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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32590</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32590</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>La formaci&#x00F3;n del futuro profesorado y la seducci&#x00F3;n de la extrema derecha</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">The Training of Future Teachers and the Seduction of the Extreme Right Wing</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4637-0168</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>GONZ&#x00C1;LEZ-CALVO</surname>
<given-names>Gustavo</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ES"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3399-5318</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>D&#x00CD;EZ-GUTI&#x00C9;RREZ</surname>
<given-names>Enrique-Javier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2-ES"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-ES"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<label>*</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Valladolid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Valladolid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2-ES">
<label>**</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Le&#x00F3;n. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Le&#x00F3;n</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-ES"><email>gustavo.gonzalez@uva.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-ES"><email>ejdieg@unileon.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026381</issue-id>
<fpage>85</fpage>
<lpage>104</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>17</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>Este trabajo profundiza en las razones por las cuales j&#x00F3;venes universitarios que se est&#x00E1;n formando, inmersos en la precariedad y la incertidumbre de un futuro cancelado, se pueden sentir atra&#x00ED;dos por discursos radicales de extrema derecha que actualmente est&#x00E1;n en auge. Mediante una metodolog&#x00ED;a cualitativa-interpretativa, se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas extensas con doce estudiantes universitarios de Grados de Educaci&#x00F3;n utilizando t&#x00E9;cnicas de elicitaci&#x00F3;n visual y analizando los datos por medio de un an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo. Los principales resultados revelan una sensaci&#x00F3;n de estancamiento y desesperanza ante un futuro incierto, exacerbada por la precariedad laboral, la dificultad de acceso a la vivienda y la presi&#x00F3;n social. Esto parece generar ansiedad y escepticismo pol&#x00ED;tico, volviendo a los j&#x00F3;venes que se est&#x00E1;n formando para ser futuros profesores y profesoras vulnerables a mensajes de la extrema derecha que capitalizan el descontento. Las conclusiones sugieren que el auge de estos movimientos extremistas se debe a la falta de proyectos pol&#x00ED;ticos alternativos y a la explotaci&#x00F3;n de la rabia juvenil ante ese futuro incierto, aunque persiste una voluntad de movilizaci&#x00F3;n y la necesidad de una educaci&#x00F3;n que fomente la esperanza y la acci&#x00F3;n colectiva. Se discute si la formaci&#x00F3;n inicial del profesorado en la universidad debe repensar sus objetivos y su l&#x00F3;gica desde la pedagog&#x00ED;a de la esperanza: no solo formar para participar en una sociedad y un espacio laboral cambiante, sino tambi&#x00E9;n para responder de manera colectiva y emp&#x00E1;tica a los retos sociales, pol&#x00ED;ticos, econ&#x00F3;micos, culturales y ambientales que modelan el presente de la juventud.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>This study delves into the reasons why young university students in training, immersed in the precariousness and uncertainty of a cancelled future, may be attracted by radical right-wing extremist discourses that are currently on the rise. Using a qualitative-interpretative methodology, extensive semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve university undergraduate students of Education using visual elicitation techniques and analysing the data by means of narrative thematic analysis. The main results reveal a sense of stagnation and hopelessness in the face of an uncertain future, exacerbated by job insecurity, difficulty of access to housing and social pressure. This seems to generate anxiety and political scepticism, making young people training to be future teachers vulnerable to messages from the far right that capitalise on discontent. The final conclusions suggest that the rise of these extremist movements is due to the lack of alternative political projects and the exploitation of youth anger at the uncertain future, although there is still a will to mobilise and a need for education that fosters hope and collective action. It is discussed whether initial teacher training at university should rethink its objectives and logic from the pedagogy of hope: not only to train to participate in a changing society and workplace, but also to respond collectively and empathetically to the social, political, economic, cultural and environmental challenges that shape the present of young people.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n docente</kwd>
<kwd>cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro</kwd>
<kwd>extrema derecha</kwd>
<kwd>radicalizaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>transformaci&#x00F3;n social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>teacher training</kwd>
<kwd>future cancellation</kwd>
<kwd>far right</kwd>
<kwd>radicalization</kwd>
<kwd>social transformation</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32590-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<p>Vivimos momentos de compleja reconfiguraci&#x00F3;n ideol&#x00F3;gica en los que los movimientos pol&#x00ED;ticos ultraliberales y anarcocapitalistas han dejado de ocupar un lugar en los m&#x00E1;rgenes para situarse con fuerza en el centro del debate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32590-ES">Betancor, 2025</xref>). Apelando a emociones como el miedo al diferente, el desencanto y la nostalgia del pasado, l&#x00ED;deres populistas han tomado las riendas del presente y, con ellas, del mundo futuro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32590-ES">Giroux y Proasi, 2025</xref>). Esta crisis de la democracia refleja un proceso de extinci&#x00F3;n de los modelos que hemos construido en el marco de las sociedades industriales y los estados naci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-ES">Forti, 2021</xref>), lo que deja a las instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas actuales desbordadas e inadaptadas.</p>
<p>Las instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas actuales no parecen plasmar de forma efectiva los derechos y libertades recogidas en los tratados internacionales y las constituciones en pol&#x00ED;ticas y medidas que respondan a los desaf&#x00ED;os actuales de forma efectiva y justa para las mayor&#x00ED;as sociales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32590-ES">Renault y Vega, 2025</xref>). Las crisis actuales y cercanas a nosotros, desde el genocidio en Gaza hasta la guerra de Ucrania, o los conflictos en Siria, Libia o el Congo, pasando por la crisis global ecosist&#x00E9;mica y clim&#x00E1;tica o la recurrente crisis econ&#x00F3;mica y habitacional, complican atisbar un futuro esperanzador a largo plazo. Esta ausencia de perspectiva contribuye a una sensaci&#x00F3;n de desprotecci&#x00F3;n y agotamiento ante lo que parece una descomposici&#x00F3;n de los sistemas democr&#x00E1;ticos tal como los conocemos. El &#x00FA;ltimo informe de la ONG Oxfam-Intermon &#x201C;<italic>Multilateralismo en una era de oligarqu&#x00ED;a global</italic>&#x201D; advert&#x00ED;a que los esfuerzos globales para responder a los mayores desaf&#x00ED;os del planeta, como la crisis clim&#x00E1;tica o los niveles persistentes de pobreza y desigualdad, est&#x00E1;n siendo amenazados por la concentraci&#x00F3;n de poder en manos de los ultrarricos y las megaempresas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32590-ES">Oxfam, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Aunque encontramos razones para la movilizaci&#x00F3;n, para la protesta (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32590-ES">Rigal <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>), parece que no se acierta tan a menudo en encontrar estrategias efectivas para construir, proponer y unir de una forma compartida y solidaria en pos del bien com&#x00FA;n. Por eso, en ocasiones, parece que la dimensi&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica de la acci&#x00F3;n ciudadana pudiera quedar reducida a la contestaci&#x00F3;n y la protesta o, en buena medida, a plantear propuestas m&#x00E1;s individualistas apelando al &#x201C;s&#x00E1;lvese el que pueda&#x201D;, que triunfan en un sector cada vez m&#x00E1;s creciente de la poblaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-32590-ES">Rocamora P&#x00E9;rez y Espinar-Ruiz, 2021</xref>). Dimensi&#x00F3;n que ha sido capaz de atraer a un cada vez m&#x00E1;s elevado n&#x00FA;mero de sectores juveniles que son seducidos por discursos que promueven el conservadurismo extremo, la xenofobia, el regreso de un pasado m&#x00ED;tico (donde nuestra tribu mandaba m&#x00E1;s que las otras), el antifeminismo y la ideolog&#x00ED;a neoliberal con recorte de derechos sociales incluido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32590-ES">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez y Jarqu&#x00ED;n, 2025</xref>). Esta din&#x00E1;mica se vincula con la falta de respuestas compartidas y el uso del malestar colectivo para se&#x00F1;alar culpables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-ES">Innerarity, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Cuando el futuro se percibe como un horizonte cerrado -sin utop&#x00ED;as ni proyectos colectivos transformadores-, florecen las propuestas pol&#x00ED;ticas que, en lugar de mirar hacia adelante, ofrecen un retorno a valores tradicionales o un enemigo f&#x00E1;cil a quien culpar de los males contempor&#x00E1;neos.</p>
<p>Si la pol&#x00ED;tica no consigue incidir en nuestra vida cotidiana, no conecta con nuestras inquietudes, no tiene en cuenta nuestras necesidades ni las de futuras generaciones, &#x00BF;para qu&#x00E9; nos sirve entonces?, &#x00BF;cu&#x00E1;l es su valor de uso? Esta es la situaci&#x00F3;n de partida que se refleja en la cultura popular en el episodio <italic>The Waldo Moment</italic>, de la serie <italic>Black Mirror</italic>. En &#x00E9;l, un personaje animado, nacido como una broma medi&#x00E1;tica, impacta con fuerza en un electorado desencantado, a pesar de la completa ausencia de propuestas pol&#x00ED;ticas y sociales. Lo exc&#x00E9;ntrico, los grandes aspavientos, los fren&#x00E9;ticos movimientos de motosierras (como ha exhibido el presidente argentino Javier Milei), los gritos y la estigmatizaci&#x00F3;n y criminalizaci&#x00F3;n del adversario (&#x201C;zurdos de mierda&#x201D; como los califica tambi&#x00E9;n Milei) conforman la actual lucha pol&#x00ED;tica por parte de la ultraderecha. Lo cual, a su vez, ha influido en las posiciones y la narrativa de la derecha, e incluso, en buena parte de sectores liberales y socialdem&#x00F3;cratas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32590-ES">Lordon, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-32590-ES">Tanuro, 2025</xref>). Ya no hablamos de una diversidad y confrontaci&#x00F3;n de ideas, sino de personalidades, donde el m&#x00E1;s exc&#x00E9;ntrico tiene las mayores posibilidades de salir elegido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32590-ES">Mudde, 2019</xref>) en una sociedad del espect&#x00E1;culo cada vez m&#x00E1;s grotesco.</p>
<p>De esta manera, frente a la desilusi&#x00F3;n con las &#x00E9;lites tradicionales, los movimientos extremistas ofrecen respuestas simples y emotivas: se&#x00F1;alando como enemigos externos a determinados colectivos (e.g., inmigrantes, minor&#x00ED;as &#x00E9;tnicas, feministas y/o activistas medioambientales, entre otros), prometen recuperar una supuesta grandeza perdida y presentan una identidad fuerte y excluyente. La ultraderecha, desde esta perspectiva, ha sabido canalizar el descontento generado por el sistema capitalista voraz y depredador, apropi&#x00E1;ndose de la rebeli&#x00F3;n contra el sistema (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32590-ES">Mouffe, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>Su ret&#x00F3;rica antisistema disfraza, sin embargo, la perpetuaci&#x00F3;n de estructuras de poder nocivas, injustas y desiguales. As&#x00ED;, las respuestas individualistas y tribales acaban siendo una v&#x00ED;a para ajustar cuentas con los presuntos culpables, mientras crece el atractivo de modelos autoritarios que presumen de eficacia y sacrifican el fondo democr&#x00E1;tico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32590-ES">Rizzi, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>Este trabajo se propone profundizar en las razones que explican por qu&#x00E9; la juventud, inmersa en la precariedad y la incertidumbre de un futuro cancelado, puede sentirse atra&#x00ED;da por discursos pol&#x00ED;ticos de la ultraderecha, atendiendo a los factores estructurales y emocionales que alimentan dicha afinidad.</p>
<sec id="sec-2-32590-ES">
<label>1.1.</label>
<title>La cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro y la imposibilidad de imaginar alternativas</title>
<p>En su obra &#x201C;Realismo capitalista&#x201D;, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher (2016)</xref> argumenta que el capitalismo ha generado una sensaci&#x00F3;n de estancamiento y repetici&#x00F3;n, donde el futuro ya no se imagina como un espacio de transformaci&#x00F3;n radical, sino como una extensi&#x00F3;n indefinida del presente. La cultura, la pol&#x00ED;tica y la econom&#x00ED;a parecen atrapadas en una l&#x00F3;gica que impide que emerjan nuevas posibilidades.</p>
<p>Esta sensaci&#x00F3;n de que el futuro se ha cancelado surge como respuesta a un contexto en el cual el capitalismo tard&#x00ED;o se configura como &#x00FA;nica l&#x00F3;gica posible, y la juventud percibe un porvenir clausurado por la precariedad laboral, las crisis ecol&#x00F3;gicas y el desmantelamiento de la protecci&#x00F3;n social, entre otras (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-ES">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-ES">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32590-ES">Hickman <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-32590-ES">Standing, 2011</xref>). En la medida en que el capitalismo se consolida como horizonte inamovible, cualquier proyecto de transformaci&#x00F3;n radical se antoja ut&#x00F3;pico e irrealizable, lo que relega las iniciativas de cambio a la dimensi&#x00F3;n de lo individual y atomizado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-ES">Han, 2024</xref>). Ya no hay proyectos revolucionarios de transformaci&#x00F3;n social que generen ilusi&#x00F3;n de un horizonte de emancipaci&#x00F3;n y justicia social. Las sombras del capitalismo como &#x201C;&#x00FA;nica realidad posible&#x201D; se extienden como un manto que secuestra incluso la posibilidad de imaginar alternativas y utop&#x00ED;as.</p>
