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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32500</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32500</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>La competencia digital docente. golpeando dos veces la piedra de la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en">Teachers&#x2019; Digital Competence. Tripping Twice over the Same Stone in Ongoing Teacher Training</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3439-3319</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>MART&#x00CD;N-DOM&#x00CD;NGUEZ</surname>
<given-names>Jorge</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ES"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0836-9446</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>MU&#x00D1;OZ-GALINDO</surname>
<given-names>David</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-ES"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Salamanca. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Salamanca</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-ES"><email>jorgemd@usal.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-ES"><email>dmunozgalindo@usal.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026381</issue-id>
<fpage>39</fpage>
<lpage>60</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>18</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>06</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La digitalizaci&#x00F3;n de los contextos escolares lleva siendo una de las prioridades de la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa desde hace d&#x00E9;cadas. En los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os ha cobrado especial relevancia al amparo de la Competencia Digital sobre la que se han desarrollado diferentes propuestas para la construcci&#x00F3;n de una escuela digitalizada. Este trabajo pone su foco en dos aspectos de la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la Competencia Digital: El primero, con una metodolog&#x00ED;a de enfoque cr&#x00ED;tico-reflexivo, versa sobre la construcci&#x00F3;n de la Competencia Digital Docente en los entornos escolares analizando sus marcos normativos y los modelos de autopercepci&#x00F3;n, medici&#x00F3;n y certificaci&#x00F3;n de dicha competencia. Y, segundo, complementando al anterior mediante un estudio descriptivo exploratorio, con relaci&#x00F3;n a c&#x00F3;mo la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado se desarrolla por parte de la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n, y su similitud con anteriores planteamientos de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n masiva. Los resultados ponen de manifiesto una digitalizaci&#x00F3;n escolar basada en modelos <italic>top-down</italic> conectivos que est&#x00E1;n m&#x00E1;s cerca de modelos sociopol&#x00ED;ticos que socioeducativos. Adem&#x00E1;s, los datos nos muestran que esos modelos sustentan programas de formaci&#x00F3;n que, en parte, est&#x00E1;n teniendo similitudes con planteamientos err&#x00E1;ticos del pasado, encontrando una prevalencia de enfoque t&#x00E9;cnico sobre el enfoque did&#x00E1;ctico y ocupando m&#x00E1;s de las dos terceras partes de la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado ofrecida por la Consejer&#x00ED;a de Educaci&#x00F3;n de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n. Y, por tanto, la formaci&#x00F3;n en Competencia Digital se superpone sobre otros elementos nucleares de la pr&#x00E1;ctica docente sobre los que formar al profesorado.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The digitalisation of school environments has been a priority for educational administrators for decades. In recent years, this has become particularly relevant under the umbrella of digital competence, on which various proposals for constructing a digitalised school have been developed. This study focuses on two aspects of digital competence configuration: First, using a critical reflective approach, it examines the development of digital competence for teachers in school environments, analysing the regulatory frameworks and models for self-perception, measurement, and certification of this competence. Secondly, an exploratory descriptive study complements the first by examining how ongoing teacher training is carried out by the Castile and Le&#x00F3;n educational administration and how similar it is to previous approaches to massive digitalisation. The results reveal a school digitalisation process based on top-down connective models that are closer to socio-political than socio-educational models. Furthermore, the data shows that these models support training programmes that are partly similar to erratic past approaches, with technical approaches accounting for more than two-thirds of the continuing teacher training offered by the Castile and Le&#x00F3;n Regional Ministry of Education. Consequently, training in digital competence is taking precedence over other core elements of teaching practice on which teachers should be trained.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>competencia digital</kwd>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n de docentes</kwd>
<kwd>curso de formaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>escuela</kwd>
<kwd>tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>digital competence</kwd>
<kwd>teacher training</kwd>
<kwd>training courses</kwd>
<kwd>school</kwd>
<kwd>digital technology</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32500-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></title>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;El ser humano es el &#x00FA;nico animal que</p>
<p>tropieza dos veces en la misma piedra&#x201D;</p>
<attrib>Refr&#x00E1;n popular</attrib>
</disp-quote>
<p>La Competencia Digital Docente (CDD) se ha posicionado como una prioridad para los m&#x00FA;ltiples agentes intervinientes en los contextos escolares. El t&#x00E9;rmino de &#x201C;m&#x00FA;ltiples agentes&#x201D; debemos asumirlo desde una mirada hol&#x00ED;stica, donde agentes internos, externos, educativos o no educativos tratan de confluir, o influir, en los planteamientos organizativos y curriculares de las escuelas desde diferentes perspectivas e intereses particulares (educativos, sociales, econ&#x00F3;micos, pol&#x00ED;ticos, &#x2026;). Estas relaciones entre agentes son habituales y fluct&#x00FA;an en intensidad e influencia en funci&#x00F3;n de m&#x00FA;ltiples variables que se dan en los contextos educativos. Un ejemplo lo encontramos en c&#x00F3;mo, durante estas &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas, la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n ha funcionado, y funciona, como una entrada sumamente efectiva para agentes externos (educativos y no educativos) impongan discursos de &#x201C;eficiencia&#x201D; de mercado en centros y aulas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-32500-ES">Pardo Baldov&#x00ED; <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-32500-ES">Pardo Baldov&#x00ED; y San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso, 2020</xref>) y, tambi&#x00E9;n, en la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-32500-ES">Revuelta Dom&#x00ED;nguez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024</xref>). Este enfoque de mercado y la justificaci&#x00F3;n de medidas y dinamismos extrapolados de otros &#x00E1;mbitos es algo que, a priori, dif&#x00ED;cilmente encaja con los tiempos, las formas y los fines de los enfoques pedag&#x00F3;gicos basados en el estudio profundo y sistem&#x00E1;tico de la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa.</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1;, o en paralelo, de esas injerencias externas e internas encontramos todo un constructo en torno a las competencias en el contexto social y educativo, que se ha venido fraguando de la mano de gobiernos occidentales alineados con postulados de la OCDE o del Banco Mundial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32500-ES">Bolivar, 2008</xref>). Los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-32500-ES">ONU, 2015</xref>) son un ejemplo reciente de c&#x00F3;mo estos planteamientos globales permean en las directrices curriculares de las etapas escolares obligatorias y postobligatorias. De esta manera, se construyen regulaciones bajo el discurso de &#x201C;eficiencia&#x201D; de mercado, que se superponen a otros de corte m&#x00E1;s humanista, social o pedag&#x00F3;gico. Nos enfrentamos as&#x00ED; a la producci&#x00F3;n de un modelo en pro de una &#x201C;calidad&#x201D; dif&#x00ED;cil de medir que, aunque con otros mimbres, nos puede trasladar a una etapa ya vivida, donde los enfoques t&#x00E9;cnicos poco flexibles (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-90-32500-ES">Tyler, 1986</xref>) nos alejan cada vez m&#x00E1;s de alcanzar otros enfoques m&#x00E1;s dirigidos, contextualizados, focalizados y pedag&#x00F3;gicamente sostenibles de la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-32500-ES">Stenhouse, 1987</xref>). Si a todo esto sumamos, adem&#x00E1;s, otros elementos de cambio como las &#x201C;megatendecias, incluidas la globalizaci&#x00F3;n, la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n, el envejecimiento de la poblaci&#x00F3;n o las migraciones&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32500-ES">OCDE, 2019</xref>, p. 6) observamos balanceos pol&#x00ED;ticos y econ&#x00F3;micos que nos encaminan hacia un caldo de cultivo donde, al menos en lo digital, parecen m&#x00E1;s preocupados de visibilizar la vanguardia tecnol&#x00F3;gica que la val&#x00ED;a de la aplicabilidad did&#x00E1;ctica de esta en la mejora educativa, en otras palabras, m&#x00E1;s centrados en el qu&#x00E9; que en el c&#x00F3;mo.</p>
