orbe (2025)</xref> illuminates this debate by reminding us that educational experience does not respond to a pre-set method but to a path whose course is defined by the subject&#x2019;s interest and attention: &#x201C;to travel in this way is a means without end or predetermined destination.&#x201D; The metaphor of the journey forces us to ask whether the real school, not the idealized one, but the historically situated one, with its limits and frictions remains the best vehicle to sustain that journey, or whether it is worth experimenting with new technological combinations.</p>
<p>Ultimately, the task is to shift the discussion from the apologetic defense of the school to the recognition of the technological flow of teaching. To think education without guarantees is not to renounce its power, but to open the possibility of imagining that which does not yet exist.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<ack>
<title>A<sc>cknowledgements</sc></title>
<p>The author would like to thank Nicole Elztein (Torcuato Di Tella University) for her invaluable assistance in the research that gave rise to this work.</p>
</ack>
<fn-group>
<fn fn-type="other">
<p><bold>T<sc>ransparency statement</sc></bold></p>
<p>The artificial intelligence tool ChatGPT (OpenAI, version GPT-4) was used in the preparation of this article to assist in analysing the logical consistency of the argumentation and in the final editing of the text. All conceptual, interpretative, and editorial decisions were made by the author.</p>
</fn>
</fn-group>
<ref-list>
<title>R<sc>eferences</sc></title>
<ref id="ref-1-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Arendt</surname> <given-names>H.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2001</year> <source><italic>La condici&#x00F3;n humana</italic></source> <publisher-name>Paid&#x00F3;s</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Arendt, H. (2001). <italic>La condici&#x00F3;n humana</italic>. Paid&#x00F3;s.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-2-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>B&#x00E1;rcena</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2012</year> <chapter-title>Entre generaciones. Notas sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n en la filiaci&#x00F3;n del tiempo</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="compiler"><name><surname>Southwell</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Comp.</role> <source><italic>Entre generaciones. Exploraciones sobre educaci&#x00F3;n, cultura e instituciones</italic></source> <publisher-name>Homo Sapiens</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>B&#x00E1;rcena, F. (2012). Entre generaciones. Notas sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n en la filiaci&#x00F3;n del tiempo. En M. Southwell (Comp.), <italic>Entre generaciones. Exploraciones sobre educaci&#x00F3;n, cultura e instituciones.</italic> Homo Sapiens.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-3-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>B&#x00E1;rcena</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2025</year> <article-title>Una filosof&#x00ED;a de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa: mediaci&#x00F3;n existencial, transmisi&#x00F3;n y testimonio</article-title> <source><italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de La Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</italic></source> <volume>37</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>1</fpage><lpage>18</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32244</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>B&#x00E1;rcena, F. (2025). Una filosof&#x00ED;a de la relaci&#x00F3;n educativa: mediaci&#x00F3;n existencial, transmisi&#x00F3;n y testimonio. <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de La Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria, 37</italic>(2), 1&#x2013;18. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.32244">https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.32244</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-4-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Barthes</surname> <given-names>R.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1987</year> <source><italic>Roland Barthes por Roland Barthes</italic></source> <publisher-name>Kair&#x00F3;s</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Barthes, R. (1987). <italic>Roland Barthes por Roland Barthes</italic>. Kair&#x00F3;s.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-5-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Baudrillard</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2024</year> <source><italic>Cultura y simulacro</italic></source> <publisher-name>Kair&#x00F3;s</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Baudrillard, J. (2024). <italic>Cultura y simulacro</italic>. Kair&#x00F3;s.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-6-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Behrent</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2013</year> <article-title>Foucault and Technology</article-title> <source><italic>History and Technology</italic></source> <volume>29</volume><issue>1</issue> <fpage>54</fpage><lpage>104</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/07341512.2013.780351</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Behrent, M. (2013). Foucault and Technology. <italic>History and Technology, 29</italic>(1), 54&#x2013;104. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2013.780351">https://doi.org/10.1080/07341512.2013.780351</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-7-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Berardi</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Futurabilidad. El deseo de una comunidad posible</italic></source> <publisher-name>Caja Negra</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Berardi, F. (2019). <italic>Futurabilidad. El deseo de una comunidad posible</italic>. Caja Negra.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-8-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Birch</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Heyes</surname> <given-names>C.