<p>Durante d&#x00E9;cadas, la escuela y la universidad se consideraron un camino hacia la movilidad social y el progreso; hoy, sin embargo, abunda el escepticismo, pues la formaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica ya no garantiza las oportunidades de anta&#x00F1;o, sino que se inserta en un mercado laboral cada vez m&#x00E1;s fr&#x00E1;gil. Diferentes autores advierten que, en este nuevo entorno hiperacelerado, las viejas estructuras democr&#x00E1;ticas no logran adaptarse, provocando una sensaci&#x00F3;n de &#x201C;desubicaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; institucional que refuerza el clima de incertidumbre (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-ES">Forti, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-ES">Innerarity, 2024</xref>). Este fen&#x00F3;meno se enmarca en la creciente omnipresencia de la cat&#x00E1;strofe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-ES">Han, 2024</xref>), traducida en la proliferaci&#x00F3;n de narrativas medi&#x00E1;ticas que refuerzan la sensaci&#x00F3;n de una crisis permanente &#x2014;econ&#x00F3;mica, clim&#x00E1;tica y ecosist&#x00E9;mica, pol&#x00ED;tica&#x2014;, dificultando a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s la construcci&#x00F3;n de horizontes compartidos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-ES">Han, 2024</xref>). Todo ello cristaliza en un escenario de precariedad existencial que acent&#x00FA;a la ansiedad y el estr&#x00E9;s cr&#x00F3;nico, especialmente entre los j&#x00F3;venes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32590-ES">&#x00C5;kerstr&#x00F8;m y Gr&#x00F8;nb&#x00E6;k, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32590-ES">Michael, 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>La dimensi&#x00F3;n temporal de este proceso resulta central para entender la inexistencia de futuro. Diversos estudios sobre temporalidad (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-ES">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-ES">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32590-ES">Facer, 2016</xref>) describen c&#x00F3;mo la juventud vive su presente condicionada por la incertidumbre y la imposibilidad de imaginar un ma&#x00F1;ana estable. La precariedad material y afectiva establece una ruptura en la l&#x00ED;nea del tiempo: no hay pasado al que regresar ni un futuro prometedor al que aspirar, de modo que se impone la urgencia de sobrevivir en un presente vol&#x00E1;til. En este estado de precariedad permanente, la juventud se ve sometida a presiones que minan su salud mental y limitan su capacidad de agencia colectiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32590-ES">Ask y Abidin, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32590-ES">Coleman y Lyon, 2023</xref>), lo que los hace m&#x00E1;s susceptibles a la hora de buscar salidas f&#x00E1;ciles y/o extremistas.</p>
<p>Para nosotros, formadores dedicados a formar a futuros docentes, la contradicci&#x00F3;n se agudiza: educar a las nuevas generaciones implica proyectar un futuro que, a los ojos de muchos estudiantes, se percibe como clausurado. Estamos, de este modo, inmersos en construir un presente que parece presentarse sin esperanzas en el futuro. La l&#x00F3;gica productivista neoliberal ha permeado la educaci&#x00F3;n, convirtiendo la vocaci&#x00F3;n docente en un espacio de ansiedad e inestabilidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32590-ES">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>), generando una &#x201C;sensaci&#x00F3;n de mundo en ruinas&#x201D; donde la juventud, pese a ser posiblemente la generaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;m&#x00E1;s preparada&#x201D;, no encuentra certezas ni cauces eficaces para la participaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica. Como plantea <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32590-ES">Facer (2016)</xref>, la educaci&#x00F3;n conserva un v&#x00ED;nculo con el futuro; sin embargo, hoy se ve obligada a lidiar con un mercado que demanda perfiles hiperflexibles, un presente saturado de cat&#x00E1;strofes medi&#x00E1;ticas y un porvenir incierto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>En este clima, la ultraderecha puede presentarse como una v&#x00ED;a de escape a la desesperanza, ofreciendo &#x201C;soluciones&#x201D; identitarias ante la frustraci&#x00F3;n cotidiana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32590-ES">Mudde, 2019</xref>). Con la promesa de una retrotop&#x00ED;a o retorno a un pasado idealizado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32590-ES">Bauman, 2017</xref>), tales discursos aprovechan la ansiedad y el cansancio de una juventud que no vislumbra alternativas democr&#x00E1;ticas, institucionales, participadas e ilusionantes. Este desencanto potencia la cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>) al reforzar la noci&#x00F3;n de que no hay lugar para proyectos colectivos transformadores, sino &#x00FA;nicamente para la reacci&#x00F3;n nost&#x00E1;lgica o el repliegue individualista. Sin embargo, la literatura sobre temporalidad y precariedad tambi&#x00E9;n identifica espacios de resistencia y fisura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32590-ES">&#x00C5;kerstr&#x00F8;m y Gr&#x00F8;nb&#x00E6;k, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32590-ES">Pors y Kishik, 2023</xref>). El activismo estudiantil, el asociacionismo juvenil y la acci&#x00F3;n comunitaria intergeneracional pueden convertirse en focos de contestaci&#x00F3;n al &#x201C;pragmatismo&#x201D; capitalista y en semillas para imaginar otro futuro posible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32590-ES">Betancor <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>La juventud, particularmente la universitaria, encarna la paradoja de constante competici&#x00F3;n y angustia generalizada: la educaci&#x00F3;n, antes escudo frente a la incertidumbre, se halla atrapada en la l&#x00F3;gica neoliberal que exige meritocracia y &#x201C;emprendimiento&#x201D; mientras bloquea la posibilidad de un horizonte estable (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32590-ES">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2025</xref>). El efecto, tal y como apunta nuestro estudio, es la vivencia de ansiedad, soledad y falta de referentes colectivos. Comprender este fen&#x00F3;meno implica asumir que la precariedad no es un estado transitorio, sino una condici&#x00F3;n estructural que coloniza el tiempo y refuerza la tentaci&#x00F3;n de salidas extremistas de corte autoritaria. Al mismo tiempo, invita a explorar aquellos resquicios en los que la esperanza y la movilizaci&#x00F3;n renuevan la experiencia estudiantil, reabriendo la imaginaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica y la posibilidad de un futuro que no est&#x00E9; cancelado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32590-ES">Giroux y Fillippakou, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32590-ES" sec-type="methods">
<label>2.</label>
<title>M<sc>etodolog&#x00ED;a</sc></title>
<p>Este estudio forma parte del proyecto de innovaci&#x00F3;n docente &#x201C;SPAU: Explorando los malestares socio-psicol&#x00F3;gicos de soledad, precariedad y ansiedad en j&#x00F3;venes universitarios&#x201D;, desarrollado en la Universidad de Valladolid durante el curso 2024/2025. La investigaci&#x00F3;n se sustenta en aproximaciones que combinan m&#x00E9;todos visuales y narrativa creativa, alineadas con trabajos recientes sobre temporalidad y precariedad en el campo de la sociolog&#x00ED;a y la educaci&#x00F3;n (e.g. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-ES">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-ES">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32590-ES">Pors y Kishik, 2023</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-4-32590-ES">
<label>2.1.</label>
<title>Participantes</title>
<p>Han participado en la investigaci&#x00F3;n 12 estudiantes (7 mujeres y 5 hombres) del Grado de Educaci&#x00F3;n Social, del Grado de Educaci&#x00F3;n Infantil y del Grado de Educaci&#x00F3;n Primaria de la Universidad de Valladolid, con edades comprendidas entre los 19 y los 24 a&#x00F1;os. La selecci&#x00F3;n se realiz&#x00F3; mediante muestreo intencional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-32590-ES">Suri, 2011</xref>) para garantizar la diversidad de perfiles (g&#x00E9;nero, trayectoria acad&#x00E9;mica, motivaciones profesionales). Todas las personas participantes fueron informadas sobre los objetivos del estudio y firmaron un consentimiento informado, salvaguard&#x00E1;ndose su privacidad y confidencialidad. Se obtuvo la aprobaci&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica del Comit&#x00E9; de &#x00C9;tica de la instituci&#x00F3;n del primer autor (c&#x00F3;digo: PI 22-1995-NO HCUV, de acuerdo con la Declaraci&#x00F3;n de Helsinki).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32590-ES">
<label>2.2.</label>
<title>Recogida de datos</title>
<p>El dise&#x00F1;o del estudio fue cualitativo-interpretativo, con el objetivo de explorar las experiencias, percepciones y expectativas de los participantes respecto a su futuro y las condiciones sociopol&#x00ED;ticas que les rodean. Se llevaron a cabo entrevistas semiestructuradas en los que se utilizaron t&#x00E9;cnicas de elicitaci&#x00F3;n visual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32590-ES">Chateau, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32590-ES">Robb <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>) -especialmente memes y otros materiales gr&#x00E1;ficos- para facilitar la reflexi&#x00F3;n y el di&#x00E1;logo.</p>
<p>En las entrevistas semiestructuradas se pidi&#x00F3; a las personas participantes reflexionar sobre preguntas tales como: &#x00BF;<italic>cu&#x00E1;l es tu visi&#x00F3;n del futuro -laboral, social y personal-?, &#x00BF;cu&#x00E1;les son tus expectativas profesionales?, &#x00BF;c&#x00F3;mo defines las condiciones laborales y sociales de los j&#x00F3;venes de hoy d&#x00ED;a?, &#x00BF;hay algo que te preocupa en torno a tu futuro?, &#x00BF;para qu&#x00E9; crees que sirven las movilizaciones juveniles?, &#x00BF;cu&#x00E1;ndo fue la &#x00FA;ltima vez que te sentiste con ganas de cambiar algo en tu entorno m&#x00E1;s pr&#x00F3;ximo?</italic></p>
<p>Las entrevistas tuvieron una duraci&#x00F3;n de entre 40-70 minutos, y se transcribieron los verbatim para el an&#x00E1;lisis de datos. Antes de la entrevista, se solicit&#x00F3; a las personas participantes que llevaran una imagen o meme que consideraran relevante acerca de su percepci&#x00F3;n actual en torno a su futuro. Esta estrategia foment&#x00F3; la libre expresi&#x00F3;n y la co-construcci&#x00F3;n de significados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32590-ES">Julien, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Las preguntas fueron dise&#x00F1;adas a partir de un guion tem&#x00E1;tico elaborado sobre tres dimensiones conceptuales clave: (a) representaci&#x00F3;n del futuro y agencia juvenil; (b) experiencias de precariedad material y simb&#x00F3;lica; y (c) v&#x00ED;nculos entre malestar y percepci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica. Estas dimensiones se basaron en el marco te&#x00F3;rico de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher (2016)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-ES">Han (2024)</xref> y <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi (2019)</xref> sobre la cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro y el colapso emocional. El guion fue validado previamente mediante pilotaje informal con dos estudiantes ajenos al estudio.</p>
<p>En relaci&#x00F3;n con las t&#x00E9;cnicas de elicitaci&#x00F3;n visual, los materiales gr&#x00E1;ficos aportados por las personas participantes (memes, im&#x00E1;genes y capturas) fueron codificados como datos cualitativos, al ser considerados expresiones simb&#x00F3;licas que complementan los relatos orales. Cada imagen fue analizada en su contexto discursivo durante la entrevista, permitiendo explorar los v&#x00ED;nculos entre lenguaje visual, emociones proyectadas y construcci&#x00F3;n narrativa. De este modo, los memes no actuaron meramente como est&#x00ED;mulo conversacional, sino como insumos significativos en la configuraci&#x00F3;n tem&#x00E1;tica y afectiva del an&#x00E1;lisis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32590-ES">Chateau, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32590-ES">Julien, 2022</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32590-ES">
<label>2.3.</label>
<title>An&#x00E1;lisis de datos</title>
<p>Se ha llevado a cabo un an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo, un enfoque que permite identificar y analizar patrones o temas dentro de los relatos compartidos por las personas participantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-32590-ES">Sparkes y Smith, 2014</xref>). Este m&#x00E9;todo combina elementos de an&#x00E1;lisis narrativo con un enfoque tem&#x00E1;tico, integrando el contenido expl&#x00ED;cito y las din&#x00E1;micas impl&#x00ED;citas en las historias. El an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo nos permiti&#x00F3; no solo identificar los temas principales, sino tambi&#x00E9;n explorar la profundidad afectiva y corporal que subyace en las historias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32590-ES">Chadwick, 2017</xref>). Este enfoque valora la complejidad de las narrativas individuales, mientras revela patrones compartidos que ofrecen una visi&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s hol&#x00ED;stica de las experiencias vividas por las personas participantes.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo se fundament&#x00F3; en los aportes metodol&#x00F3;gicos de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32590-ES">Chadwick (2017)</xref>, quien destaca la potencia de esta estrategia para captar la dimensi&#x00F3;n emocional, performativa y estructural de las narrativas. Este enfoque es especialmente adecuado cuando se busca interpretar c&#x00F3;mo los individuos configuran sus experiencias dentro de contextos sociales m&#x00E1;s amplios, en este caso, la precariedad, la incertidumbre y la radicalizaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>El an&#x00E1;lisis de los datos se desarroll&#x00F3; en cinco fases sucesivas. En primer lugar, se realiz&#x00F3; una lectura comprensiva y reiterada de las transcripciones completas para una familiarizaci&#x00F3;n profunda con el corpus. Posteriormente, se procedi&#x00F3; a una codificaci&#x00F3;n inicial abierta e inductiva, sin categor&#x00ED;as preconcebidas, permitiendo que las unidades de significado emergieran directamente de los relatos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32590-ES">Braun y Clarke, 2006</xref>). En una tercera etapa, se agruparon los c&#x00F3;digos en temas preliminares, atendiendo tanto a su recurrencia como a su densidad sem&#x00E1;ntica. La cuarta fase consisti&#x00F3; en una construcci&#x00F3;n iterativa de categor&#x00ED;as tem&#x00E1;ticas a partir de una triangulaci&#x00F3;n entre investigadoras, integrando criterios de coherencia interna y diferenciaci&#x00F3;n tem&#x00E1;tica. Finalmente, se elaboraron matrices narrativas que permitieron reconstruir trayectorias individuales y patrones colectivos, manteniendo la integridad del sentido narrativo.</p>
<p>Para garantizar la fiabilidad y la validez cualitativa del estudio, se recurri&#x00F3; a diversas estrategias. Se emple&#x00F3; triangulaci&#x00F3;n anal&#x00ED;tica entre investigadoras para la validaci&#x00F3;n cruzada de los c&#x00F3;digos y categor&#x00ED;as emergentes, lo cual favoreci&#x00F3; la consolidaci&#x00F3;n de una mirada intersubjetiva y reflexiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32590-ES">Lincoln y Guba, 1985</xref>). Asimismo, se utiliz&#x00F3; la t&#x00E9;cnica de memos anal&#x00ED;ticos durante el proceso de codificaci&#x00F3;n para registrar decisiones te&#x00F3;ricas y reflexiones metodol&#x00F3;gicas. Finalmente, se llev&#x00F3; a cabo una devoluci&#x00F3;n parcial de resultados a participantes voluntarios, permitiendo contrastar la interpretaci&#x00F3;n de los hallazgos con su experiencia vivida.</p>
<p>En la <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-32590-ES">Tabla 1</xref> se pueden ver las categor&#x00ED;as que surgen del an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo, as&#x00ED; como los temas emergentes asociados a cada una de ellas.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-32590-ES">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>C<sc>ategor&#x00ED;as an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-32590-ES" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="40%"/>