<p>En esta tendencia hacia la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n global, la administraci&#x00F3;n en su conjunto va encaminada a la estructuraci&#x00F3;n de una sociedad digital (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-32500-ES">Schwab, 2023</xref>), abordando una transformaci&#x00F3;n ciudadana, econ&#x00F3;mica, laboral, industrial, administrativa y, por supuesto, educativa, pero quiz&#x00E1;s m&#x00E1;s basada en datos que en conocimiento (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-32500-ES">Kitchin, 2014</xref>). Los movimientos sincronizados en instituciones como Naciones Unidas con su Agenda 2030 o el Parlamento Europeo lo ponen de manifiesto. La primera, poniendo el foco de la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n en su &#x201C;ODS 4 - Educaci&#x00F3;n de Calidad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-32500-ES">ONU, 2023</xref>); y, la segunda, de forma transversal, situando la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n como uno de los ejes importantes en la construcci&#x00F3;n de la futura sociedad e identidad europea (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-32500-ES">Parlamento Europeo, 2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-32500-ES">2018</xref>).</p>
<p>En definitiva, estamos ante un lineamiento com&#x00FA;n, expansivo y de &#x00ED;ndole pol&#x00ED;tico-econ&#x00F3;mica sobre el que los diferentes Estados europeos sustentan sus pol&#x00ED;ticas de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32500-ES">Bolivar, 2008</xref>), encaminadas a un proceso de no retorno de transformaci&#x00F3;n digital que les permita tener un sitio relevante en los cambios y retos que se avecinan. Pero es fundamental que comprendan las caracter&#x00ED;sticas de los contextos escolares y c&#x00F3;mo, entre otras cuestiones, los docentes integran los recursos digitales, incluyendo la IA, a trav&#x00E9;s de la inteligencia pedag&#x00F3;gica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32500-ES">D&#x00ED;az y Nussbaum, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-32500-ES">Shulman, 2007</xref>) o su conocimiento profesional docente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-32500-ES">Shulman, 1986</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-32500-ES">1987</xref>) o tecnol&#x00F3;gico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-32500-ES">Koehler <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-32500-ES">Mishra y Koehler, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>El trabajo que aqu&#x00ED; se presenta busca una reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica de la situaci&#x00F3;n actual de formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado por parte de la administraci&#x00F3;n. Y para ello, se plantea: Por un lado, indagar y reflexionar con relaci&#x00F3;n a c&#x00F3;mo la integraci&#x00F3;n de las Tecnolog&#x00ED;as Digitales (en adelante TD) y los marcos conceptuales y competenciales que la regulan se han venido desarrollando en los contextos pol&#x00ED;ticos, sociales y educativos hasta la actualidad. Y, por otro, analizar mediante un an&#x00E1;lisis descriptivo interpretativo c&#x00F3;mo esos marcos competenciales y conceptuales encajan en la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado ofertada por la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n, si existen diferenciaci&#x00F3;n entre los 16 centros de formaci&#x00F3;n en cuanto a la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la oferta y tambi&#x00E9;n las tem&#x00E1;ticas que prevalecen en la oferta de cursos.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32500-ES" sec-type="methods">
<label>2.</label>
<title>M<sc>&#x00E9;todo</sc></title>
<p>En base a los objetivos anteriormente indicados, el presente trabajo se enmarca en una metodolog&#x00ED;a cualitativa bajo un enfoque cr&#x00ED;tico-reflexivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32500-ES">Cebotarev, 2003</xref>) que presenta dos m&#x00E9;todos de an&#x00E1;lisis complementarios.</p>
<p>En primer lugar, el an&#x00E1;lisis documental interpretativo y cr&#x00ED;tico pretende relacionar la integraci&#x00F3;n de las TD con la construcci&#x00F3;n de la CD y CDD en sus diferentes &#x00E1;mbitos (pol&#x00ED;tico, social, econ&#x00F3;mico, profesional, educativo&#x2026;) posibilitando perfilar el contexto en el que los agentes intervinientes en &#x00E1;mbito escolar desarrollan su toma de decisiones. Para ello se ha realizado una b&#x00FA;squeda documental centrada en los marcos reguladores de CDD en el contexto europeo y espa&#x00F1;ol, las experiencias previas de integraci&#x00F3;n de tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital en Espa&#x00F1;a y la conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n de CDD en los entornos escolares.</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, un an&#x00E1;lisis descriptivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-32500-ES">Rodr&#x00ED;guez Sosa, 2003</xref>) de los cursos ofertados por la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n (n = 7263) a trav&#x00E9;s de sus 16 centros de formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado. Realizando un an&#x00E1;lisis sobre cu&#x00E1;ntos de los cursos ofertados se relacionan con la formaci&#x00F3;n en TD y, en estos, cu&#x00E1;les son las tem&#x00E1;ticas predominantes. Para ello se utiliz&#x00F3; el programa N-Vivo en su versi&#x00F3;n <italic>Release 1.7.2</italic> donde se introdujeron todos los t&#x00ED;tulos de los cursos ofertados para su an&#x00E1;lisis de palabras.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32500-ES">
<label>3.</label>
<title>T<sc>ecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales</sc>, <sc>educaci&#x00F3;n y</sc> COVID-19</title>
<p>Algunas de las cuestiones descritas de forma sucinta en la introducci&#x00F3;n nos encaminan a la pregunta: &#x00BF;Qu&#x00E9; ha pasado, y est&#x00E1; pasando, con la tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital en el contexto educativo y, m&#x00E1;s concretamente, en el contexto escolar espa&#x00F1;ol?</p>
<p>La respuesta se muestra compleja por varios aspectos: primero, por la complejidad del cambio que supone la entrada de tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital &#x201C;masiva&#x201D; en un entorno tan complejo como el escolar, incrementado por la configuraci&#x00F3;n auton&#x00F3;mica del modelo educativo espa&#x00F1;ol; segundo, por entender casi siempre el fen&#x00F3;meno de integraci&#x00F3;n de tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital como un proceso de innovaci&#x00F3;n, donde las fases de iniciaci&#x00F3;n, desarrollo y consolidaci&#x00F3;n deber&#x00ED;an de ser planteadas con una temporalizaci&#x00F3;n acorde a su envergadura (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32500-ES">Fullan, 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32500-ES">Hargreaves y Fullan, 2014</xref>) aspecto poco ajustado a la realidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-32500-ES">Schwab, 2023</xref>) en un sistema escolar m&#x00E1;s conectivo que cohesivo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32500-ES">Havelock y Huberman, 1980</xref>); tercero, existen barreras y obst&#x00E1;culos para el desarrollo de los procesos de cambio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32500-ES">Ertmer, 1999</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32500-ES">Ertmer y Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010</xref>). Estos y otros muchos aspectos nos adentran en una &#x201C;Escuela enredada&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-32500-ES">San Marti&#x0301;n Alonso, 2009</xref>) de dif&#x00ED;cil acceso para el estudio sistem&#x00E1;tico y profundo de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales que requiere de la atenci&#x00F3;n y control de variables que, en periodos muy cortos de tiempo, mutan o incluso desaparecen.</p>