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <source><italic>The cultural evolution of cultural evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences</italic></source> <volume>376</volume><issue>1828</issue> <elocation-id>20200051</elocation-id> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1098/rstb.2020.0051</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Birch, J., &#x0026; Heyes, C. (2021). <italic>The cultural evolution of cultural evolution. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376</italic>(1828), 20200051. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0051">https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2020.0051</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-9-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Boym</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2001</year> <source><italic>The Future of Nostalgia</italic></source> <publisher-name>Basic Books</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Boym, S. (2001). <italic>The Future of Nostalgia</italic>. Basic Books.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-10-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Caffentzis</surname> <given-names>G.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2020</year> <source><italic>Entre letras de sangre y fuego</italic></source> <publisher-name>Tinta Lim&#x00F3;n Ediciones</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Caffentzis, G. (2020). <italic>Entre letras de sangre y fuego</italic>. Tinta Lim&#x00F3;n Ediciones.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-11-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>&#x010C;&#x00ED;&#x017E;ek</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <article-title>From Pansophia to Panorthosia: The Evolution of Comenius&#x2019;s Pansophic Conception</article-title> <source><italic>Erudition and the Republic of Letters</italic></source> <volume>4</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>199</fpage><lpage>227</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>&#x010C;&#x00ED;&#x017E;ek, J. (2019). From Pansophia to Panorthosia: The Evolution of Comenius&#x2019;s Pansophic Conception. <italic>Erudition and the Republic of Letters, 4</italic>(2), 199-227.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-12-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Comenius</surname> <given-names>J. A.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1986</year> <source><italic>Did&#x00E1;ctica magna</italic></source> <publisher-name>Akal</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Comenius, J. A. (1986). <italic>Did&#x00E1;ctica magna</italic>. Akal.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-13-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Csibra</surname> <given-names>G.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Gergely</surname> <given-names>G.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2009</year> <source><italic>Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences</italic></source> <volume>13</volume><issue>4</issue> <fpage>148</fpage><lpage>153</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.005</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Csibra, G., &#x0026; Gergely, G. (2009). <italic>Natural pedagogy. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13</italic>(4), 148&#x2013;153. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.005">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2009.01.005</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-14-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>De Landa</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <source><italic>Mil a&#x00F1;os de historia no lineal</italic></source> <publisher-name>Gedisa</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>De Landa, M. (2017). <italic>Mil a&#x00F1;os de historia no lineal</italic>. Gedisa.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-15-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Dubet</surname> <given-names>F.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2007</year> <article-title>El declive y las mutaciones de la instituci&#x00F3;n</article-title> <source><italic>Revista de antropolog&#x00ED;a social</italic></source> <volume>16</volume> <fpage>39</fpage><lpage>66</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Dubet, F. (2007). El declive y las mutaciones de la instituci&#x00F3;n. <italic>Revista de antropolog&#x00ED;a social, 16</italic>, 39-66.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-16-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Fisher</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2023</year> <source><italic>Realismo capitalista &#x00BF;No hay alternativa?</italic></source> <publisher-name>Caja Negra</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Fisher, M. (2023). <italic>Realismo capitalista &#x00BF;No hay alternativa?</italic> Caja Negra.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-17-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Foucault</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2004</year> <source><italic>Naissance de la biopolitique: cours au Coll&#x00E8;ge de France (1978&#x2013;1979)</italic></source> <publisher-name>Gallimard</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Foucault, M. (2004). <italic>Naissance de la biopolitique: cours au Coll&#x00E8;ge de France (1978&#x2013;1979).</italic> Gallimard.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-18-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Grossman</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Oplatka</surname> <given-names>I.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <article-title>Teacher disappointment: subjective definitions, factors and consequences</article-title> <source><italic>Journal of Professional Capital and Community</italic></source> <volume>6</volume><issue>3</issue> <fpage>205</fpage><lpage>220</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Grossman, S., &#x0026; Oplatka, I. (2021). Teacher disappointment: subjective definitions, factors and consequences. <italic>Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 6</italic>(3), 205-220.