<col width="60%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Categor&#x00ED;a</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Temas emergentes</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Expectativas de futuro ante el panorama sociopol&#x00ED;tico</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Sensaci&#x00F3;n de estancamiento y no-futuro</p>
<p>Omnipresencia de la cat&#x00E1;strofe y proliferaci&#x00F3;n de discursos de odio</p>
<p>Incremento de la ansiedad y el escepticismo pol&#x00ED;tico</p>
<p>Vulnerabilidad de la juventud ante mensajes radicales y simplificadores</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Expectativas y preocupaciones sobre el futuro</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Precariedad laboral y dificultades de acceso a la vivienda</p>
<p>Fractura generacional (la formaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica ya no garantiza estabilidad)</p>
<p>Discurso meritocr&#x00E1;tico en entredicho por la falta de oportunidades</p>
<p>Prolongaci&#x00F3;n de la dependencia familiar e &#x201C;infancia extendida&#x201D;</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Impacto de las expectativas sociales sobre &#x00E9;xito y productividad</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Exigencia de hiperproductividad y competitividad</p>
<p>Comparaci&#x00F3;n constante (logros, seguidores, curr&#x00ED;culum)</p>
<p>Presi&#x00F3;n por alcanzar el &#x00E9;xito a edad temprana</p>
<p>Estr&#x00E9;s cr&#x00F3;nico y normalizaci&#x00F3;n de la ansiedad</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>V&#x00ED;nculos con los malestares y la salud mental</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Falta de recursos de salud mental en la universidad y en el sistema p&#x00FA;blico</p>
<p>Medicalizaci&#x00F3;n individual de los problemas (ir a terapia sin abordar causas estructurales)</p>
<p>Discursos de autocuidado que no contemplan las condiciones materiales</p>
<p>Distancia entre discurso institucional y pr&#x00E1;ctica real (ex&#x00E1;menes, horarios exigentes, etc.)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Actitudes hacia la transformaci&#x00F3;n social y la movilizaci&#x00F3;n juvenil</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Ambivalencia entre escepticismo y voluntad de acci&#x00F3;n</p>
<p>Movilizaciones juveniles como catalizadores de visibilidad (ej. activismo clim&#x00E1;tico)</p>
<p>Falta de liderazgos claros o propuestas concretas en las protestas</p>
<p>Voluntariado y asociacionismo estudiantil como v&#x00ED;as de cambio a peque&#x00F1;a escala</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: Elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32590-ES" sec-type="results">
<label>3.</label>
<title>R<sc>esultados</sc></title>
<p>Presentamos los resultados de nuestro estudio de acuerdo con las categor&#x00ED;as anteriormente mencionadas.</p>
<sec id="sec-8-32590-ES">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title>Expectativas de futuro ante el panorama sociopol&#x00ED;tico</title>
<p>Los participantes del estudio expresan un amplio abanico de emociones que reflejan la sensaci&#x00F3;n de estancamiento y de cancelaci&#x00F3;n de futuro descrita por <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher (2016)</xref>:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Siento que la sociedad est&#x00E1; cada vez m&#x00E1;s vac&#x00ED;a. Nos dicen que somos la generaci&#x00F3;n de cristal, pero en realidad lo que pasa es que nos hemos dado cuenta de que todo est&#x00E1; en contra de nosotros, de que por mucho que hagamos las cosas no van a ir a mejor&#x201D; (L., 23 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n conecta con la idea de que la cultura neoliberal no ofrece horizontes de cambio, y los j&#x00F3;venes perciben la estructura social como hostil. El individualismo extremo, consecuencia del sistema neoliberal, refuerza la sensaci&#x00F3;n de soledad e impotencia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Me inquieta tanto discurso de odio en todos los medios. Escucho que los de afuera nos quitan el trabajo, que las mujeres nos hemos pasado de frenada con el feminismo, que los cient&#x00ED;ficos nos meten miedo con el tema del clima [&#x2026;], y siento que estamos retrocediendo&#x201D; (G., 24 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Estas incertidumbres podr&#x00ED;an agudizar la frustraci&#x00F3;n al no hallar referentes claros de identidad ni modelos sociales estables, agregando una capa emocional al desencanto. Todo ello conduce a un estado de ansiedad y desesperanza entre los participantes que pueden ser capitalizadas e instrumentalizadas pol&#x00ED;ticamente con la intenci&#x00F3;n de dirigir la frustraci&#x00F3;n colectiva hacia grupos vulnerables (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown, 2019</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Las noticias son cada vez m&#x00E1;s negativas y parece que solo sirven para hacernos sentir mal, para que agradezcamos poder vivir un d&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s y sentirnos afortunados con lo que tenemos hoy, porque ma&#x00F1;ana no quedar&#x00E1; nada [&#x2026;]. Hablan de precariedad, de crisis clim&#x00E1;tica, de guerras, de&#x2026; &#x00BF;C&#x00F3;mo no vamos a estar deprimidos y con ansiedad? [&#x2026;] Al menos, tratan de decirnos qui&#x00E9;nes son los culpables de todo esto y contra qui&#x00E9;nes tenemos que luchar&#x201D; (M. C., 21 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta queja tiene relaci&#x00F3;n con la omnipresencia de la cat&#x00E1;strofe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-ES">Han, 2024</xref>). Cuando el relato medi&#x00E1;tico refuerza una visi&#x00F3;n de colapso constante, se refuerza la par&#x00E1;lisis colectiva:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Se repite mucho la idea de que ya no viviremos como vivieron nuestros padres, que no tendremos pensiones, ni seguridad, ni empleos fijos&#x2026; Es como si estuvi&#x00E9;ramos condenados&#x201D; (M., 24 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
<p>&#x201C;No s&#x00E9; qu&#x00E9; se espera de nosotros (los j&#x00F3;venes) y qu&#x00E9; hacemos para mejorar, para dejar un legado basado en la sostenibilidad y prosperidad [&#x2026;]. Siento que hemos perdido como comunidad el rumbo y el sentido cr&#x00ED;tico sobre lo que es importante y necesario&#x201D; (J. E., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
<p>&#x201C;Siento que la situaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica es un ciclo repetitivo en el que no importa qui&#x00E9;n gobierne, siempre se toman las mismas decisiones y los problemas de la gente no cambian&#x201D; (J., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Las citas anteriores reflejan la crisis de sentido y la falta de direcci&#x00F3;n percibida por la juventud. Como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher (2016)</xref>, el realismo capitalista ha bloqueado la capacidad de imaginar alternativas colectivas, dejando a la sociedad en un estado de incertidumbre y desorientaci&#x00F3;n. Este sentimiento de p&#x00E9;rdida de rumbo es crucial para entender algunas de las razones que explican c&#x00F3;mo la ultraderecha puede capitalizar el desencanto juvenil, ofreciendo narrativas que apelan a una supuesta restauraci&#x00F3;n de un orden &#x201C;id&#x00ED;lico&#x201D; perdido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32590-ES">Bauman, 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>En este apartado vemos c&#x00F3;mo la &#x201C;hiperdiagnosticada&#x201D; crisis democr&#x00E1;tica alimenta cierta percepci&#x00F3;n de colapso (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-ES">Forti, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-ES">Innerarity, 2024</xref>), sugiriendo que las instituciones se han quedado atr&#x00E1;s respecto a la rapidez de los cambios sociales y tecnol&#x00F3;gicos. Cuando todo alrededor parece proyectar una visi&#x00F3;n oscura del porvenir, el pesimismo arraiga con mayor fuerza. Esa sensaci&#x00F3;n de &#x201C;futuro cancelado&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>) es una ra&#x00ED;z clave de los malestares de la juventud y puede ser uno de los elementos utilizados por parte de los discursos y narrativas de la extrema derecha para captar a los j&#x00F3;venes.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32590-ES">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title>Expectativas y preocupaciones sobre el futuro</title>
<p>La incertidumbre laboral, la dificultad de acceso a la vivienda y la constataci&#x00F3;n de que la formaci&#x00F3;n y los t&#x00ED;tulos educativos no garantizan movilidad social son temas recurrentes entre nuestros participantes:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Aunque estudies, te esfuerces, hagas pr&#x00E1;cticas [&#x2026;], est&#x00E1; todo tan saturado que igual acabas en un trabajo que nada tiene que ver con lo estudiado y mal pagado&#x201D; (M. C., 21 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta vivencia ejemplifica lo que <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi (2019)</xref> describe como &#x201C;precariado cognitivo&#x201D;: la paradoja de formarte y esforzarte intensamente para luego ocupar puestos precarizados o infravalorados, desarrollando as&#x00ED; un sentimiento de decepci&#x00F3;n y frustraci&#x00F3;n:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Me da miedo que, aun teniendo una carrera universitaria y buenas notas, no logre la estabilidad laboral. Siento que todo est&#x00E1; en mi contra, desde los sueldos bajos hasta los alquileres imposibles&#x201D; (M. S., 24 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
<p>&#x201C;Aunque saque buenas notas, siento que el acceso al mercado laboral est&#x00E1; basado m&#x00E1;s en contactos y suerte que en el esfuerzo real&#x201D; (J., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La cita anterior evidencia la crisis de la meritocracia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown, 2019</xref>). La percepci&#x00F3;n de que el &#x00E9;xito profesional no est&#x00E1; vinculado a la igualdad de oportunidades y a la justicia de resultados, sino a redes de contactos, refuerza la desconfianza en el sistema y alimenta sentimientos de sufrir una injusticia. Este tipo de frustraci&#x00F3;n puede derivar en un rechazo de la pol&#x00ED;tica convencional y en la b&#x00FA;squeda de soluciones extremistas autoritarias (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32590-ES">Mudde, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>La precarizaci&#x00F3;n contribuye a la descomposici&#x00F3;n de las instituciones tradicionales, que apenas logran adaptarse a una realidad hiperacelerada (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-ES">Forti, 2021</xref>); el mundo que habitaban las democracias industriales est&#x00E1; desapareciendo, dejando a los j&#x00F3;venes m&#x00E1;s desprotegidos. La quiebra de oportunidades que se intu&#x00ED;a en la anterior categor&#x00ED;a se ammplifica: mientras que en d&#x00E9;cadas pasadas la formaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica era garante de ascenso social, ahora no existen garant&#x00ED;as de progreso en la escala social, ni siquiera con la acumulaci&#x00F3;n de titulaciones y certificaciones. Esta situaci&#x00F3;n alimenta en las y los j&#x00F3;venes la sensaci&#x00F3;n de impotencia e injusticia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32590-ES">Fraser, 2010</xref>) y, en casos como el que presentamos a continuaci&#x00F3;n, la b&#x00FA;squeda de explicaciones en funci&#x00F3;n de las condiciones materiales y simb&#x00F3;licas en las que emergen:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;He visto gente que se mata a estudiar y a trabajar, y lo digo casi literalmente. Pero, a pesar de todo, sin contactos y sin dinero, no avanzan. [&#x2026;]. Siento que todo est&#x00E1; ama&#x00F1;ado&#x201D; (P., 23 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>El discurso oficial de la meritocracia se quiebra ante la realidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>). Cuando se percibe que el esfuerzo no basta, crece la tentaci&#x00F3;n de sumarse a soluciones que culpan a &#x201C;otros&#x201D; (e.g., inmigrantes, mujeres, etc.), de la propia precariedad:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Con lo caro que est&#x00E1; todo, y a pesar de que no vivo en una ciudad cara ni grande, no s&#x00E9; cu&#x00E1;ndo podr&#x00E9; independizarme. Me siento una eterna adolescente porque no me puedo permitir ni imaginar formando mi propia vida. Y no s&#x00E9; de qui&#x00E9;n es culpa todo esto, si del sistema, si de los que vienen de fuera a robarnos a los que hemos nacido aqu&#x00ED;, si&#x2026; Pero eso me da igual, a m&#x00ED; lo que me interesa saber es si habr&#x00E1; alguna soluci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (G., 24 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Las personas participantes se ven a s&#x00ED; mismas con una dificultad real por poder encaminarse hacia una vida adulta independiente y satisfactoria. Esa dificultad, si se autoatribuye (soy incapaz), se diluye en un an&#x00F3;nimo y amorfo &#x201C;sistema&#x201D; como causante, o los an&#x00E1;lisis se centran exclusivamente en buscar &#x201C;culpables&#x201D; personales o grupales en los colectivos m&#x00E1;s precarizados, se desplaza el enfoque de las causas profundas y estructurales, lo cual reforzar&#x00ED;a las narrativas xen&#x00F3;fobas que est&#x00E1;n siendo impulsadas por la extrema derecha y, adem&#x00E1;s, la sensaci&#x00F3;n de impotencia personal dando la impresi&#x00F3;n de que el &#x201C;sistema est&#x00E1; ama&#x00F1;ado&#x201D; y no hay escapatoria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-ES">Innerarity, 2024</xref>). El resultado es una mayor frustraci&#x00F3;n, en lugar de soluciones sostenidas en la acci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica transformadora.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-32590-ES">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title>Impacto de las expectativas sociales sobre &#x00E9;xito y productividad</title>
<p>En los relatos aparecen referencias en torno al culto a la productividad extrema y la competitividad, factores estos que conforman el actual sistema del capitalismo neoliberal y del que la juventud no escapa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32590-ES">Mavelli, 2024</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;En las redes sociales ves anuncios de gente que, con 20 a&#x00F1;os, dice tener negocios, viajar por todo el mundo, hablar varios idiomas perfectamente, ser emprendedores. Te hacen sentir que vas tarde a todo, que no eres suficiente&#x201D; (J. E., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