<p>En esta incertidumbre en la que se mueven los sistemas escolares, parece en los &#x00FA;ltimos cinco a&#x00F1;os haber cierto consenso en lo relativo a la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n escolar entendida como un proceso de innovaci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;en ciernes&#x201D;. Ese consenso se apoya en la idea de que la pandemia Covid-19 ha supuesto un punto de inflexi&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32500-ES">Carrillo y Flores, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32500-ES">Fazekas, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-32500-ES">Murphy, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-88-32500-ES">Timotheou <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-93-32500-ES">Valverde-Berrocoso <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-97-32500-ES">Voogt y Knezek, 2021</xref>). En cierta medida, se puede situar el periodo de pandemia como generador de un antes y un despu&#x00E9;s en la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n de los centros escolares. Inicialmente, la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n prepandemia se caracterizaba por un proceso cauto, que no se distingu&#x00ED;a mucho de otros procesos de dotaci&#x00F3;n tecnol&#x00F3;gica anteriores donde el modelo top-down encontraba en muchas ocasiones m&#x00E1;s fobias que filias en el conjunto de los agentes educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-32500-ES">Rossi Cordero y Barajas Frutos, 2018</xref>). Por el contrario, la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n en la pandemia y postpandemia se ha convertido en un tsunami digital que, aun forzoso en su inicio, ha sido capaz de dejar una resaca que ha calado en el sistema educativo de forma estructural y, sobre todo, en la cultura escolar en todos sus niveles, tambi&#x00E9;n en las pr&#x00E1;cticas y concepciones docentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-32500-ES">Pokhrel y Chhetri, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-95-32500-ES">Vidergor, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>De forma &#x00E1;gil, la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa no ha dejado pasar esta oportunidad derivada de la pandemia y ha realizado un esfuerzo para (re)digitalizar los centros escolares con una dotaci&#x00F3;n masiva de herramientas y recursos tecnol&#x00F3;gicos soportada, en gran parte, por los fondos <italic>Next Generation</italic> de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea y el Plan de Recuperaci&#x00F3;n, Transformaci&#x00F3;n y Resiliencia del Gobierno de Espa&#x00F1;a. Se abre, por tanto, una oportunidad para que los centros educativos accedan a recursos digitales que con sus presupuestos anuales ser&#x00ED;an muy dif&#x00ED;ciles de adquirir, al menos, en un periodo temporal tan corto.</p>
<p>Los an&#x00E1;lisis sobre la transferencia tecnol&#x00F3;gica y digitalizaci&#x00F3;n de las &#x00FA;ltimas d&#x00E9;cadas reportan diversos programas de tecnolog&#x00ED;a prepandemia que nos resultan interesantes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32500-ES">Culp <italic>et al.</italic>, 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32500-ES">Ghavifekr y Rosdy, 2015</xref>). En el caso espa&#x00F1;ol, el Programa Escuela 2.0 fue un intento masivo de digitalizar los centros escolares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32500-ES">Area Moreira <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>) que incluso se lleg&#x00F3; a plantear como una estrategia de inclusi&#x00F3;n educativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32500-ES">Cerrillo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>), aunque estuvo lejos de alcanzar esos fines postul&#x00E1;ndose en ocasiones como generador de desigualdad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32500-ES">Fraga-Varela y Alonso-Ferreiro, 2023</xref>). Tambi&#x00E9;n aparecieron alternativas de similar fondo y distinta forma en aquellas Comunidades que no se vincularon al programa Escuela 2.0 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-32500-ES">San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014a</xref>) que vinieron a poner de manifiesto discrepancias en las posiciones de los procesos de transferencia tecnol&#x00F3;gica a nivel organizativo con trasfondo m&#x00E1;s pol&#x00ED;tico que t&#x00E9;cnico.</p>
<p>El programa Escuela 2.0 fue un intento de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n eficiente fallido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32500-ES">Area Moreira <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32500-ES">Area Moreira y Sanabria, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-32500-ES">San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014b</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-32500-ES">Santiago Campi&#x00F3;n <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>), que ahora puede utilizarse como precedente para analizar los sistemas de transferencia tecnol&#x00F3;gica y su acompa&#x00F1;amiento en el &#x00E1;mbito escolar. Esa retrospectiva nos lleva a preguntarnos si se podr&#x00ED;a estar replicando algunos de los errores del pasado como, por ejemplo: la dotaci&#x00F3;n masiva sin atender a las particularidades y necesidades de cada centro y su contexto; la falta de estructuras de los centros para que las dotaciones funcionen correctamente; la ausencia de un plan de mantenimiento de los recursos tecnol&#x00F3;gicos viable; o una formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado con un enfoque m&#x00E1;s t&#x00E9;cnico que did&#x00E1;ctico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32500-ES">Area Moreira <italic>et al.</italic>, 2011</xref>). Esta &#x00FA;ltima, la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado nos interesa de manera particular en este trabajo. Reflexionar acerca de si existen tendencias de la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa a repetir actuaciones que consumieron recursos humanos, tecnol&#x00F3;gicos y econ&#x00F3;micos con un escaso impacto en la mejora de la pr&#x00E1;ctica de aula (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-32500-ES">Unesco, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>Ese <italic>d&#x00E9;j&#x00E0; vu</italic> err&#x00E1;tico en la formaci&#x00F3;n, se puede justificar desde diferentes perspectivas: humanistas en el sentido de que &#x201C;El ser humano no siempre sabe discernir conforme a la raz&#x00F3;n y por esa causa no aprende de la experiencia y vuelve a equivocarse en una situaci&#x00F3;n semejante&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32500-ES">Centro Virtual Cervantes, s.f.</xref>); pol&#x00ED;ticas, al entender el car&#x00E1;cter cortoplacista y alejado de las recomendaciones cient&#x00ED;ficas de los agentes pol&#x00ED;ticos con criterios econ&#x00F3;micos y electorales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32500-ES">Casta&#x00F1;eda <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>); organizativas, ante la falta de flexibilidad de un sistema tan complejo y burocratizado que dificulta modelos flexibles y cambios sustanciales; o profesionales, ante la falta de motivaci&#x00F3;n y de cierre profesional por parte de los docentes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32500-ES">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Enguita, 2009</xref>). Sea como fuere, y siendo conscientes que las perspectivas indicadas son una ejemplificaci&#x00F3;n reduccionista, la realidad parece situar de nuevo la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado en un enfoque con un perfil te&#x00F3;rico-t&#x00E9;cnico, alejado de la realidad did&#x00E1;ctica del aula y priorizando criterios pol&#x00ED;tico-econ&#x00F3;micos sobre criterios pedag&#x00F3;gico-racionales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32500-ES">Falloon, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Tal es el momento de auge que viven las TD, que la CDD ha pasado a ser la primera competencia evaluada y certificada en el Marco Profesional de Competencias Docentes, poniendo de relieve su importancia para la administraci&#x00F3;n, y sentando un precedente sobre evaluaci&#x00F3;n y certificaci&#x00F3;n de las competencias profesionales docentes.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-32500-ES">
<label>4.</label>
<title>C<sc>ompetencia digital ciudadana</sc>: <sc>el pre&#x00E1;mbulo</sc></title>
<p>Enmarcar los primeros pasos de la Competencia Digital, docente o no, nos lleva a vincular digitalizaci&#x00F3;n y tecnolog&#x00ED;a, entendida este &#x00FA;ltima como algo inherente al ser humano que ha generado sistem&#x00E1;ticamente filias y fobias a lo largo de la historia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32500-ES">Guijarro Mora y Gonz&#x00E1;lez de la Lastra, 2015</xref>). En el momento actual, la mayor&#x00ED;a de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as de nuestro entorno est&#x00E1;n relacionadas con soportes digitales. Llega as&#x00ED; la Tercera Revoluci&#x00F3;n Industrial o Revoluci&#x00F3;n Digital (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-32500-ES">Rifkin, 2011</xref>) o Cuarta Revoluci&#x00F3;n Industrial con la llegada de la Inteligencia Artificial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-32500-ES">Schwab, 2023</xref>). Para algunos autores estos hitos tecnol&#x00F3;gicos deben ser entendidos como indicadores de un cambio de era y, con ello, los calificativos de Sociedad de la Informaci&#x00F3;n, Sociedad Red (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32500-ES">Castells, 1998</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32500-ES">2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32500-ES">2020</xref>) o Sociedad Digital (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-32500-ES">Polo Roca, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-32500-ES">Redshaw, 2020</xref>) tratan de sustantivar el periodo hist&#x00F3;rico presente. Tambi&#x00E9;n acompa&#x00F1;an a este cambio de era los movimientos de EEUU, China, Singapur, la UE u organizaciones como OCDE o UNESCO, entre otros, que tratan de establecer modelos sobre los que sustentar, y controlar, la sociedad &#x201C;digital&#x201D; actual y futura.</p>