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-19-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hamilton</surname> <given-names>D.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2015</year> <article-title>The beginning of schooling - as we know it?</article-title> <source><italic>Journal of Curriculum Studies</italic></source> <volume>47</volume><issue>5</issue> <fpage>577</fpage><lpage>593</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1080/00220272.2015.1052851</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hamilton, D. (2015). The beginning of schooling - as we know it? <italic>Journal of Curriculum Studies, 47</italic>(5), 577&#x2013;593. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1052851">https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2015.1052851</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-20-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Harzing</surname> <given-names>A. W.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2023</year> <source><italic>Using the Publish or Perish software: Crafting your career in academia</italic></source> <publisher-name>Tarma Software Research Ltd</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Harzing, A. W. (2023). <italic>Using the Publish or Perish software: Crafting your career in academia.</italic> Tarma Software Research Ltd.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-21-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Hunter</surname> <given-names>I.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2013</year> <chapter-title><italic>Assembling the school</italic></chapter-title> <comment>In</comment> <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Barry</surname> <given-names>A.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Osborne</surname> <given-names>T.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Rose</surname> <given-names>N.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Eds.</role> <source><italic>Foucault and political reason: Liberalism, neoliberalism and rationalities of government</italic></source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>143</fpage><lpage>166</lpage> <publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Hunter, I. (2013). <italic>Assembling the school</italic>. In A. Barry, T. Osborne, &#x0026; N. Rose (Eds.), <italic>Foucault and political reason: Liberalism, neoliberalism and rationalities of government</italic> (pp. 143&#x2013;166). Routledge.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-22-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Illich</surname> <given-names>I.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1971</year> <source><italic>Deschooling Society</italic></source> <publisher-name>Harper &#x0026; Row</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Illich, I. (1971). <italic>Deschooling Society</italic>. Harper &#x0026; Row.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-23-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="report"><person-group person-group-type="author"><collab>International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030, &#x0026; UNESCO</collab></person-group> <year>2023</year> <source><italic>Global report on teachers: Addressing teacher shortages</italic></source> <publisher-name>UNESCO</publisher-name> <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523">https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523</ext-link></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030, &#x0026; UNESCO. (2023). <italic>Global report on teachers: Addressing teacher shortages</italic>. UNESCO. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523">https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000387523</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-24-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kohan</surname> <given-names>W. O.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <chapter-title>Em defesa de uma defesa: elogio de uma vida feita escola</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Kohan</surname> <given-names>W. O.</given-names></name></person-group> <source>Elogio da escola</source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>65</fpage><lpage>85</lpage> <publisher-name>Aut&#x00EA;ntica Editora</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Kohan, W. O. (2017). Em defesa de uma defesa: elogio de uma vida feita escola. En W. O. Kohan, Elogio da escola (pp. 65&#x2013;85). Aut&#x00EA;ntica Editora.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-25-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Larrosa</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Esperando no se sabe qu&#x00E9;. Sobre el oficio de profesor</italic></source> <publisher-name>Noveduc</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Larrosa, J. (2019). <italic>Esperando no se sabe qu&#x00E9;. Sobre el oficio de profesor</italic>. Noveduc.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-26-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Masschelein</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Simons</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2014</year> <source><italic>Defensa de la escuela: una cuesti&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica</italic></source> <publisher-name>Mi&#x00F1;o y D&#x00E1;vila Editores</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Masschelein, J., &#x0026; Simons, M. (2014). <italic>Defensa de la escuela: una cuesti&#x00F3;n p&#x00FA;blica</italic>. Mi&#x00F1;o y D&#x00E1;vila Editores.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-27-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Masschelein</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Simons</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2015</year> <article-title>Education in Times of Fast Learning: The Future of the School</article-title> <source><italic>Ethics and Education</italic></source> <volume>10</volume><issue>1</issue> <fpage>84</fpage><lpage>95</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Masschelein, J., &#x0026; Simons, M. (2015). Education in Times of Fast Learning: The Future of the School. <italic>Ethics and Education, 10</italic>(1), 84-95.