<p>&#x201C;Hoy en d&#x00ED;a mucha juventud sufre de depresi&#x00F3;n y ansiedad porque vivimos en una sociedad de la inmediatez, en la que no hay paciencia y todo debe de ser al instante, eso causa que gente que necesite tomarse algo m&#x00E1;s de tiempo o no sea tan veloz se preocupe por cumplir prop&#x00F3;sitos&#x201D; (A., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La l&#x00F3;gica capitalista impone una carrera permanente hacia el &#x00E9;xito (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-32590-ES">Zafra, 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-ES">2021</xref>), alimentada por la est&#x00E9;tica y la expectativa aspiracional de las redes y los medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n. Esta situaci&#x00F3;n genera un estr&#x00E9;s continuo que socava la salud mental (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-ES">Han, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-ES">Zafra, 2021</xref>), al tiempo que refuerza la idea de que el fracaso es casi una elecci&#x00F3;n individual, un problema personal:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;He ido a terapia por ansiedad. Te exigen todo: buenas notas, un m&#x00E1;ster, idiomas, experiencia laboral [&#x2026;]. Todo esto, &#x00BF;para qu&#x00E9;?, &#x00BF;c&#x00F3;mo lo consigues sin volverte loca?&#x201D; (M. C., 21 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La exigencia de explotar al m&#x00E1;ximo las propias capacidades, de llegar m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de los propios l&#x00ED;mites, de rendir continuamente, deriva en cuadros de ansiedad, depresi&#x00F3;n y estr&#x00E9;s cr&#x00F3;nico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32590-ES">Moreno, 2018</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Es como si todo en la vida fuera una competici&#x00F3;n. &#x00BF;Qui&#x00E9;n tiene mejores notas, qui&#x00E9;n tiene m&#x00E1;s logros, qui&#x00E9;n tiene m&#x00E1;s followers? [&#x2026;]. Si no entras en ese juego, est&#x00E1;s fuera del sistema, no cuentas&#x201D; (A., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta competitividad fragmenta a&#x00FA;n m&#x00E1;s las estructuras de mediaci&#x00F3;n social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-ES">Forti, 2021</xref>), dificultando la construcci&#x00F3;n de intereses comunes y ampliando la brecha entre el &#x00E9;xito individualizado y el bienestar colectivo. Ante las situaciones de paro, precariedad y falta de futuro laboral y estabilidad profesional las personas afectadas tienden a atribuirlo m&#x00E1;s a su fracaso personal que a las condiciones sociales y econ&#x00F3;micas, llen&#x00E1;ndose m&#x00E1;s las consultas de los psiquiatras que la afiliaci&#x00F3;n a los sindicatos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32590-ES">Carmona y Padilla, 2018</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-11-32590-ES">
<label>3.4.</label>
<title>V&#x00ED;nculos con los malestares y la salud mental</title>
<p>A pesar de ello, es necesario reconocer la necesidad de una salud integral, especialmente en un sistema social como el capitalista. En una sociedad sobresaturada de estimulaciones superficiales, de relaciones evanescentes, de expectativas fallidas y de presi&#x00F3;n constante para producir, autorrealizarse y obtener el &#x00E9;xito, la salud mental es un elemento cada vez m&#x00E1;s presente y necesario en un planteamiento integral de desarrollo del ser humano y de la sociedad. De hecho, el factor salud mental aparece de forma insistente en los testimonios recogidos. Por un lado, las personas participantes reconocen que se habla m&#x00E1;s del tema en la actualidad; por otro, denuncian la carencia de recursos y soluciones estructurales:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Se habla mucho a d&#x00ED;a de hoy de salud mental y de c&#x00F3;mo los problemas de salud mental entre los j&#x00F3;venes est&#x00E1;n creciendo. [&#x2026;]. He esperado meses para que me dieran cita con un psic&#x00F3;logo en la sanidad p&#x00FA;blica, al final he tenido que pagar una psic&#x00F3;loga privada&#x201D; (L., 23 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>La cita de la participante pone sobre el tapete la creciente demanda de ayuda psicol&#x00F3;gica y, al mismo tiempo, la falta de un sistema de salud s&#x00F3;lido y capaz de dar respuesta a esa demanda. En este sentido, se hace necesario establecer pol&#x00ED;ticas estatales capaces de reforzar los servicios p&#x00FA;blicos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32590-ES">McNamara <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>La salud mental, en el marco capitalista, se aborda muchas veces como un asunto personal, ignorando las causas sist&#x00E9;micas que generan malestar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32590-ES">Davies, 2021</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;De poco sirve que nos digan que nos cuidemos si no hay condiciones laborales o sociales que lo permitan. Parece que la soluci&#x00F3;n es que cada uno se busque la vida como pueda&#x201D; (G., 24 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Se constata as&#x00ED; como la l&#x00F3;gica de la hiperindividualizaci&#x00F3;n y la ausencia de respuestas colectivas o institucionales puede generar condiciones propicias para la seducci&#x00F3;n de j&#x00F3;venes y estudiantes en formaci&#x00F3;n docente por parte de discursos de extrema derecha que supuestamente ofrecen un sentimiento de &#x201C;seguridad, orden, pertenencia y culpables visibles&#x201D; ante el sufrimiento psicosocial, instrumentalizando dicho malestar y orient&#x00E1;ndolo hacia propuestas autoritarias, identitarias y reaccionarias.</p>
<p>La transformaci&#x00F3;n deber&#x00ED;a pasar por cuestionar la l&#x00F3;gica competitiva que subyace tanto en la educaci&#x00F3;n como en el trabajo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-ES">Zafra, 2021</xref>). No basta con hacer menci&#x00F3;n expl&#x00ED;cita a la salud mental si se mantienen estructuras basadas en la hiperproductividad y la autogesti&#x00F3;n del malestar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-ES">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-ES">Zafra, 2021</xref>) lo que, a la postre, mina la cohesi&#x00F3;n social y profundiza el individualismo.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Cada vez se habla m&#x00E1;s de salud mental, pero en realidad lo que necesitamos no es solo que nos escuchen, sino que cambien las condiciones que nos generan ansiedad&#x201D; (J., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta cita se&#x00F1;ala la brecha entre la creciente conciencia sobre la salud mental y la falta de cambios estructurales. As&#x00ED;, la soluci&#x00F3;n para los propios j&#x00F3;venes no pasa solo por tratar individualmente la ansiedad y la depresi&#x00F3;n, sino por cuestionar el sistema que las produce.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-32590-ES">
<label>3.5.</label>
<title>Actitudes hacia la transformaci&#x00F3;n social y la movilizaci&#x00F3;n juvenil</title>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s de la incertidumbre y la tensi&#x00F3;n emocional, los participantes exploraron su disposici&#x00F3;n a cambiar su entorno pr&#x00F3;ximo y la funci&#x00F3;n que tienen las movilizaciones juveniles. De manera general, las respuestas revelan una mezcla de escepticismo combinada con cierto deseo de acci&#x00F3;n:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;La &#x00FA;ltima vez que me sent&#x00ED; con ganas de cambiar algo fue cuando no nos dejaron presentar nuestras quejas en la facultad sobre la carga de pr&#x00E1;cticas. Me pareci&#x00F3; injusto y, aunque habl&#x00E9; con compa&#x00F1;eros, todo se qued&#x00F3; en nada. Tenemos miedo a quejarnos y que nos bajen la nota o nos dejen sin la posibilidad de hacer pr&#x00E1;cticas&#x201D; (E., 20 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta actitud refleja, por un lado, el deseo de mejorar a trav&#x00E9;s de la educaci&#x00F3;n las condiciones de su entorno, y por otro, el temor a represalias que puede llevar a inhibir el activismo. En el marco de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher (2016)</xref>, se puede interpretar como otra manifestaci&#x00F3;n del &#x201C;realismo capitalista&#x201D;: la percepci&#x00F3;n de que protestar no cambiar&#x00E1; nada e incluso podr&#x00ED;a traer consecuencias negativas personales.</p>
<p>Por otra parte, la idea de movilizaci&#x00F3;n como catalizadora de visibilidad puede servir para reavivar la pasi&#x00F3;n democr&#x00E1;tica y presionar a las instituciones pol&#x00ED;ticas para que respondan a demandas concretas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32590-ES">Mouffe, 2018</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Creo que las movilizaciones son necesarias para que se vea que los j&#x00F3;venes no estamos tan dormidos. [&#x2026;]. Cuando cientos de j&#x00F3;venes salimos a la calle a protestar por el cambio clim&#x00E1;tico o por la crisis de la vivienda, se ve que no somos tan pasivos como dicen&#x201D; (M. C., 21 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Otros participantes, aunque reconocen el valor simb&#x00F3;lico de la protesta, cuestionan su eficacia, lo que podr&#x00ED;a interpretarse como la dificultad de imaginar que las acciones colectivas conduzcan a transformaciones reales:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;A veces he querido unirme a manifestaciones, pero siento que no valen para mucho. Faltan l&#x00ED;deres o propuestas claras. Aun as&#x00ED;, creo que es un primer paso para que vean que no estamos conformes&#x201D; (P., 23 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta falta de proyectos que movilicen la esperanza puede traducirse en protestas aisladas sin un marco estrat&#x00E9;gico a largo plazo. Otras participantes se muestran m&#x00E1;s convencidas de las posibilidades de cambio a trav&#x00E9;s de las asociaciones de j&#x00F3;venes:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Me gustar&#x00ED;a involucrarme en proyectos de voluntariado o de asociacionismo estudiantil. Creo que, aunque sea a peque&#x00F1;a escala, podemos cambiar la situaci&#x00F3;n de los j&#x00F3;venes, por ejemplo, exigiendo pr&#x00E1;cticas remuneradas y que haya m&#x00E1;s becas&#x201D; (H., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta perspectiva se&#x00F1;ala la v&#x00ED;a del compromiso local y concreto para combatir la inercia. La suma de iniciativas micro y el empuje colectivo podr&#x00ED;an configurar nuevas formas de organizaci&#x00F3;n contrahegem&#x00F3;nica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32590-ES">Fraser, 2010</xref>). De las respuestas de los participantes se extrae la idea de que la cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>) no ha anulado por completo la voluntad de incidir en la realidad. Sin embargo, la sensaci&#x00F3;n de impotencia y la ausencia de estructuras de participaci&#x00F3;n efectivas debilitan la confianza en que los esfuerzos puedan traducirse en cambios tangibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi, 2019</xref>), lo cual puede conllevar el acercamiento a opciones de extrema derecha que se autocalifican como &#x201C;antisistema&#x201D; y aseguran que cambiar&#x00E1;n todo el sistema (signifique esto lo que signifique) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32590-ES">Gil y Iordache, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-32590-ES">Weber, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>A pesar de todo, encontramos testimonios esperanzadores entre algunos de los participantes:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Me gustar&#x00ED;a recalcar que, aunque yo solo no pueda cambiar el mundo, s&#x00ED; que puedo aportar mi peque&#x00F1;o granito de arena cuando sea necesario, si todos hici&#x00E9;ramos eso vivir&#x00ED;amos en un mundo mucho m&#x00E1;s justo&#x201D; (J., 19 a&#x00F1;os).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta visi&#x00F3;n se alinea con la propuesta sobre la necesidad de reconstruir estructuras de solidaridad y organizaci&#x00F3;n colectiva (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32590-ES">Fraser, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32590-ES">Giroux y Figueiredo, 2025</xref>). Aunque la persona participante reconoce que su impacto individual es limitado, su &#x00E9;nfasis en el esfuerzo conjunto se&#x00F1;ala la importancia de la participaci&#x00F3;n comunitaria para contrarrestar el aislamiento y la fragmentaci&#x00F3;n promovidos por el neoliberalismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown, 2019</xref>). Algo extensamente desarrollado por los movimientos estudiantiles, particularmente en contextos latinoamericanos, a trav&#x00E9;s de formas de organizaci&#x00F3;n y protesta estudiantil vinculadas con proyectos emancipatorios, pedagog&#x00ED;as cr&#x00ED;ticas y resistencias frente al neoliberalismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32590-ES">Cort&#x00E9;s-Gonz&#x00E1;lez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32590-ES">McLaren, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-32590-ES">Saura y Moreno, 2016</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-13-32590-ES" sec-type="conclusions|discussion">
<label>4.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusiones y discusi&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<p>El objetivo de nuestro trabajo se ha centrado en conocer las razones que explican por qu&#x00E9; la juventud, inmersa en la precariedad y la incertidumbre de un futuro cancelado, puede sentirse atra&#x00ED;da por discursos pol&#x00ED;ticos de la extrema derecha, atendiendo a los factores estructurales y emocionales que alimentan dicha afinidad. En este sentido, hemos visto c&#x00F3;mo las personas participantes en el estudio se debaten entre la incertidumbre y la b&#x00FA;squeda de un sentido que d&#x00E9; respuesta a sus malestares sociales y psicol&#x00F3;gicos.</p>
<p>Tal y como vimos al inicio, el episodio <italic>The Waldo Moment</italic> de la serie <italic>Black Mirror</italic> expone un escenario pol&#x00ED;tico ocupado por un personaje que, a primera vista, es solo una broma medi&#x00E1;tica. Sin embargo, su &#x00E9;xito descansa en la rabia y el desencanto colectivos, las mismas fuerzas que, desde la perspectiva del realismo capitalista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>) configuran el caldo de cultivo para quienes, en la extrema derecha o el neofascismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32590-ES">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2022</xref>), capturan a los j&#x00F3;venes ansiosos de certezas en un mundo tan incierto. El auge de los movimientos de extrema derecha se entiende, en parte, como consecuencia de la ausencia de proyectos pol&#x00ED;ticos alternativos y educativos cr&#x00ED;ticos capaces de articular las demandas de una juventud a la que se le ha despojado de un horizonte de esperanza, justicia y transformaci&#x00F3;n y bien com&#x00FA;n. Al mismo tiempo, la precariedad laboral, la incertidumbre, la soledad y la continua sucesi&#x00F3;n de crisis generan un clima de descontento y de rabia que estalla &#x2018;contra todo&#x2019; y se alinea con propuestas de extrema derecha (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-ES">Forti, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32590-ES">Moreno, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32590-ES">Pors y Kishik, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Igual que las propuestas de Waldo, en la vida real, las propuestas ideol&#x00F3;gicas de las pol&#x00ED;ticas ultraderechistas ofrecen espect&#x00E1;culo y hostilidad en lugar de soluciones. Se apropian del dolor de una generaci&#x00F3;n que percibe el futuro como un horizonte bloqueado, vendiendo la ilusi&#x00F3;n de que la burla y la ruptura vac&#x00ED;a bastar&#x00E1;n para cambiar la situaci&#x00F3;n o, al menos, para canalizar la rabia. Pero, como nos muestran los relatos de los participantes, ese golpe de efecto dura lo que dura el grito de la ira; al final, regresa la precariedad, la ansiedad y la orfandad de alternativas reales, confirmando la ausencia de proyectos emancipadores, que denuncia <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-ES">Brown (2019)</xref>.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, se refuerza la idea de la cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>) y la tentaci&#x00F3;n de la retrotop&#x00ED;a (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32590-ES">Bauman, 2017</xref>): los j&#x00F3;venes que se unen a estas propuestas de extrema derecha tienden a refugiarse en un pasado idealizado como alternativa a un presente inestable y a un futuro sin promesas que, lejos de corregir la desigualdad sist&#x00E9;mica, reforzar&#x00ED;a las salidas autoritarias y la divisi&#x00F3;n social (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32590-ES">Rizzi, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>Sin embargo, hay un contrapeso a ese Waldo que encarna el cinismo y la frivolidad. Las voces de los j&#x00F3;venes tambi&#x00E9;n evidencian la voluntad de sobreponerse a la resignaci&#x00F3;n: anhelan un porvenir que recupere la empat&#x00ED;a, el cuidado colectivo y la promesa de una transformaci&#x00F3;n genuina. Aunque tropiezan con estructuras r&#x00ED;gidas y un presente saturado de cat&#x00E1;strofes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-ES">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-ES">Berardi, 2019</xref>), no dejamos de constatar tambi&#x00E9;n su empe&#x00F1;o por movilizarse (activismo clim&#x00E1;tico, protestas por la vivienda, iniciativas solidarias) lo cual demuestra que la par&#x00E1;lisis y la desesperanza no son el &#x00FA;nico destino posible. Estas fisuras en el &#x201C;realismo capitalista&#x201D; muestran, como se&#x00F1;ala <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32590-ES">Mouffe (2018)</xref>, el potencial de la pasi&#x00F3;n democr&#x00E1;tica para reabrir la imaginaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica.</p>