<p>Como parte del desarrollo de la Competencia Digital, la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea en el a&#x00F1;o 2006 hace patente su inter&#x00E9;s de forma expl&#x00ED;cita con una recomendaci&#x00F3;n del Parlamento Europeo apostando por un cambio hacia un modelo competencial ciudadano y fijando una serie de competencias para el aprendizaje permanente denominadas Competencias Claves y, entre ellas, aparece la &#x201C;Competencia Digital&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-32500-ES">Parlamento Europeo, 2006</xref>). Siete a&#x00F1;os despu&#x00E9;s, bajo la autor&#x00ED;a de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32500-ES">Ferrari (2013)</xref> se public&#x00F3; <italic>DIGCOMP: El marco para el desarrollo y comprensi&#x00F3;n de la Competencia Digital en Europa</italic> donde se desarrolla una clasificaci&#x00F3;n y descripci&#x00F3;n en cinco grandes grupos de las habilidades, conocimientos y actitudes deseables para el correcto desarrollo de la Competencia Digital, las cuales a su vez presentar&#x00ED;a diferentes niveles de consecuci&#x00F3;n &#x201C;A-B&#x00E1;sico, B-Intermedio y C-Avanzado&#x201D; (p. 14). Tres a&#x00F1;os despu&#x00E9;s se realiz&#x00F3; una revisi&#x00F3;n que dio lugar <italic>al DigComp v2.0</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-99-32500-ES">Vuorikari <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>), que a su vez incorpor&#x00F3; en el a&#x00F1;o 2018 los niveles de actitud, en lo que se denomin&#x00F3; <italic>DigComp v2.1</italic>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32500-ES">Carretero Gomez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>). En la actualidad, se encuentra vigente el <italic>DigComp v2.2</italic> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-98-32500-ES">Vuorikari <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>) que busca consolidar el modelo de &#x00E1;reas y competencias espec&#x00ED;ficas recogido en el <italic>DigComp v2.0</italic> (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-32500-ES">Figura 1</xref>), con el fin facilitar una mayor concreci&#x00F3;n y comprensi&#x00F3;n de las &#x00E1;reas y competencias espec&#x00ED;ficas propuestas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32500-ES">Centeno y Herrero, 2023</xref>). Esta evoluci&#x00F3;n ha ido marcando diferentes en el marco europeo diferentes l&#x00ED;neas pol&#x00ED;ticas, econ&#x00F3;micas, culturales, sociales y educativas en busca de la Competencia Digital Ciudadana, sirviendo en lo educativo como base para la propuesta de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-32500-ES">Redecker (2017)</xref> de la Competencia Digital Docente (DigCompEdu).</p>
<fig id="fig-1-32500-ES">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>M<sc>arco regulador de competencia digital</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-32500-ES.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: Adaptada a partir de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-98-32500-ES">Vuorikari <italic>et al</italic>. (2022</xref>, p. 67)</attrib>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32500-ES">
<label>5.</label>
<title>T<sc>ecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales en la escuela</sc>: <sc>pasado</sc>, <sc>presente y futuro</sc></title>
<p>El apartado anterior nos sit&#x00FA;a en un marco social global hacia la integraci&#x00F3;n de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital que, tambi&#x00E9;n en lo educativo, viene ocupando un papel sumamente activo desde hace algo m&#x00E1;s de tres d&#x00E9;cadas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32500-ES">Area-Moreira <italic>et al.</italic>, 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32500-ES">Escudero Mu&#x00F1;oz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32500-ES">Fu, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-32500-ES">Law <italic>et al.</italic>, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-32500-ES">Loveless, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-32500-ES">Ram&#x00ED;rez Orellana <italic>et al</italic>., 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-32500-ES">2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-89-32500-ES">Tondeur <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-91-32500-ES">Uluyol y &#x015E;ahin, 2016</xref>). En los contextos escolares, por su naturaleza y din&#x00E1;micas, la integraci&#x00F3;n masiva de tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital suele venir de la mano de pol&#x00ED;ticas top-down por parte de la administraci&#x00F3;n, generando un clima de presi&#x00F3;n sobre centros, docentes y discentes quienes, de forma m&#x00E1;s o menos profunda, tratan de darle cabida en sus marcos de actuaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32500-ES">Cuban, 2001</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32500-ES">2013</xref>). En consecuencia, los equipos directivos toman decisiones sobre la integraci&#x00F3;n de las TD en el centro (aulas espec&#x00ED;ficas, dotaci&#x00F3;n de recursos, licencias de software, asistencia t&#x00E9;cnica, etc.); los docentes buscan su utilizaci&#x00F3;n en su quehacer diario en el aula (recursos, materiales, sistemas de evaluaci&#x00F3;n, control de asistencia, etc.); y los estudiantes tratan de saber qu&#x00E9; tienen que hacer con esa tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital y, adem&#x00E1;s, en qu&#x00E9; medida ser&#x00E1;n evaluados por ello (presentaciones, deberes, ex&#x00E1;menes, contenido, etc.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-32500-ES">Rossi Cordero y Barajas Frutos, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>En este sentido, la apuesta que se viene realizando desde las administraciones educativas (y no educativas) para la integraci&#x00F3;n de TD en su sentido amplio en los contextos escolares es una variable a analizar, puesto sus l&#x00ED;neas prioritarias a nivel pol&#x00ED;tico, normativo y econ&#x00F3;mico as&#x00ED; lo reflejan, por ejemplo, de forma expl&#x00ED;cita en leyes org&#x00E1;nicas (LOE, LOMCE o LOMLOE), en sus derivaciones curriculares de las etapas obligatorias o en las certificaciones de la CDD (esta &#x00FA;ltima todav&#x00ED;a en periodo incipiente de aplicaci&#x00F3;n). Tambi&#x00E9;n se podr&#x00ED;a analizar el inter&#x00E9;s por la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n de materiales y recursos escolares de las editoriales o empresas tecnol&#x00F3;gicas, (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-32500-ES">Pardo Baldov&#x00ED; y San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso, 2020</xref>), as&#x00ED; como los acuerdos con grandes corporaciones como Microsoft, Google, Zoom, o tecnolog&#x00ED;as m&#x00E1;s ad hoc como Snappet, Additio, Smartboard o Smile&#x0026;Learn que vienen a sumarse en convivencia, y quiz&#x00E1;s en connivencia, a las editoriales en el lucrativo negocio de los materiales y recursos escolares. A las anteriores variables, se sumar&#x00ED;a la presi&#x00F3;n del mercado laboral solicitando a la escuela formaci&#x00F3;n digital base, e incluso t&#x00E9;cnica, con visos de aminorar la futura inversi&#x00F3;n en la formaci&#x00F3;n laboral. E igualmente, podemos a&#x00F1;adir la de algunos sectores de familias y profesionales educativos que plantean la integraci&#x00F3;n de TD como un medidor de calidad e innovaci&#x00F3;n en los entornos escolares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-32500-ES">Mart&#x00ED;n-Dom&#x00ED;nguez <italic>et al</italic>., 2019</xref>). Estas son algunas de las muchas variables que constituyen el complejo entramado de la incorporaci&#x00F3;n dichas tecnolog&#x00ED;as en las escuelas.</p>
<p>Otra cuesti&#x00F3;n relevante en torno a las TD surge en el campo de la investigaci&#x00F3;n y, en concreto, en la investigaci&#x00F3;n educativa. Desde sus inicios, la tecnolog&#x00ED;a educativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32500-ES">Cabero Almenara y Llorente Cejudo, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32500-ES">Cabero-Almenara, 1994</xref>) ha ido cogiendo peso e incrementando su producci&#x00F3;n cient&#x00ED;fica. As&#x00ED;, la cada vez mayor visibilidad de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital nos est&#x00E1; encaminando a la adjetivaci&#x00F3;n de los t&#x00E9;rminos educativos (educaci&#x00F3;n digital, recursos digitales, contenidos digitales,&#x2026;) produciendo binomios dif&#x00ED;ciles de romper que, quiz&#x00E1;s, est&#x00E1;n desplazando o desdibujando debates, estudios y reflexiones sobre otras cuestiones &#x201C;no digitales&#x201D;, pero s&#x00ED; nucleares en los procesos de ense&#x00F1;anza aprendizaje (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32500-ES">Bol&#x00ED;var, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32500-ES">Doyle, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32500-ES">Doyle y Carter, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32500-ES">Gimeno Sacrista&#x0301;n, 1988</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32500-ES">2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-32500-ES">Stenhouse, 1987</xref>).</p>
<p>Sea como fuere, la integraci&#x00F3;n de las TD en las escuelas ha venido para quedarse, convivir y seguramente seguir creciendo. No s&#x00F3;lo porque lo demande la sociedad, el mercado y la administraci&#x00F3;n, sino porque empieza a existir un asentamiento en la cultura escolar que, apoyado en pol&#x00ED;ticas educativas, est&#x00E1; modificando aspectos curriculares y organizativos de las din&#x00E1;micas que sustentan las pr&#x00E1;cticas de aula en torno a las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32500-ES">Alt, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32500-ES">Cuban, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-32500-ES">OECD, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-32500-ES">Pardo-Baldov&#x00ED; <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-32500-ES">Sailer <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-96-32500-ES">Voogt y Knezek, 2018</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32500-ES">