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-28-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Masschelein</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Simons</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2017</year> <article-title>The language of the school: alienating or emancipating?</article-title> <source><italic>Childhood &#x0026; Philosophy</italic></source> <volume>13</volume> <fpage>193</fpage><lpage>212</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Masschelein, J., &#x0026; Simons, M. (2017). The language of the school: alienating or emancipating? <italic>Childhood &#x0026; Philosophy, 13</italic>, 193-212.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-29-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Mead</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Cultura y compromiso: estudios sobre la ruptura generacional</italic></source> <publisher-name>Gedisa</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Mead, M. (2019). <italic>Cultura y compromiso: estudios sobre la ruptura generacional</italic>. Gedisa.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-30-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Morgan</surname> <given-names>T.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>1998</year> <source><italic>Literate education in the Hellenistic and Roman worlds</italic></source> <publisher-name>Cambridge University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Morgan, T. (1998). <italic>Literate education in the Hellenistic and Roman worlds</italic>. Cambridge University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-31-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2014</year> <article-title>Infancia, pasado y nostalgia: cambios en la transmisi&#x00F3;n intergeneracional</article-title> <source><italic>Revista Brasileira de Hist&#x00F3;ria da Educa&#x00E7;&#x00E3;o</italic></source> <volume>14</volume><issue>02</issue> <fpage>191</fpage><lpage>214</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.4025/rbhe.v14i2.695</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M. (2014). Infancia, pasado y nostalgia: cambios en la transmisi&#x00F3;n intergeneracional. <italic>Revista Brasileira de Hist&#x00F3;ria da Educa&#x00E7;&#x00E3;o, 14</italic>(02), 191-214. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.4025/rbhe.v14i2.695">https://doi.org/10.4025/rbhe.v14i2.695</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-32-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2016</year> <source><italic>Un mundo sin adultos</italic></source> <publisher-name>Debate</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M. (2016). <italic>Un mundo sin adultos</italic>. Debate.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-33-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <article-title>Fantasmas de lo escolar: &#x00BF;A qui&#x00E9;n vas a llamar?</article-title> <source><italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n: Revista Interuniversitaria</italic></source> <volume>33</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>49</fpage><lpage>63</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.25136</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M. (2021). Fantasmas de lo escolar: &#x00BF;A qui&#x00E9;n vas a llamar? <italic>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n: Revista Interuniversitaria, 33</italic>(2), 49-63. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.25136">https://doi.org/10.14201/teri.25136</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-34-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Narodowski</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Campetella</surname> <given-names>M. D.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2023</year> <chapter-title>La educaci&#x00F3;n escolar como raz&#x00F3;n de mercado: Mapeando las racionalidades de gobierno de la escuela p&#x00FA;blica</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Thoilliez</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Manso</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Coords.</role> <source><italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n, &#x00BF;bien com&#x00FA;n, derecho individual o servicio p&#x00FA;blico?</italic></source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>101</fpage><lpage>118</lpage> <publisher-name>S&#x00ED;ntesis</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Narodowski, M., &#x0026; Campetella, M. D. (2023). La educaci&#x00F3;n escolar como raz&#x00F3;n de mercado: Mapeando las racionalidades de gobierno de la escuela p&#x00FA;blica. En B. Thoilliez, &#x0026; J. Manso (Coords.), <italic>La educaci&#x00F3;n, &#x00BF;bien com&#x00FA;n, derecho individual o servicio p&#x00FA;blico?</italic> (pp. 101&#x2013;118). S&#x00ED;ntesis.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-35-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Paglayan</surname> <given-names>A.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2024</year> <source><italic>Raised to obey: the rise and spread of mass education</italic></source> <publisher-name>Princeton University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Paglayan, A. (2024). <italic>Raised to obey: the rise and spread of mass education</italic>. Princeton University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-36-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Perryman</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2022</year> <source><italic>Teacher Retention in an Age of Performative Accountability: Target culture and the discourse of disappointment</italic></source> <publisher-name>Routledge</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Perryman, J. (2022). <italic>Teacher Retention in an Age of Performative Accountability: Target culture and the discourse of disappointment</italic>. Routledge.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-37-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Recalcati</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2016</year> <source><italic>La hora de clase: por una er&#x00F3;tica de la ense&#x00F1;anza</italic></source> <publisher-name>Anagrama</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Recalcati, M. (2016). <italic>La hora de clase: por una er&#x00F3;tica de la ense&#x00F1;anza</italic>. Anagrama.