<p>En esa tensi&#x00F3;n, entre la deriva peligrosa y absolutista de Waldo y la movilizaci&#x00F3;n juvenil, late, al fin y al cabo, el pulso de esta &#x00E9;poca. Si la realidad se reduce a un espect&#x00E1;culo sarc&#x00E1;stico que encandila, pero no transforma, corremos el riesgo de ceder por completo ante la l&#x00F3;gica del no-futuro (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-ES">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-ES">Fisher, 2016</xref>). Por el contrario, si la energ&#x00ED;a cr&#x00ED;tica de la juventud consigue articularse en redes de participaci&#x00F3;n efectivas, las grietas del presente podr&#x00ED;an abrirse hacia un ma&#x00F1;ana que, lejos de ser un simple chiste ruidoso, recupere el valor de lo com&#x00FA;n y la fuerza de la esperanza. En definitiva, el porvenir no se clausura mientras existan quienes est&#x00E1;n dispuestos a imaginarlo y a reivindicarlo, incluso cuando todo alrededor parezca carecer de sentido. La &#x00FA;ltima palabra, en ese sentido, no pertenece a Waldo ni a su burla: pertenece a quienes defienden y desaf&#x00ED;an un futuro de esperanza y solidaridad.</p>
<p>En esta l&#x00ED;nea esperanzadora, la educaci&#x00F3;n superior debe repensar sus objetivos y su l&#x00F3;gica desde la pedagog&#x00ED;a de la esperanza, convirtiendo los espacios formativos que habitan (asignaturas, pr&#x00E1;cticas, referentes pedag&#x00F3;gicos) en escenarios de disputa ideol&#x00F3;gica y construcci&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica: no solo formar para participar en una sociedad y un espacio laboral cambiante, sino tambi&#x00E9;n para responder de manera colectiva, solidaria, justa y emp&#x00E1;tica a los retos sociales, pol&#x00ED;ticos, econ&#x00F3;micos, culturales y ambientales que modelan el presente de la juventud (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32590-ES">Giroux y Proasi, 2025</xref>). Si la extrema derecha ha sabido capitalizar la frustraci&#x00F3;n y la carencia de expectativas, ser&#x00E1; fundamental reabrir la imaginaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica y ofrecer, desde la docencia y la reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica, horizontes que reconozcan la precariedad y el malestar, pero que se orienten a la construcci&#x00F3;n de un futuro com&#x00FA;n basado en la solidaridad, la justicia social y el bien com&#x00FA;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-32590-ES">Saura, 2021</xref>). Darle espacio a la esperanza y al compromiso no es ingenuidad, sino una necesidad para contrarrestar el influjo de la resignaci&#x00F3;n y el cinismo. As&#x00ED;, se podr&#x00E1; devolver a la juventud la certeza de que &#x2018;otro mundo&#x2019; sigue siendo posible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32590-ES">Giroux y Figueiredo, 2025</xref>).</p>
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<ref-list>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32590</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32590</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>The Training of Future Teachers and the Seduction of the Extreme Right Wing</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es">La formaci&#x00F3;n del futuro profesorado y la seducci&#x00F3;n de la extrema derecha</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4637-0168</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>GONZ&#x00C1;LEZ-CALVO</surname>
<given-names>Gustavo</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-EN"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3399-5318</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>D&#x00CD;EZ-GUTI&#x00C9;RREZ</surname>
<given-names>Enrique-Javier</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2-EN"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-EN"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<label>*</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Valladolid. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Valladolid</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2-EN">
<label>**</label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Le&#x00F3;n. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Le&#x00F3;n</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-EN"><email>gustavo.gonzalez@uva.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-EN"><email>ejdieg@unileon.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026381</issue-id>
<fpage>85</fpage>
<lpage>104</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>17</day>
<month>04</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>This study delves into the reasons why young university students in training, immersed in the precariousness and uncertainty of a cancelled future, may be attracted by radical right-wing extremist discourses that are currently on the rise. Using a qualitative-interpretative methodology, extensive semi-structured interviews were conducted with twelve university undergraduate students of Education using visual elicitation techniques and analysing the data by means of narrative thematic analysis. The main results reveal a sense of stagnation and hopelessness in the face of an uncertain future, exacerbated by job insecurity, difficulty of access to housing and social pressure. This seems to generate anxiety and political scepticism, making young people training to be future teachers vulnerable to messages from the far right that capitalise on discontent. The final conclusions suggest that the rise of these extremist movements is due to the lack of alternative political projects and the exploitation of youth anger at the uncertain future, although there is still a will to mobilise and a need for education that fosters hope and collective action. It is discussed whether initial teacher training at university should rethink its objectives and logic from the pedagogy of hope: not only to train to participate in a changing society and workplace, but also to respond collectively and empathetically to the social, political, economic, cultural and environmental challenges that shape the present of young people.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>Este trabajo profundiza en las razones por las cuales j&#x00F3;venes universitarios que se est&#x00E1;n formando, inmersos en la precariedad y la incertidumbre de un futuro cancelado, se pueden sentir atra&#x00ED;dos por discursos radicales de extrema derecha que actualmente est&#x00E1;n en auge. Mediante una metodolog&#x00ED;a cualitativa-interpretativa, se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas extensas con doce estudiantes universitarios de Grados de Educaci&#x00F3;n utilizando t&#x00E9;cnicas de elicitaci&#x00F3;n visual y analizando los datos por medio de un an&#x00E1;lisis tem&#x00E1;tico narrativo. Los principales resultados revelan una sensaci&#x00F3;n de estancamiento y desesperanza ante un futuro incierto, exacerbada por la precariedad laboral, la dificultad de acceso a la vivienda y la presi&#x00F3;n social. Esto parece generar ansiedad y escepticismo pol&#x00ED;tico, volviendo a los j&#x00F3;venes que se est&#x00E1;n formando para ser futuros profesores y profesoras vulnerables a mensajes de la extrema derecha que capitalizan el descontento. Las conclusiones sugieren que el auge de estos movimientos extremistas se debe a la falta de proyectos pol&#x00ED;ticos alternativos y a la explotaci&#x00F3;n de la rabia juvenil ante ese futuro incierto, aunque persiste una voluntad de movilizaci&#x00F3;n y la necesidad de una educaci&#x00F3;n que fomente la esperanza y la acci&#x00F3;n colectiva. Se discute si la formaci&#x00F3;n inicial del profesorado en la universidad debe repensar sus objetivos y su l&#x00F3;gica desde la pedagog&#x00ED;a de la esperanza: no solo formar para participar en una sociedad y un espacio laboral cambiante, sino tambi&#x00E9;n para responder de manera colectiva y emp&#x00E1;tica a los retos sociales, pol&#x00ED;ticos, econ&#x00F3;micos, culturales y ambientales que modelan el presente de la juventud.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>teacher training</kwd>
<kwd>future cancellation</kwd>
<kwd>far right</kwd>
<kwd>radicalization</kwd>
<kwd>social transformation</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n docente</kwd>
<kwd>cancelaci&#x00F3;n del futuro</kwd>
<kwd>extrema derecha</kwd>
<kwd>radicalizaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>transformaci&#x00F3;n social</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32590-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></title>
<p>We are living through times of complex ideological reconfiguration, in which ultraliberal and anarcho-capitalist political movements have ceased to occupy a place on the margins and have instead forcefully positioned themselves at the center of the debate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32590-EN">Betancor, 2025</xref>). Appealing to emotions such as fear of the other, disenchantment, and nostalgia for the past, populist leaders have seized control of the present&#x2014;and, with it, of the future world (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32590-EN">Giroux &#x0026; Proasi, 2025</xref>). This crisis of democracy reflects a process of extinction of the models we have built within the framework of industrial societies and nation-states (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-EN">Forti, 2021</xref>), leaving current political institutions overwhelmed and ill-adapted.</p>
<p>Today&#x2019;s political institutions seem unable to effectively translate the rights and freedoms enshrined in international treaties and constitutions into policies and measures that address current challenges in a fair and effective manner for the social majorities (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32590-EN">Renault &#x0026; Vega, 2025</xref>). The crises that surround us&#x2014;from the genocide in Gaza to the war in Ukraine, or the conflicts in Syria, Libya, and the Congo, not to mention the global ecological and climate crisis or the recurring economic and housing crises&#x2014;make it difficult to envision a hopeful long-term future. This absence of perspective contributes to a sense of vulnerability and exhaustion in the face of what appears to be the disintegration of democratic systems as we have known them. The latest report by the Oxfam-Interm&#x00F3;n, <italic>Multilateralism in an Era of Global Oligarchy</italic>, warned that global efforts to respond to the planet&#x2019;s greatest challenges&#x2014;such as the climate crisis or persistent levels of poverty and inequality&#x2014;are being jeopardized by the concentration of power in the hands of the ultra-rich and megacorporations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32590-EN">Oxfam, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Although we find reasons for mobilization and protest (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32590-EN">Rigal et al., 2023</xref>), we seem less successful at identifying effective strategies to build, propose, and unite in a shared and solidarity-driven manner in pursuit of the common good. As a result, the political dimension of civic action sometimes appears to be reduced to dissent and protest or, to a large extent, to advancing more individualistic proposals invoking a &#x201C;save yourself if you can&#x201D; mentality that is gaining ground among an increasingly significant sector of the population (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-32590-EN">Rocamora P&#x00E9;rez &#x0026; Espinar-Ruiz, 2021</xref>). This dimension has managed to attract a growing number of young people, drawn to narratives that promote extreme conservatism, xenophobia, the return to a mythical past (where &#x201C;our tribe&#x201D; ruled over others), antifeminism, and neoliberal ideology&#x2014;including the rollback of social rights (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32590-EN">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez &#x0026; Jarqu&#x00ED;n, 2025</xref>). This dynamic is linked to the absence of shared responses and the exploitation of collective discontent to identify scapegoats (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-EN">Innerarity, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>When the future is perceived as a closed horizon&#x2014;without utopias or transformative collective projects&#x2014;political proposals flourish that, instead of looking forward, offer a return to traditional values or an easy enemy to blame for contemporary ills. If politics fails to impact our daily lives, does not connect with our concerns, and disregards our needs and those of future generations, what purpose does it serve? What is its use value? This is the starting point reflected in popular culture in the episode <italic>The Waldo Moment</italic> from the series <italic>Black Mirror</italic>. In it, an animated character, born as a media joke, strikes a chord with a disillusioned electorate, despite the complete absence of political or social proposals. The eccentric, grandiose gestures, frenzied chainsaw movements (as showcased by Argentine President Javier Milei), the shouting, and the stigmatization and criminalization of adversaries (&#x201C;shitty leftists,&#x201D; as Milei calls them) shape the current political struggle of the far right. This, in turn, has influenced the positions and narrative of the right, and even significant sectors of liberals and social democrats (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32590-EN">Lordon, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-32590-EN">Tanuro, 2025</xref>). We are no longer witnessing a diversity and confrontation of ideas, but of personalities, where the most eccentric has the greatest chance of being elected (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32590-EN">Mudde, 2019</xref>) in an increasingly grotesque society of the spectacle.</p>
<p>Thus, in the face of disillusionment with traditional elites, extremist movements offer simple, emotionally charged responses: by identifying certain groups (e.g., immigrants, ethnic minorities, feminists, and/or environmental activists, among others) as external enemies, they promise to restore a supposed lost greatness and present a strong, exclusionary identity. From this perspective, the far right has successfully channeled the discontent generated by a voracious and predatory capitalist system, appropriating the rebellion against the system (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32590-EN">Mouffe, 2018</xref>). Their anti-system rhetoric, however, masks the perpetuation of harmful, unjust, and unequal power structures. Thus, individualistic and tribal responses ultimately become a means of settling scores with presumed culprits, while the appeal of authoritarian models&#x2014;prized for their alleged efficiency&#x2014;grows at the expense of democratic substance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32590-EN">Rizzi, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>This paper seeks to delve into the reasons why youth, immersed in precariousness and the uncertainty of a cancelled future, may feel drawn to far-right political discourses, focusing on the structural and emotional factors that fuel such affinity.</p>