<label>6.</label>
<title>C<sc>ompetencia digital docente</sc>: D<sc>ig</sc>C<sc>omp</sc>E<sc>du y las regulaciones en</sc> E<sc>spa&#x00F1;a</sc></title>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, para completar el objetivo de abordar c&#x00F3;mo la integraci&#x00F3;n de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital y los marcos conceptuales y competenciales que la regulan se han venido desarrollando en los contextos pol&#x00ED;ticos, sociales y educativos desde sus comienzos hasta la actualidad, nos queda analizar el concepto de Competencia Digital en el &#x00E1;mbito escolar, es decir, la Competencia Digital Docente. Una definici&#x00F3;n basada en la revisi&#x00F3;n de la literatura la aportan <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-94-32500-ES">Verd&#x00FA;-Pina <italic>et al.</italic> (2023</xref>, p. 9) quienes la entienden como &#x201C;una competencia profesional compleja que aglutina un conjunto de conocimientos, habilidades y actitudes que el docente debe poseer y movilizar, de forma simult&#x00E1;nea, para utilizar las TD en su pr&#x00E1;ctica profesional&#x201D;. Aun as&#x00ED;, es un t&#x00E9;rmino complejo que se aborda de forma m&#x00E1;s impl&#x00ED;cita que expl&#x00ED;cita (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32500-ES">Hidalgo, 2024</xref>), siendo m&#x00E1;s habitual que el concepto se entrevea en los planteamientos a trav&#x00E9;s de &#x00E1;reas y niveles de desarrollo competencial que en una concreci&#x00F3;n se su significado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32500-ES">Jim&#x00E9;nez Hern&#x00E1;ndez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>Uno de esos modelos, y quiz&#x00E1;s el m&#x00E1;s relevante en el contexto educativo europeo y espa&#x00F1;ol, es el Marco de Competencia Digital para Educadores o DigCompEdu (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-32500-ES">Redecker, 2017</xref>), que se desarrolla a partir del Marco de Competencia Digital para los Ciudadanos (DigComp) pero enfocado en la necesidad de definir cuando un profesor es competente desde el punto de vista digital. El reto del DigCompEdu radica en intentar delimitar y conceptualizar los rasgos principales que caracterizan la acci&#x00F3;n docente en el uso e integraci&#x00F3;n de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital y, con ello, cu&#x00E1;les son las competencias que debe tener el profesorado en un mundo donde la tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital permea en todas sus capas. De forma m&#x00E1;s concreta, el DigCompEdu (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-32500-ES">Redecker, 2017</xref>) detalla 22 competencias organizadas en seis &#x00E1;reas tales como: compromiso profesional (implica el uso de las TD para la comunicaci&#x00F3;n, la colaboraci&#x00F3;n y el desarrollo profesional), recursos digitales (se relaciona con la b&#x00FA;squeda, creaci&#x00F3;n e intercambio de recursos digitales), ense&#x00F1;anza y aprendizaje (gesti&#x00F3;n y organizaci&#x00F3;n del uso de las TD en la ense&#x00F1;anza y el aprendizaje), evaluaci&#x00F3;n y retroalimentaci&#x00F3;n (uso de tecnolog&#x00ED;as y estrategias digitales para mejorar la evaluaci&#x00F3;n del alumnado), empoderamiento de los estudiantes (uso de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales para mejorar la inclusi&#x00F3;n, la personalizaci&#x00F3;n y el compromiso activo del alumnado con su propio aprendizaje) y desarrollo de la competencia digital de los estudiantes (capacitaci&#x00F3;n de los estudiantes para utilizar de forma creativa y responsable las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales para la informaci&#x00F3;n, la comunicaci&#x00F3;n, la creaci&#x00F3;n de contenidos, el bienestar y la resoluci&#x00F3;n de problemas), que sirven como referencia para una construcci&#x00F3;n del concepto de CDD en los entornos escolares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32500-ES">Cabero-Almenara <italic>et al.</italic>, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32500-ES">Casta&#x00F1;eda <italic>et al.</italic>, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-32500-ES">Pozo-S&#x00E1;nchez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Al amparo del DigCompEdu y sus &#x00E1;reas y niveles competenciales, surgen diferentes herramientas que tratan de medir la CCD. En el caso espa&#x00F1;ol, conviene destacar dos: el Selfie for Teachers (Educaci&#x00F3;n Infantil, Primaria y Secundaria) y el DigCompEdu Check-in (Educaci&#x00F3;n Superior), los cuales han tratado de recoger en 32 y 25 &#x00ED;tems respectivamente la esencia del DigComp con la finalidad de validar y medir la autopercepci&#x00F3;n de los docentes en la CDD. El <italic>Selfie for Teachers,</italic> por ejemplo, ha sido puesto a disposici&#x00F3;n de los centros por la administraci&#x00F3;n para establecer un an&#x00E1;lisis voluntario de la CDD reportando tanto datos individuales como del conjunto de docentes.</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de estas pruebas de autopercepci&#x00F3;n, la regulaci&#x00F3;n normativa estableci&#x00F3; un primer paso a trav&#x00E9;s de la Resoluci&#x00F3;n de 2 de julio de 2020, de la Direcci&#x00F3;n General de Evaluaci&#x00F3;n y Cooperaci&#x00F3;n Territorial, por la que se publica el Acuerdo de la Conferencia Sectorial de Educaci&#x00F3;n sobre el marco de referencia de la competencia digital docente. De esta forma, se tomaba en consideraci&#x00F3;n la Recomendaci&#x00F3;n del Consejo Europeo de 22 de mayo de 2018 relativa a las competencias clave para el aprendizaje permanente y se adaptaba al sistema educativo espa&#x00F1;ol, el Marco de Competencia Digital para los Educadores (DigCompEdu).</p>
<p>La regulaci&#x00F3;n anterior se concret&#x00F3; mediante la Resoluci&#x00F3;n de 4 de mayo de 2022, de la Direcci&#x00F3;n General de Evaluaci&#x00F3;n y Cooperaci&#x00F3;n Territorial, por la que se publica el Acuerdo de la Conferencia Sectorial de Educaci&#x00F3;n, se actualiza este marco y se define la competencia digital docente como &#x201C;la integraci&#x00F3;n de conocimientos, destrezas, habilidades y actitudes que han de ponerse simult&#x00E1;neamente en juego para desempe&#x00F1;ar sus funciones implementando las TD y para resolver los problemas e imprevistos que pudieran presentarse en una situaci&#x00F3;n singular concreta como profesionales de la educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D;. Su estructura final fue de seis &#x00E1;reas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-2-32500-ES">Figura 2</xref>), 23 competencias, tres etapas (A-acceso, B-experiencia y C-innovaci&#x00F3;n), y dos niveles por etapa (A1-conocimiento, A2-iniciaci&#x00F3;n, B1-adopci&#x00F3;n, B2-adaptaci&#x00F3;n, C1-liderazgo y C2-transformaci&#x00F3;n). Adem&#x00E1;s, se suma en esta propuesta indicadores de logro y ejemplificaci&#x00F3;n a trav&#x00E9;s de afirmaciones sobre el desempe&#x00F1;o correspondiente al nivel de cada competencia.</p>
<fig id="fig-2-32500-ES">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 2</label>
<caption><title>&#x00C1;<sc>reas y alcance del DigCompEdu</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-2-32500-ES.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-32500-ES">Ministerio de Educaci&#x00F3;n y Formaci&#x00F3;n Profesional (2022)</xref></attrib>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32500-ES">
<label>7.</label>
<title>F<sc>ormaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado en competencia digital docente</sc></title>
<p>La formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado ha sido un tema recurrente de estudio (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32500-ES">Escudero Mu&#x00F1;oz, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32500-ES">Guarro <italic>et al.</italic>, 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-32500-ES">Mayorga-Fern&#x00E1;ndez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2024</xref>). En un entorno sumamente complejo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32500-ES">Davis y Sumara, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32500-ES">Gimeno Sacrista&#x0301;n, 1988</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32500-ES">2015</xref>) no es f&#x00E1;cil proveer al profesorado de formaci&#x00F3;n para todas aquellas demandas que se abren en una sociedad como la actual (digital, multicultural, inclusiva, etc.) y que, de una u otra forma, mira a la escuela para dar respuesta a los retos que se avecinan, aunque muchos de ellos, son altamente cambiantes e impredecibles en el medio plazo.</p>