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-38-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Sadowski</surname> <given-names>J.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2020</year> <source><italic>Too Smart: How Digital Capitalism is Extracting Data, Controlling Our Lives, and Taking Over the World</italic></source> <publisher-name>MIT Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Sadowski, J. (2020). <italic>Too Smart: How Digital Capitalism is Extracting Data, Controlling Our Lives, and Taking Over the World</italic>. MIT Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-39-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>&#x015E;ahin</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Demir</surname> <given-names>&#x00D6;.</given-names></name> <name><surname>&#x015E;evik</surname> <given-names>Y. K.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2024</year> <source><italic>Teacher Disappointments from Teacher&#x2019;s Perspective. Osmangazi Journal of Educational Research</italic></source> <volume>11</volume><issue>1</issue> <fpage>118</fpage><lpage>155</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.59409/ojer.1486105</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>&#x015E;ahin, S., Demir, &#x00D6;., &#x0026; &#x015E;evik, Y. K. (2024). <italic>Teacher Disappointments from Teacher&#x2019;s Perspective. Osmangazi Journal of Educational Research, 11</italic>(1), 118-155. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.59409/ojer.1486105">https://doi.org/10.59409/ojer.1486105</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-40-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Skliar</surname> <given-names>C.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Pedagog&#x00ED;as de las diferencias: (Notas, fragmentos, incertidumbres)</italic></source> <publisher-name>Noveduc</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Skliar, C. (2019). <italic>Pedagog&#x00ED;as de las diferencias: (Notas, fragmentos, incertidumbres)</italic>. Noveduc.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-41-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stiegler</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2010</year> <source><italic>Taking Care of Youth and the Generations</italic></source> <publisher-name>Stanford University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Stiegler, B. (2010). <italic>Taking Care of Youth and the Generations</italic>. Stanford University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-42-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Stiegler</surname> <given-names>B.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2021</year> <chapter-title>Afterword: On positive pharmacology</chapter-title> <comment>En</comment> <person-group person-group-type="editor"><name><surname>Ross</surname> <given-names>D.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Painter</surname> <given-names>S. M.</given-names></name></person-group> <role>Eds.</role> <source><italic>Psychopolitical anaphylaxis: Steps towards a metacosmics</italic></source> <comment>pp.</comment> <fpage>357</fpage><lpage>368</lpage> <publisher-name>Open Humanities Press</publisher-name> <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis">https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis</ext-link></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Stiegler, B. (2021). Afterword: On positive pharmacology. En D. Ross, &#x0026; S. M. Painter (Eds.), <italic>Psychopolitical anaphylaxis: Steps towards a metacosmics</italic> (pp. 357&#x2013;368). Open Humanities Press. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis">https://openhumanitiespress.org/books/titles/psychopolitical-anaphylaxis</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-43-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Strauss</surname> <given-names>S.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Calero</surname> <given-names>C. I.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Sigman</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2014</year> <source><italic>Teaching, naturally. Trends in Neuroscience and Education</italic></source> <volume>3</volume><issue>2</issue> <fpage>38</fpage><lpage>43</lpage> <pub-id pub-id-type="doi">10.1016/j.tine.2014.05.001</pub-id></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Strauss, S., Calero, C. I., &#x0026; Sigman, M. (2014). <italic>Teaching, naturally. Trends in Neuroscience and Education</italic>, 3(2), 38-43. <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2014.05.001">https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tine.2014.05.001</ext-link></mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-44-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="journal"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tysklind</surname> <given-names>E. N.</given-names></name> <name><surname>Tryggvason</surname> <given-names>&#x00C1;.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2025</year> <article-title>Politicised or Political: On Agonism and School as &#x2018;Free Time&#x2019;</article-title> <source><italic>Stud. Philos. Educ</italic></source> <volume>44</volume> <fpage>305</fpage><lpage>316</lpage></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Tysklind, E. N., Tryggvason, &#x00C1;. (2025). Politicised or Political: On Agonism and School as &#x2018;Free Time&#x2019;. <italic>Stud. Philos. Educ., 44,</italic> 305&#x2013;316.</mixed-citation></ref>
<ref id="ref-45-32701-EN"><element-citation publication-type="book"><person-group person-group-type="author"><name><surname>Tomasello</surname> <given-names>M.</given-names></name></person-group> <year>2019</year> <source><italic>Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny</italic></source> <publisher-name>Harvard University Press</publisher-name></element-citation>
<mixed-citation>Tomasello, M. (2019). <italic>Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny</italic>. Harvard University Press.</mixed-citation></ref>
</ref-list>
</back>
</sub-article>
</article>