<sec id="sec-2-32590-EN">
<label>1.1.</label>
<title>The cancellation of the future and the inability to imagine alternatives</title>
<p>In his work <italic>Capitalist Realism</italic>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher (2016)</xref> argues that capitalism has generated a sense of stagnation and repetition, where the future is no longer imagined as a space for radical transformation, but rather as an indefinite extension of the present. Culture, politics, and the economy seem trapped within a logic that prevents new possibilities from emerging.</p>
<p>This feeling that the future has been cancelled arises as a response to a context in which late capitalism is configured as the only possible logic, and young people perceive a future closed off by job insecurity, ecological crises, and the dismantling of social protection, among other factors (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-EN">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-EN">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32590-EN">Hickman et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-32590-EN">Standing, 2011</xref>). As capitalism becomes consolidated as an immovable horizon, any project of radical transformation appears utopian and unattainable, relegating initiatives for change to the dimension of the individual and atomized (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-EN">Han, 2024</xref>). No longer do revolutionary projects of social transformation inspire hope in a horizon of emancipation and social justice. The shadow of capitalism as the &#x201C;only possible reality&#x201D; spreads like a shroud, seizing even the possibility of imagining alternatives and utopias.</p>
<p>For decades, school and university were regarded as a pathway to social mobility and progress; today, however, skepticism prevails, as academic training no longer guarantees the opportunities of the past but is instead inserted into an increasingly fragile labor market. Various authors warn that in this new hyper-accelerated environment, the old democratic structures fail to adapt, provoking a sense of institutional &#x201C;dislocation&#x201D; that reinforces the climate of uncertainty (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-EN">Forti, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-EN">Innerarity, 2024</xref>). This phenomenon unfolds in the context of the growing omnipresence of catastrophe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-EN">Han, 2024</xref>), reflected in the proliferation of media narratives that reinforce the perception of a permanent crisis&#x2014;economic, climatic and ecological, political&#x2014;further hindering the construction of shared horizons (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-EN">Han, 2024</xref>). All of this crystallizes into a scenario of existential precarity that heightens anxiety and chronic stress, especially among young people (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32590-EN">&#x00C5;kerstr&#x00F8;m &#x0026; Gr&#x00F8;nb&#x00E6;k, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32590-EN">Michael, 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>The temporal dimension of this process is key to understanding the absence of a future. Various studies on temporality (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-EN">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-EN">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32590-EN">Facer, 2016</xref>) describe how young people experience their present as conditioned by uncertainty and the impossibility of imagining a stable tomorrow. Material and emotional precarity establishes a rupture in the timeline: there is no past to return to, nor a promising future to aspire to, imposing the urgency of surviving in a volatile present. In this state of permanent precarity, young people are subjected to pressures that undermine their mental health and limit their capacity for collective agency (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32590-EN">Ask &#x0026; Abidin, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32590-EN">Coleman &#x0026; Lyon, 2023</xref>), making them more susceptible to seeking easy and/or extremist solutions.</p>
<p>For those of us engaged in training future teachers, the contradiction becomes even more acute: educating new generations implies projecting a future that, in the eyes of many students, appears closed off. We are thus immersed in constructing a present that seems to present itself devoid of hope for the future. The neoliberal productivist logic has permeated education, turning the teaching vocation into a space of anxiety and instability (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32590-EN">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>), generating a &#x201C;sense of a world in ruins&#x201D; where young people, despite arguably being the &#x201C;most educated generation,&#x201D; find no certainties or effective channels for political participation. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32590-EN">Facer (2016)</xref> argues, education retains a connection to the future; however, today it is forced to contend with a market that demands hyper-flexible profiles, a present saturated with media catastrophes, and an uncertain future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>In this climate, the far right can present itself as an escape route from despair, offering identity-based &#x201C;solutions&#x201D; in the face of daily frustration (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32590-EN">Mudde, 2019</xref>). With the promise of a retrotopia or return to an idealized past (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32590-EN">Bauman, 2017</xref>), such discourses exploit the anxiety and exhaustion of a youth unable to envisage democratic, institutional, participatory, and inspiring alternatives. This disenchantment strengthens the cancellation of the future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>) by reinforcing the notion that there is no room for transformative collective projects&#x2014;only for nostalgic reaction or individualist retreat. However, the literature on temporality and precarity also identifies spaces of resistance and rupture (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32590-EN">&#x00C5;kerstr&#x00F8;m &#x0026; Gr&#x00F8;nb&#x00E6;k, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32590-EN">Pors &#x0026; Kishik, 2023</xref>). Student activism, youth associations, and intergenerational community action can become focal points of opposition to capitalist &#x201C;pragmatism&#x201D; and seeds for imagining another possible future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32590-EN">Betancor et al., 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Youth, particularly university students, embody the paradox of constant competition and widespread anguish: education, once a shield against uncertainty, is now trapped in the neoliberal logic that demands meritocracy and &#x201C;entrepreneurship&#x201D; while blocking the possibility of a stable horizon (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32590-EN">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2025</xref>). The effect, as our study highlights, is the experience of anxiety, loneliness, and a lack of collective reference points. Understanding this phenomenon requires recognizing that precarity is not a transitory state but a structural condition that colonizes time and reinforces the temptation of extremist, authoritarian solutions. At the same time, it invites us to explore those cracks where hope and mobilization renew the student experience, reopening political imagination and the possibility of a future that is not cancelled (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32590-EN">Giroux &#x0026; Fillippakou, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32590-EN" sec-type="methods">
<label>2.</label>
<title>M<sc>ethodology</sc></title>
<p>This study forms part of the teaching innovation project <italic>SPAU: Exploring the Socio-Psychological Distress of Loneliness, Precarity, and Anxiety among University Students</italic>, developed at the University of Valladolid during the 2024/2025 academic year. The research is grounded in approaches that combine visual methods and creative narrative, aligned with recent work on temporality and precarity in the fields of sociology and education (e.g., <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-EN">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-EN">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32590-EN">Pors &#x0026; Kishik, 2023</xref>).</p>
<sec id="sec-4-32590-EN">
<label>2.1.</label>
<title>Participants</title>
<p>Twelve students (7 women and 5 men) participated in the study, all enrolled in the Social Education, Early Childhood Education, and Primary Education degree programs at the University of Valladolid, with ages ranging from 19 to 24 years. Participants were selected through purposive sampling (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-32590-EN">Suri, 2011</xref>) to ensure diversity of profiles (gender, academic background, professional motivations). All participants were informed about the aims of the study and provided written informed consent, with their privacy and confidentiality fully safeguarded. Ethical approval was obtained from the ethics committee of the first author&#x2019;s institution (code: PI 22-1995-NO HCUV), in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32590-EN">
<label>2.2.</label>
<title>Data collection</title>
<p>The study design was qualitative-interpretative, aiming to explore participants&#x2019; experiences, perceptions, and expectations regarding their future and the sociopolitical conditions that surround them. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, using visual elicitation techniques (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32590-EN">Chateau, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32590-EN">Robb et al., 2020</xref>)&#x2014;particularly memes and other graphic materials&#x2014;to facilitate reflection and dialogue.</p>
<p>In the semi-structured interviews, participants were invited to reflect on questions such as: <italic>What is your vision of the future&#x2014;professional, social, and personal? What are your professional expectations? How would you describe the working and social conditions of young people today? Is there anything that worries you about your future? What do you think youth mobilizations are for? When was the last time you felt the urge to change something in your immediate environment?</italic></p>
<p>The interviews lasted between 40 and 70 minutes, and verbatim transcripts were produced for data analysis. Prior to the interview, participants were asked to bring an image or meme they considered relevant to their current perception of the future. This strategy fostered free expression and the co-construction of meaning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32590-EN">Julien, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>The questions were designed based on a thematic guide structured around three key conceptual dimensions: (a) representations of the future and youth agency; (b) experiences of material and symbolic precarity; and (c) links between distress and political perception. These dimensions were grounded in the theoretical framework of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher (2016)</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-EN">Han (2024)</xref>, and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi (2019)</xref> on the cancellation of the future and emotional collapse. The guide was previously validated through informal piloting with two students external to the study.</p>
<p>Regarding the visual elicitation techniques, the graphic materials provided by participants (memes, images, and screenshots) were coded as qualitative data, as they were considered symbolic expressions that complemented the oral accounts. Each image was analyzed within its discursive context during the interview, allowing exploration of the connections between visual language, projected emotions, and narrative construction. Thus, the memes did not merely serve as conversational stimuli, but as meaningful inputs in shaping the thematic and affective analysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32590-EN">Chateau, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32590-EN">Julien, 2022</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32590-EN">
<label>2.3.</label>
<title>Data analysis</title>
<p>A narrative thematic analysis was conducted, an approach that enables the identification and examination of patterns or themes within the stories shared by participants (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-32590-EN">Sparkes &#x0026; Smith, 2014</xref>). This method combines elements of narrative analysis with a thematic approach, integrating both the explicit content and the implicit dynamics within the stories. Narrative thematic analysis allowed us not only to identify the main themes but also to explore the affective and embodied depth underlying the narratives (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32590-EN">Chadwick, 2017</xref>). This approach values the complexity of individual narratives while revealing shared patterns that provide a more holistic view of the participants&#x2019; lived experiences.</p>
<p>The narrative thematic analysis was grounded in the methodological contributions of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32590-EN">Chadwick (2017)</xref>, who highlights the power of this strategy to capture the emotional, performative, and structural dimensions of narratives. This approach is particularly well-suited when seeking to interpret how individuals shape their experiences within broader social contexts&#x2014;in this case, precarity, uncertainty, and political radicalization.</p>
<p>Data analysis was carried out in five successive phases. First, a comprehensive and repeated reading of the full transcripts was conducted to achieve deep familiarization with the corpus. Second, an initial open and inductive coding process was undertaken, without predefined categories, allowing units of meaning to emerge directly from the accounts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32590-EN">Braun &#x0026; Clarke, 2006</xref>). In the third phase, the codes were grouped into preliminary themes, taking into account both their recurrence and their semantic density. The fourth phase involved the iterative construction of thematic categories through triangulation among researchers, integrating criteria of internal coherence and thematic differentiation. Finally, narrative matrices were developed to reconstruct individual trajectories and collective patterns while preserving the integrity of the narrative meaning.</p>
<p>To ensure the qualitative reliability and validity of the study, various strategies were employed. Analytical triangulation among researchers was used for cross-validation of the emerging codes and categories, supporting the consolidation of an intersubjective and reflexive perspective (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32590-EN">Lincoln &#x0026; Guba, 1985</xref>). In addition, the technique of analytical memos was used throughout the coding process to record theoretical decisions and methodological reflections. Finally, partial feedback of results was provided to volunteer participants, enabling comparison of the interpretation of the findings with their lived experience.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-32590-EN">Table 1</xref> presents the categories that emerged from the narrative thematic analysis, as well as the associated emergent themes.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-32590-EN">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>C<sc>ategories identified through narrative thematic analysis</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-32590-EN" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="40%"/>