<p>En este sentido, estamos viviendo en la integraci&#x00F3;n de tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales un ejemplo claro de incertidumbre, donde las tecnolog&#x00ED;as aparecen, se desarrollan, mutan y desaparecen con una celeridad tal que, tanto la administraci&#x00F3;n, como los centros y los docentes, se ven abrumados y, quiz&#x00E1;s, sobrepasados para dar respuesta a todo. A nuestro entender la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado es una piedra angular imprescindible para canalizar el crecimiento profesional de los docentes, donde la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa tiene que ser capaz de coordinar un proceso formativo que sea &#x00FA;til para conseguir las demandas de la sociedad, pero, tambi&#x00E9;n, para hacer crecer profesionalmente a sus trabajadores (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-32500-ES">Shulman, 1986</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-32500-ES">1987</xref>).</p>
<p>El caso de Espa&#x00F1;a, en general, y Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n, en particular, no ha sido inmune a esta avalancha digital. Sus regulaciones curriculares y certificadoras as&#x00ED; lo demuestran a lo que hay que sumar los programas de dotaci&#x00F3;n tecnol&#x00F3;gica masiva. De igual forma, la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado tambi&#x00E9;n se ha visto afectada y encontramos ejemplos como el INTEF, quien se encarga en gran medida de la digitalizaci&#x00F3;n escolar a trav&#x00E9;s de una oferta de cursos amplia, virtualizada en gran parte y de acceso y difusi&#x00F3;n masiva a nivel nacional. Pero, en un plano m&#x00E1;s local, nos interesan los centros de formaci&#x00F3;n de profesorado (CFIE, CEP, CEPES&#x2026;) y su oferta de cursos relacionados con la Competencia Digital, que de una u otra forma se configuran en el territorio nacional con peculiaridades, pero bajo estructuras muy similares.</p>
<p>Es en ese nivel local donde nos situamos para realizar un an&#x00E1;lisis descriptivo interpretativo de la oferta de cursos formativos dirigidos a los docentes de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n por parte de los centros de formaci&#x00F3;n de profesorado que se muestra a continuaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<sec id="sec-8-32500-ES">
<label>7.1.</label>
<title>Algunas cifras preliminares en Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n</title>
<p>Para ello, tomamos como muestra la totalidad de los cursos registrados en la plataforma por parte de la Consejer&#x00ED;a de Educaci&#x00F3;n de la Junta de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n durante el curso 2023-2024.</p>
<p>Los cursos seleccionados no hacen distinci&#x00F3;n por etapa educativa y suponen la totalidad de los cursos ofertados a trav&#x00E9;s de trece CFIE en las nueve provincias castellanoleonesas y, adem&#x00E1;s, tres centros espec&#x00ED;ficos regionales como son El Centro de Recursos de Formaci&#x00F3;n del Profesorado en TIC, el Centro Superior de Formaci&#x00F3;n del Profesorado de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n y el Centro de Formaci&#x00F3;n del Profesorado de Idiomas (CRFPTIC, CSFP y CFPI, respectivamente).</p>
<p>Los datos nos indican que en los 16 centros referenciados anteriormente se han ofertado un total de 7.263 cursos desde septiembre de 2023 hasta julio de 2024, tal y como registraba la plataforma de la Consejer&#x00ED;a de Educaci&#x00F3;n de la Junta de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n. Utilizando sus sistemas de categorizaci&#x00F3;n de cursos, se seleccionaron aquellos catalogados dentro de la l&#x00ED;nea prioritaria <italic>Las TIC en la Educaci&#x00F3;n</italic>, reportando un total de 5010 cursos vinculados directamente con esa l&#x00ED;nea y suponiendo el 68,9 % del total.</p>
<p>Para concretar m&#x00E1;s el an&#x00E1;lisis, se realiz&#x00F3; una recopilaci&#x00F3;n de todos los cursos relacionados con TD ofertados, registrando el t&#x00ED;tulo y centro que lo propon&#x00ED;a. Estos datos nos han permitido observar c&#x00F3;mo fue la distribuci&#x00F3;n de los 16 centros, para determinar si la oferta era similar entre ellos o si alguno podr&#x00ED;a estar desvirtuando el porcentaje total. Sin embargo, como podemos ver en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-3-32500-ES">Figura 3</xref> los patrones de relaci&#x00F3;n entre total de cursos ofertados y cursos relacionados con las TD son bastante homog&#x00E9;neos y rara vez baja del 60 % (&#x00FA;nicamente en los casos de Zamora y Soria) y, salvo la excepci&#x00F3;n del Centro de Recursos de Formaci&#x00F3;n del Profesorado en TIC (CRFPTIC) por razones obvias, no se observan centros que superen el 75 % de cursos relacionados con las TD.</p>
<fig id="fig-3-32500-ES">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 3</label>
<caption><title>P<sc>orcentajes de cursos relacionados con td por centro de formaci&#x00F3;n</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-3-32500-ES.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: Elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</fig>
<p>Asimismo, como se puede apreciar en la <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-3-32500-ES">Figura 3</xref>, la oferta planteada est&#x00E1; bastante desequilibrada con respecto a los otros cursos catalogados fuera del contexto digital. Esa descompensaci&#x00F3;n nos lleva a realizar otro an&#x00E1;lisis descriptivo, en busca de comprender c&#x00F3;mo se est&#x00E1; afrontando este proceso de formaci&#x00F3;n de profesorado. Con ello, nos referimos al an&#x00E1;lisis de frecuencia de palabras en los t&#x00ED;tulos ofertados. La <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-4-32500-ES">Figura 4</xref>, es muy representativa a este respecto, ya que pone de manifiesto la orientaci&#x00F3;n de los t&#x00ED;tulos de los cursos que, l&#x00F3;gicamente, entendemos su vinculaci&#x00F3;n a los contenidos planteados en ellos.</p>
<fig id="fig-4-32500-ES">
<label>F<sc>igura</sc> 4</label>
<caption><title>N<sc>ube de frecuencia de palabras en los t&#x00ED;tulos de los cursos ofertados</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-4-32500-ES.jpg"/>
<attrib>Fuente: Elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</fig>
<p>Si bien la palabra m&#x00E1;s encontrada en los 5010 cursos de Competencia Digital es TIC (902), las tem&#x00E1;ticas de los cursos ponen de manifiesto con otras palabras que se destacan en el an&#x00E1;lisis como Rob&#x00F3;tica (457), Digitales (456), Herramientas (409), Radio (377) o Digital (300), entre otras. En menor medida aparece Evaluaci&#x00F3;n (235), Pedag&#x00F3;gico (88), Competencia (71), u otras m&#x00E1;s relacionadas con otros aspectos curriculares del proceso de ense&#x00F1;anza y no tanto con los recursos en s&#x00ED;. Este an&#x00E1;lisis de palabras de los t&#x00ED;tulos en la oferta de cursos pone de manifiesto que las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales est&#x00E1;n presentes tanto de forma gen&#x00E9;rica (TIC, digital/es, herramientas) como concreta (radio, v&#x00ED;deo, rob&#x00F3;tica, impresi&#x00F3;n). Sin embargo, otras alusiones m&#x00E1;s directas hacia el m&#x00E9;todo o la did&#x00E1;ctica aparecen en menor medida (aprendizaje, educaci&#x00F3;n, desarrollo, creaci&#x00F3;n, competencia&#x2026;). Es decir, predomina el recurso sobre la did&#x00E1;ctica.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32500-ES" sec-type="conclusions">
<label>8.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></title>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo ha tratado de abordar desde un enfoque cr&#x00ED;tico-reflexivo c&#x00F3;mo se est&#x00E1; afrontado el proceso de formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado en torno a la Competencia Digital en los contextos escolares. Esto no es f&#x00E1;cilmente comprensible sin situar este proceso en su contexto pol&#x00ED;tico, econ&#x00F3;mico y social, donde multitud de variables configuran diferentes escenarios para la transici&#x00F3;n hacia la sociedad digital.</p>
<p>Los diferentes documentos, art&#x00ED;culos y estudios expuestos sobre la integraci&#x00F3;n de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales muestran un alineamiento pol&#x00ED;tico-econ&#x00F3;mico ante la integraci&#x00F3;n de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales, mostrando una hoja de ruta sin retorno a lo digital que ha llegado para quedarse y crecer. Cuesti&#x00F3;n que todav&#x00ED;a est&#x00E1; m&#x00E1;s enfatizada en el contexto escolar tras la pandemia y a lo que hay que sumar el escenario incierto relacionado con la Inteligencia Artificial.</p>
<p>Ante esta situaci&#x00F3;n, nos interesa especialmente en este trabajo comprender a trav&#x00E9;s de una mirada retrospectiva y comparativa c&#x00F3;mo las administraciones educativas est&#x00E1;n afrontando la formaci&#x00F3;n de sus trabajadores, cu&#x00E1;l es la finalidad de &#x00E9;sta y c&#x00F3;mo son los planteamientos de certificaci&#x00F3;n y control del grado de Competencia Digital Docente de su profesorado. Los resultados iniciales muestran una formaci&#x00F3;n bastante t&#x00E9;cnica, con los recursos digitales como eje vertebrador de los programas ofrecidos y, adem&#x00E1;s, con un planteamiento de regulador de las certificaciones dif&#x00ED;cil de analizar de forma eficiente desde fuera de la pr&#x00E1;ctica.</p>
<p>Aunque el estudio descriptivo se centra en una Comunidad Aut&#x00F3;noma en particular y un periodo concreto, las din&#x00E1;micas habituales de la administraci&#x00F3;n en la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado nos permiten inferir que se van a producir grandes diferencias en el corto plazo, m&#x00E1;s a&#x00FA;n, cuando este modelo formativo est&#x00E1; avalando un proceso de certificaci&#x00F3;n en casi todos los niveles y la inmensa mayor&#x00ED;a de las comunidades aut&#x00F3;nomas. Conviene recordar que la formaci&#x00F3;n TIC acompa&#x00F1;ada con dotaci&#x00F3;n tecnol&#x00F3;gica a gran escala no es algo nuevo en nuestro pa&#x00ED;s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32500-ES">Area Moreira <italic>et al.</italic>, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32500-ES">Area Moreira y Sanabria, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-32500-ES">Santiago Campi&#x00F3;n <italic>et al.</italic>, 2013</xref>). Sin embargo, ya algunos informes han venido a poner de manifiesto que la integraci&#x00F3;n de recursos en las aulas por s&#x00ED; misma, no garantiza una mejora de los resultados (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-32500-ES">Unesco, 2024</xref>) y, m&#x00E1;s a&#x00FA;n, desde un sistema conectivo top-down (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32500-ES">Havelock y Huberman, 1980</xref>).</p>
<p>No queremos que esto se entienda como una cr&#x00ED;tica a la totalidad de la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado realizada por la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa, sino una cr&#x00ED;tica al modelo en el que se est&#x00E1; sustentando y, tambi&#x00E9;n, en la forma en que la certificaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; siendo un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo y no un medio de mejora. Circunstancia que puede estar desvirtuando la funci&#x00F3;n real de la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado, que no es otra que propiciar la mejora de su desempe&#x00F1;o profesional y la gesti&#x00F3;n de los elementos esenciales del dise&#x00F1;o y desarrollo curricular (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32500-ES">Doyle, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32500-ES">Doyle y Carter, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32500-ES">Gimeno Sacrista&#x0301;n, 1988</xref>).</p>
<p>En definitiva, el art&#x00ED;culo aborda de manera preliminar la integraci&#x00F3;n de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales desde un marco conceptual y regulador basado en el DigCompEdu. Y, tambi&#x00E9;n, c&#x00F3;mo se materializa la oferta de cursos de formaci&#x00F3;n permanente de la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa en busca de la adquisici&#x00F3;n de la integraci&#x00F3;n de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as digitales y la Competencia Digital Docente. Los datos del an&#x00E1;lisis de los cursos nos muestran que, de nuevo, estamos ante un exceso de formaci&#x00F3;n t&#x00E9;cnica, centrada en recursos y herramientas, que no acaba de vincularse adecuadamente con la formaci&#x00F3;n did&#x00E1;ctica de dise&#x00F1;o y gesti&#x00F3;n de los elementos curriculares para la pr&#x00E1;ctica de aula.</p>
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<back>
<ref-list>
<title>R<sc>eferencias bibliogr&#x00E1;ficas</sc></title>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.32500</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.32500</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
<article-title>Teachers&#x2019; Digital Competence. Tripping Twice over the same Stone in Ongoing Teacher Training</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es">La competencia digital docente. Golpeando dos veces la piedra de la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado</trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3439-3319</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>MART&#x00CD;N-DOM&#x00CD;NGUEZ</surname>
<given-names>Jorge</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-EN"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0009-0002-0836-9446</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>MU&#x00D1;OZ-GALINDO</surname>
<given-names>David</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-EN"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Salamanca. Spain.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Salamanca</institution>
<country country="ES">Spain</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-EN"><email>jorgemd@usal.es</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-EN"><email>dmunozgalindo@usal.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>01</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2026</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>38</volume>
<issue>1</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2026381</issue-id>
<fpage>39</fpage>
<lpage>60</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>18</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>06</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2025</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2026 Los/Las autores/autoras</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2026</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-SA 4.0)</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>Abstract</title>
<p>The digitalisation of school environments has been a priority for educational administrators for decades. In recent years, this has become particularly relevant under the umbrella of digital competence, on which various proposals for constructing a digitalised school have been developed. This study focuses on two aspects of digital competence configuration: First, using a critical reflective approach, it examines the development of digital competence for teachers in school environments, analysing the regulatory frameworks and models for self-perception, measurement, and certification of this competence. Secondly, an exploratory descriptive study complements the first by examining how ongoing teacher training is carried out by the Castile and Le&#x00F3;n educational administration and how similar it is to previous approaches to massive digitalisation. The results reveal a school digitalisation process based on top-down connective models that are closer to socio-political than socio-educational models. Furthermore, the data shows that these models support training programmes that are partly similar to erratic past approaches, with technical approaches accounting for more than two-thirds of the continuing teacher training offered by the Castile and Le&#x00F3;n Regional Ministry of Education. Consequently, training in digital competence is taking precedence over other core elements of teaching practice on which teachers should be trained.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>Resumen</title>
<p>La digitalizaci&#x00F3;n de los contextos escolares lleva siendo una de las prioridades de la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa desde hace d&#x00E9;cadas. En los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os ha cobrado especial relevancia al amparo de la Competencia Digital sobre la que se han desarrollado diferentes propuestas para la construcci&#x00F3;n de una escuela digitalizada. Este trabajo pone su foco en dos aspectos de la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la Competencia Digital: El primero, con una metodolog&#x00ED;a de enfoque cr&#x00ED;tico-reflexivo, versa sobre la construcci&#x00F3;n de la Competencia Digital Docente en los entornos escolares analizando sus marcos normativos y los modelos de autopercepci&#x00F3;n, medici&#x00F3;n y certificaci&#x00F3;n de dicha competencia. Y, segundo, complementando al anterior mediante un estudio descriptivo exploratorio, con relaci&#x00F3;n a c&#x00F3;mo la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado se desarrolla por parte de la administraci&#x00F3;n educativa de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n, y su similitud con anteriores planteamientos de digitalizaci&#x00F3;n masiva. Los resultados ponen de manifiesto una digitalizaci&#x00F3;n escolar basada en modelos <italic>top-down</italic> conectivos que est&#x00E1;n m&#x00E1;s cerca de modelos sociopol&#x00ED;ticos que socioeducativos. Adem&#x00E1;s, los datos nos muestran que esos modelos sustentan programas de formaci&#x00F3;n que, en parte, est&#x00E1;n teniendo similitudes con planteamientos err&#x00E1;ticos del pasado, encontrando una prevalencia de enfoque t&#x00E9;cnico sobre el enfoque did&#x00E1;ctico y ocupando m&#x00E1;s de las dos terceras partes de la formaci&#x00F3;n permanente del profesorado ofrecida por la Consejer&#x00ED;a de Educaci&#x00F3;n de Castilla y Le&#x00F3;n. Y, por tanto, la formaci&#x00F3;n en Competencia Digital se superpone sobre otros elementos nucleares de la pr&#x00E1;ctica docente sobre los que formar al profesorado.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title>Keywords:</title>
<kwd>digital competence</kwd>
<kwd>teacher training</kwd>
<kwd>training courses</kwd>
<kwd>school</kwd>
<kwd>digital technology</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title>Palabras clave:</title>
<kwd>competencia digital</kwd>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n de docentes</kwd>
<kwd>curso de formaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>escuela</kwd>
<kwd>tecnolog&#x00ED;a digital</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-32500-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label>1.</label>
<title>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></title>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2018;Humans are the only animals</p>
<p>to trip over the same stone twice.&#x2019;</p>
<attrib>Popular saying</attrib>
</disp-quote>