<col width="60%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Category</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Emergent themes</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Expectations for the future in the sociopolitical context</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Sense of stagnation and no-future</p>
<p>Omnipresence of catastrophe and proliferation of hate speech</p>
<p>Increase in anxiety and political skepticism</p>
<p>Vulnerability of youth to radical and simplistic messages</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Expectations and concerns about the future</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Job precarity and difficulties in accessing housing</p>
<p>Generational fracture (academic education no longer guarantees stability)</p>
<p>Meritocratic discourse questioned due to lack of opportunities</p>
<p>Prolonged family dependence and &#x201C;extended childhood&#x201D;</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Impact of social expectations regarding success and productivity</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Demand for hyper-productivity and competitiveness</p>
<p>Constant comparison (achievements, followers, CV)</p>
<p>Pressure to achieve success at an early age</p>
<p>Chronic stress and normalization of anxiety</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Links to distress and mental health</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Lack of mental health resources in universities and the public system</p>
<p>Individual medicalization of problems (going to therapy without addressing structural causes)</p>
<p>Self-care discourses that overlook material conditions</p>
<p>Gap between institutional discourse and real practice (exams, demanding schedules, etc.)</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Attitudes toward social transformation and youth mobilization</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Ambivalence between skepticism and willingness to act</p>
<p>Youth mobilizations as catalysts for visibility (e.g., climate activism)</p>
<p>Lack of clear leadership or concrete proposals in protests</p>
<p>Volunteering and student associations as pathways for small-scale change</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: Authors&#x2019; own work</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32590-EN" sec-type="results">
<label>3.</label>
<title>R<sc>esults</sc></title>
<p>We present the results of our study in accordance with the categories mentioned above.</p>
<sec id="sec-8-32590-EN">
<label>3.1.</label>
<title>Expectations for the future in the sociopolitical context</title>
<p>The study participants express a wide range of emotions that reflect the sense of stagnation and cancellation of the future described by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher (2016)</xref>:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I feel like society is becoming increasingly empty. They say we are the snowflake generation, but in reality what&#x2019;s happening is that we&#x2019;ve realized everything is against us, that no matter what we do, things aren&#x2019;t going to get better&#x201D; (L., 23 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This statement connects with the idea that neoliberal culture offers no horizons of change, and young people perceive the social structure as hostile. Extreme individualism, a consequence of the neoliberal system, reinforces the feeling of loneliness and powerlessness (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I am troubled by so much hate speech in all the media. I hear that outsiders are taking our jobs, that women have gone too far with feminism, that scientists are trying to scare us with climate issues [&#x2026;], and I feel like we are going backwards&#x201D; (G., 24 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>These uncertainties may intensify frustration due to the absence of clear identity references or stable social models, adding an emotional layer to the sense of disillusionment. All of this leads to a state of anxiety and hopelessness among participants that can be politically capitalized and instrumentalized in order to direct collective frustration toward vulnerable groups (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown, 2019</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;The news is increasingly negative and seems to exist only to make us feel bad, to make us grateful just to live one more day and feel lucky with what we have today, because tomorrow there will be nothing left [&#x2026;]. They talk about precarity, climate crisis, wars, and... How could we not be depressed and anxious? [&#x2026;] At least, they try to tell us who&#x2019;s to blame for all this and who we should fight against&#x201D; (M. C., 21 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This complaint relates to the omnipresence of catastrophe (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-EN">Han, 2024</xref>). When the media narrative reinforces a vision of constant collapse, collective paralysis is deepened:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;The idea that we won&#x2019;t live like our parents did, that we won&#x2019;t have pensions, security, or stable jobs is repeated over and over&#x2026; It&#x2019;s as if we were doomed&#x201D; (M., 24 years old).</p>
<p>&#x201C;I don&#x2019;t know what is expected of us (young people) or what we&#x2019;re supposed to do to improve things, to leave behind a legacy based on sustainability and prosperity [&#x2026;]. I feel like, as a community, we&#x2019;ve lost our way and our critical sense of what is important and necessary&#x201D; (J. E., 19 years old).</p>
<p>&#x201C;I feel like the political situation is a repetitive cycle in which no matter who is in power, the same decisions are always made and people&#x2019;s problems don&#x2019;t change&#x201D; (J., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The above quotations reflect the crisis of meaning and the lack of direction perceived by young people. As <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher (2016)</xref> notes, capitalist realism has blocked the capacity to imagine collective alternatives, leaving society in a state of uncertainty and disorientation. This feeling of being adrift is crucial for understanding some of the reasons why the far right can capitalize on youth disillusionment, offering narratives that appeal to a supposed restoration of a lost &#x201C;idyllic&#x201D; order (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32590-EN">Bauman, 2017</xref>).</p>
<p>In this section, we see how the &#x201C;over-diagnosed&#x201D; democratic crisis fuels a perception of collapse (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-EN">Forti, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-EN">Innerarity, 2024</xref>), suggesting that institutions have fallen behind in relation to the speed of social and technological change. When everything around seems to project a dark vision of the future, pessimism takes deeper root. That sense of a &#x201C;cancelled future&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>) is a key root of youth distress and can be one of the elements used by far-right discourses and narratives to attract young people.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32590-EN">
<label>3.2.</label>
<title>Expectations and concerns about the future</title>
<p>Job insecurity, difficulty accessing housing, and the realization that education and academic degrees no guarantee social mobility are recurring themes among our participants:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Even if you study, work hard, do internships [&#x2026;], everything is so saturated that you might end up in a job that has nothing to do with what you studied and is badly paid&#x201D; (M. C., 21 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This experience exemplifies what <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi (2019)</xref> describes as <italic>cognitive precariat</italic>: the paradox of intense training and effort only to end up in precarious or undervalued positions, generating feelings of disappointment and frustration:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I&#x2019;m afraid that even with a university degree and good grades, I won&#x2019;t achieve job stability. I feel like everything is against me, from low wages to impossible rents&#x201D; (M. S., 24 years old).</p>
<p>&#x201C;Even if I get good grades, I feel that access to the job market is based more on connections and luck than on actual effort&#x201D; (J., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The above quotation highlights the crisis of meritocracy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown, 2019</xref>). The perception that professional success is no longer linked to equal opportunity and fair outcomes, but rather to networks of contacts, reinforces distrust in the system and fuels feelings of injustice. This kind of frustration may lead to a rejection of conventional politics and the search for extremist and authoritarian solutions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32590-EN">Mudde, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Precarization contributes to the breakdown of traditional institutions, which barely manage to adapt to a hyper-accelerated reality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-EN">Forti, 2021</xref>); the world inhabited by industrial democracies is disappearing, leaving young people increasingly unprotected. The breakdown of opportunity, already glimpsed in the previous category, is amplified: whereas in past decades academic training was a guarantor of social advancement, today there are no guarantees of progress on the social ladder&#x2014;not even with the accumulation of degrees and certifications. This situation fuels young people&#x2019;s sense of powerlessness and injustice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32590-EN">Fraser, 2010</xref>) and, in cases like the one presented below, prompts the search for explanations based on the material and symbolic conditions in which these experiences arise:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I&#x2019;ve seen people kill themselves studying and working, and I almost mean that literally. But despite everything, without contacts and without money, they don&#x2019;t move forward. [&#x2026;]. I feel like everything is rigged&#x201D; (P., 23 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The official meritocratic discourse collapses in the face of reality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>). When effort is perceived as insufficient, the temptation grows to embrace solutions that blame &#x201C;others&#x201D; (e.g., immigrants, women, etc.) for one&#x2019;s own precarity:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;With how expensive everything is, and even though I don&#x2019;t live in an expensive or large city, I don&#x2019;t know when I&#x2019;ll be able to become independent. I feel like an eternal teenager because I can&#x2019;t even afford to imagine starting my own life. And I don&#x2019;t know whose fault this is&#x2014;whether it&#x2019;s the system&#x2019;s, or those who come from outside to steal from those of us born here, or&#x2026; But I don&#x2019;t care; what I want to know is whether there will be any solution&#x201D; (G., 24 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Participants see themselves as genuinely struggling to move toward an independent and fulfilling adult life. When that difficulty is self-attributed (I am incapable), or when blame is placed anonymously on a vague and amorphous &#x201C;system,&#x201D; or when the focus is solely on seeking personal or group scapegoats among the most precarious communities, attention is diverted from the deeper, structural causes. This reinforces the xenophobic narratives promoted by the far right and exacerbates the feeling of personal powerlessness, giving the impression that the &#x201C;system is rigged&#x201D; and there is no escape (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32590-EN">Innerarity, 2024</xref>). The result is greater frustration rather than solutions rooted in transformative political action.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-32590-EN">
<label>3.3.</label>
<title>Impact of social expectations regarding success and productivity</title>
<p>The participants&#x2019; accounts contain references to the cult of extreme productivity and competitiveness&#x2014;factors that shape today&#x2019;s neoliberal capitalist system and from which youth are not exempt (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32590-EN">Mavelli, 2024</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;On social media you see ads of people who, at 20, claim to have businesses, travel all over the world, speak several languages perfectly, and be entrepreneurs. They make you feel like you&#x2019;re behind in everything, like you&#x2019;re not enough&#x201D; (J. E., 19 years old).</p>
<p>&#x201C;Today, many young people suffer from depression and anxiety because we live in a society of immediacy, where there is no patience and everything must happen instantly. This causes people who need to take a little more time or aren&#x2019;t as fast to worry about meeting goals&#x201D; (A., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The capitalist logic imposes a permanent race toward success (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-32590-EN">Zafra, 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-EN">2021</xref>), fueled by the aspirational aesthetic and expectations promoted by social media and mass communication. This situation generates continuous stress that undermines mental health (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32590-EN">Han, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-EN">Zafra, 2021</xref>), while reinforcing the idea that failure is almost an individual choice&#x2014;a personal problem:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I&#x2019;ve gone to therapy for anxiety. They expect everything from you: good grades, a master&#x2019;s degree, languages, work experience [&#x2026;]. All this, for what? How do you achieve it without going crazy?&#x201D; (M. C., 21 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The demand to exploit one&#x2019;s capabilities to the fullest, to go beyond one&#x2019;s own limits, to continuously perform, leads to anxiety, depression, and chronic stress (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32590-EN">Moreno, 2018</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p><italic>&#x201C;It&#x2019;s as if everything in life were a competition. Who has better grades, who has more achievements, who has more followers? [&#x2026;]. If you don&#x2019;t play that game, you&#x2019;re out of the system, you don&#x2019;t count&#x201D;</italic> (A., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This competitiveness further fragments structures of social mediation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-EN">Forti, 2021</xref>), making it harder to build shared interests and widening the gap between individualized success and collective well-being. In situations of unemployment, precarity, and the lack of a professional future or stability, people affected tend to attribute it more to personal failure than to social and economic conditions, filling psychiatrists&#x2019; offices rather than union memberships (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32590-EN">Carmona &#x0026; Padilla, 2018</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-11-32590-EN">
<label>3.4.</label>
<title>Links to distress and mental health</title>
<p>Despite this, it is essential to acknowledge the need for integral health, particularly within a social system like capitalism. In a society oversaturated with superficial stimuli, fleeting relationships, failed expectations, and constant pressure to produce, self-actualize, and achieve success, mental health has become an increasingly present and necessary element in any comprehensive approach to human and societal development. In fact, mental health appears insistently in the testimonies collected. On the one hand, participants recognize that the topic is more widely discussed today; on the other, they denounce the lack of resources and structural solutions:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;These days there&#x2019;s a lot of talk about mental health and how mental health problems among young people are growing. [&#x2026;]. I waited months for an appointment with a psychologist in the public health system, and in the end I had to pay for a private psychologist&#x201D; (L., 23 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This participant&#x2019;s statement highlights the growing demand for psychological help and, at the same time, the lack of a solid health system capable of responding to that demand. In this regard, it is necessary to establish state policies that can strengthen public services (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown, 2019</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32590-EN">McNamara et al., 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Mental health, within the capitalist framework, is often approached as a personal matter, ignoring the systemic causes that generate distress (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32590-EN">Davies, 2021</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;It&#x2019;s no use telling us to take care of ourselves if there are no working or social conditions that allow it. It seems like the solution is for each person to get by however they can&#x201D; (G., 24 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This illustrates how the logic of hyper-individualization and the absence of collective or institutional responses can create conditions that make young people and student teachers susceptible to far-right discourses that supposedly offer a sense of &#x201C;security, order, belonging, and visible culprits&#x201D; in the face of psychosocial suffering&#x2014;instrumentalizing such distress and directing it toward authoritarian, identity-based, and reactionary proposals.</p>
<p>Transformation should involve questioning the competitive logic that underlies both education and work (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-EN">Zafra, 2021</xref>). It is not enough to explicitly mention mental health while maintaining structures based on hyper-productivity and the self-management of distress (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32590-EN">Gonz&#x00E1;lez-Calvo, 2025</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32590-EN">Zafra, 2021</xref>), which ultimately undermine social cohesion and deepen individualism:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;There&#x2019;s more and more talk about mental health, but what we really need is not just to be heard, but for the conditions that cause us anxiety to change&#x201D; (J., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This statement points to the gap between the growing awareness of mental health and the lack of structural change. Thus, for young people themselves, the solution does not lie merely in treating anxiety and depression individually, but in questioning the system that produces them.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-32590-EN">
<label>3.5.</label>
<title>Attitudes toward social transformation and youth mobilization</title>
<p>In addition to uncertainty and emotional tension, participants explored their willingness to change their immediate environment and the role of youth mobilizations. Overall, the responses reveal a mix of skepticism combined with a certain desire for action:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;The last time I felt like changing something was when we weren&#x2019;t allowed to present our complaints at the faculty about the internship workload. I thought it was unfair and, although I talked to classmates, it all came to nothing. We&#x2019;re afraid to complain because they might lower our grades or take away our chance to do internships&#x201D; (E., 20 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This attitude reflects, on the one hand, a desire to improve conditions in their environment through education, and on the other, a fear of reprisals that can inhibit activism. Within <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher&#x2019;s (2016)</xref> framework, it can be interpreted as another manifestation of <italic>capitalist realism</italic>: the perception that protesting will not change anything and could even bring negative personal consequences.</p>
<p>On the other hand, the idea of mobilization as a catalyst for visibility can serve to reignite democratic passion and pressure political institutions to respond to concrete demands (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32590-EN">Mouffe, 2018</xref>):</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I think mobilizations are necessary to show that young people aren&#x2019;t as asleep as they say. [&#x2026;]. When hundreds of young people take to the streets to protest about climate change or the housing crisis, it shows that we&#x2019;re not as passive as people claim&#x201D; (M. C., 21 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Other participants, while recognizing the symbolic value of protest, question its effectiveness&#x2014;something that could be interpreted as difficulty imagining that collective actions lead to real transformations:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Sometimes I&#x2019;ve wanted to join demonstrations, but I feel they don&#x2019;t achieve much. There&#x2019;s a lack of leaders or clear proposals. Still, I think it&#x2019;s a first step to show that we&#x2019;re not okay with things as they are&#x201D; (P., 23 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This lack of projects that mobilize hope may translate into isolated protests without a long-term strategic framework. Other participants are more convinced of the possibilities for change through youth associations:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p><italic>&#x201C;I&#x2019;d like to get involved in volunteer projects or student associations. I think that, even on a small scale, we can change the situation for young people, for example by demanding paid internships and more scholarships&#x201D;</italic> (H., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This perspective points to the path of local and concrete engagement to combat inertia. The sum of micro-initiatives and collective momentum could shape new forms of counter-hegemonic organization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32590-EN">Fraser, 2010</xref>). The participants&#x2019; responses suggest that the cancellation of the future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>) has not completely annulled the will to influence reality. However, the sense of powerlessness and the absence of effective participation structures weaken confidence that efforts can translate into tangible change (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi, 2019</xref>), which can lead to an attraction to far-right options that present themselves as &#x201C;anti-system&#x201D; and promise to change the entire system&#x2014;whatever that may mean (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32590-EN">Gil &#x0026; Iordache, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-32590-EN">Weber, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Despite everything, we find hopeful testimonies among some participants:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;I&#x2019;d like to stress that, although I alone can&#x2019;t change the world, I can do my small part when it&#x2019;s needed. If we all did that, we&#x2019;d live in a much fairer world&#x201D; (J., 19 years old).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This view aligns with the call for rebuilding structures of solidarity and collective organization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32590-EN">Fraser, 2010</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32590-EN">Giroux &#x0026; Figueiredo, 2025</xref>). Although the participant recognizes that their individual impact is limited, their emphasis on joint effort highlights the importance of community participation to counteract the isolation and fragmentation promoted by neoliberalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown, 2019</xref>). This has been extensively developed by student movements, particularly in Latin American contexts, through forms of student organization and protest linked to emancipatory projects, critical pedagogies, and resistance to neoliberalism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32590-EN">Cort&#x00E9;s-Gonz&#x00E1;lez et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32590-EN">McLaren, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-32590-EN">Saura &#x0026; Moreno, 2016</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-13-32590-EN" sec-type="conclusions|discussion">
<label>4.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusion and discussion</sc></title>
<p>The aim of our study has been to understand the reasons that explain why young people&#x2014;immersed in the precarity and uncertainty of a cancelled future&#x2014;may feel drawn to far-right political discourses, by examining the structural and emotional factors that feed this affinity. In this sense, we have seen how the participants in the study waver between uncertainty and the search for meaning to address their social and psychological distress.</p>
<p>As we noted at the outset, the episode <italic>The Waldo Moment</italic> from the series <italic>Black Mirror</italic> depicts a political landscape occupied by a character who, at first glance, is merely a media joke. Yet his success rests on collective anger and disillusionment&#x2014;the very forces that, from the perspective of capitalist realism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>), create fertile ground for those on the far right or in neo-fascism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32590-EN">D&#x00ED;ez Guti&#x00E9;rrez, 2022</xref>) to capture young people eager for certainty in an uncertain world. The rise of far-right movements can be understood, in part, as a consequence of the absence of alternative political and educational projects capable of articulating the demands of a youth stripped of a horizon of hope, justice, transformation, and the common good. At the same time, job precarity, uncertainty, loneliness, and the continual succession of crises generate a climate of discontent and rage that explodes &#x201C;against everything&#x201D; and aligns with far-right proposals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32590-EN">Forti, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32590-EN">Moreno, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32590-EN">Pors &#x0026; Kishik, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Like Waldo&#x2019;s proposals, in real life, the ideological platforms of far-right politics offer spectacle and hostility instead of solutions. They appropriate the pain of a generation that perceives the future as a blocked horizon, selling the illusion that mockery and empty rupture will suffice to change the situation or, at least, to channel anger. But, as the participants&#x2019; accounts reveal, this shock effect lasts only as long as the shout of rage; in the end, precarity, anxiety, and the absence of real alternatives return, confirming the lack of emancipatory projects, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32590-EN">Brown (2019)</xref> denounces.</p>
<p>In this way, the idea of the cancellation of the future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>) and the temptation of retrotopia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32590-EN">Bauman, 2017</xref>) are reinforced: young people who join these far-right proposals tend to take refuge in an idealized past as an alternative to an unstable present and a future without promises&#x2014;one that, far from addressing systemic inequality, would reinforce authoritarian solutions and social division (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32590-EN">Rizzi, 2025</xref>).</p>
<p>However, there is a counterweight to Waldo&#x2019;s cynicism and frivolity. The voices of young people also reveal a desire to overcome resignation: they yearn for a future that reclaims empathy, collective care, and the promise of genuine transformation. Although they encounter rigid structures and a present saturated with catastrophes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32590-EN">Adam, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32590-EN">Berardi, 2019</xref>), we continue to see their determination to mobilize (climate activism, housing protests, solidarity initiatives), which shows that paralysis and hopelessness are not the only possible destinies. These cracks in &#x201C;capitalist realism&#x201D; demonstrate, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32590-EN">Mouffe (2018)</xref> argues, the potential of democratic passion to reopen political imagination.</p>
<p>Within this tension&#x2014;between Waldo&#x2019;s dangerous, absolutist drift and youth mobilization&#x2014;beats, ultimately, the pulse of our time. If reality is reduced to a sarcastic spectacle that dazzles but does not transform, we risk surrendering entirely to the logic of no-future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32590-EN">Bazzani, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32590-EN">Fisher, 2016</xref>). On the other hand, if the critical energy of youth can be articulated into effective networks of participation, the fissures of the present could open towards a tomorrow that, far from being a mere noisy joke, recovers the value of the common good and the strength of hope. In short, the future is not closed off as long as there are those willing to imagine and claim it&#x2014;even when everything around seems to lack meaning. In that sense, the last word does not belong to Waldo and his mockery: it belongs to those who defend and strive for a future of hope and solidarity.</p>
<p>Along these hopeful lines, higher education must rethink its goals and logic through a pedagogy of hope, turning learning spaces (courses, fieldwork, pedagogical references) into arenas of ideological contestation and critical construction&#x2014;not only to train for participation in a changing society and labor market, but also to respond collectively, in solidarity, justly, and empathetically to the social, political, economic, cultural, and environmental challenges shaping the present of young people (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32590-EN">Giroux &#x0026; Proasi, 2025</xref>). If the far right has managed to capitalize on frustration and the lack of expectations, it will be essential to reopen political imagination and offer, through teaching and critical reflection, horizons that acknowledge precarity and distress but are oriented towards building a common future based on solidarity, social justice, and the common good (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-32590-EN">Saura, 2021</xref>). Making room for hope and commitment is not na&#x00EF;ve; it is a necessity to counteract the pull of resignation and cynicism. In this way, we can restore to young people the certainty that &#x201C;another world&#x201D; is still possible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32590-EN">Giroux &#x0026; Figueiredo, 2025</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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