<p>Teachers&#x2019; Digital Competence (TDC) has become a priority for the multiple stakeholders involved in school contexts. The term &#x2018;multiple stakeholders&#x2019; should be understood holistically, encompassing internal and external educational and non-educational agents who seek to influence organisational and curricular approaches in schools from various perspectives and with different interests (educational, social, economic, political, etc.). The intensity and influence of these relationships fluctuate depending on multiple variables that occur in educational contexts. For example, over the last few decades, digitalisation has been an extremely effective way for external agents (both educational and non-educational) to promote market-efficiency discourses in schools and classrooms (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-64-32500-EN">Pardo Baldov&#x00ED; et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-32500-EN">Pardo Baldov&#x00ED; &#x0026; San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso, 2020</xref>), as well as in ongoing teacher training (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-72-32500-EN">Revuelta Dom&#x00ED;nguez et al., 2024</xref>). However, this market-based approach and the justification of measures and dynamics extrapolated from other fields are difficult to reconcile with the timing, forms, and aims of pedagogical approaches based on the in-depth and systematic study of educational practice.</p>
<p>Alongside these external and internal influences, there is a comprehensive construct of competences in the social and educational context, developed by Western governments in line with the principles of the OECD or the World Bank (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32500-EN">Bol&#x00ED;var, 2008</xref>). The Sustainable Development Goals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-90-32500-EN">UN, 2015</xref>) are a recent example of how these global approaches influence curriculum guidelines for compulsory and post-compulsory education. In this way, regulations are constructed under the discourse of market &#x2018;efficiency&#x2019;, taking precedence over more humanistic, social or pedagogical approaches. This results in the production of a model that favours a &#x2018;quality&#x2019; that is difficult to measure. Although this model is based on different foundations, it can take us back to a stage that we have already experienced. At this stage, inflexible technical approaches (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-88-32500-EN">Tyler, 1986</xref>) distance us increasingly from achieving more targeted, contextualised, focused, and pedagogically sustainable approaches to educational practice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-32500-EN">Stenhouse, 1987</xref>). Add to these other elements of change, such as &#x2018;megatrends including globalisation, digitalisation, population ageing and migration&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-60-32500-EN">OECD, 2019</xref>, p. 6), and we see political and economic shifts leading us towards an environment where there seems to be more concern with showcasing cutting-edge technology than with its applicability to improving education. In other words, the focus is more on the &#x2018;what&#x2019; than the &#x2018;how&#x2019;.</p>
<p>In the context of the prevailing trend towards global digitalisation, the administration as a whole is undergoing a transformation towards the establishment of a digital society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-32500-EN">Schwab, 2023</xref>), encompassing a wide range of societal sectors, including citizens, the economy, labour, industry, administration and, notably, education. However, this transition may be predicated more on the utilisation of data than on the possession of knowledge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-32500-EN">Kitchin, 2014</xref>). As demonstrated by the synchronised movements observed within institutions such as the United Nations, with its 2030 Agenda, and the European Parliament, it is evident that this phenomenon is in progress. The former focuses on digitalisation in its &#x2018;SDG 4 - Quality Education&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-91-32500-EN">UN, 2023</xref>); and the latter, in a cross-cutting manner, places digitalisation as one of the important axes in the construction of the future European society and identity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32500-EN">European Parliament, 2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-32500-EN">2018</xref>).</p>
<p>In short, we are faced with a common, expansive and political-economic guideline on which the different European states base their digitalisation policies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-32500-EN">Bolivar, 2008</xref>), aimed at a process of no return to digital transformation that will allow them to play a relevant role in the changes and challenges that lie ahead. However, educators must possess a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of school contexts and how teachers integrate digital resources, including AI, through pedagogical intelligence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-32500-EN">D&#x00ED;az &#x0026; Nussbaum, 2024</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-84-32500-EN">Shulman, 2007</xref>) or their professional teaching knowledge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-32500-EN">Shulman, 1986</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-32500-EN">1987</xref>) or technological knowledge (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-32500-EN">Koehler et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-32500-EN">Mishra &#x0026; Koehler, 2006</xref>).</p>
<p>The present work aims to critically reflect on the present situation of continuous professional development by the administration. To this end, the following is proposed: On the one hand, to investigate and reflect on how the integration of Digital Technologies (hereinafter DT) and the conceptual and competency frameworks that regulate them have been developed in political, social and educational contexts to date. On the other hand, to use descriptive interpretative analysis to examine how this competency and conceptual frameworks fit into the continuing education offered to teachers by the Castile and Le&#x00F3;n education administration. Furthermore, the investigation will examine any disparities between the 16 teacher training centres with respect to the configuration of the courses offered and the topics that predominate in these courses.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-32500-EN" sec-type="methods">
<label>2.</label>
<title>M<sc>ethodology</sc></title>
<p>Following the objectives delineated above, the present study employs a qualitative methodology with a critical-reflective approach (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-32500-EN">Cebotarev, 2003</xref>) that presents two complementary methods of analysis.</p>
<p>Firstly, the objective of interpretative and critical documentary analysis was to establish a correlation between the integration of DTs and the construction of digital competence (DC) and TDC in various domains (political, social, economic, professional, educational, etc.). This allowed us to understand the context in which those working in schools make decisions. In order to achieve this objective, a documentary search was conducted, with a particular focus on the regulatory frameworks for TDC in the European and Spanish contexts. The search also encompassed previous experiences with digital technology integration in Spain and the conceptualisation of TDC in school environments.</p>
<p>Secondly, a descriptive analysis (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-74-32500-EN">Rodr&#x00ED;guez Sosa, 2003</xref>) of the courses offered by the educational administration of Castile and Le&#x00F3;n (n=7263) through its 16 ongoing teacher training centres was conducted. A rigorous examination was conducted to ascertain the proportion of courses offered that pertained to training in DT, and, within these, to identify the predominant topics. To this end, the N-Vivo programme, version 1.7.2, was utilised for word analysis. The titles of the courses offered were entered into the programme.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-32500-EN">
<label>3.</label>
<title>D<sc>igital technologies</sc>, <sc>education and</sc> COVID-19</title>
<p>The issues briefly described in the introduction give rise to the following question: What has happened, and is happening, with digital technology in the educational context and, more specifically, in the Spanish school context?</p>
<p>The response to this question is multi-faceted and can be attributed to a number of factors. Firstly, the introduction of &#x2018;massive&#x2019; digital technology in an environment as complex as schools, compounded by the regional configuration of the Spanish educational model, has resulted in a considerable degree of complexity. Secondly, the integration of digital technology is widely regarded as a process of innovation, which necessitates the meticulous planning of the initiation, development and consolidation phases, with a timeline that is commensurate with their scope (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-32500-EN">Fullan, 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-32500-EN">Hargreaves &#x0026; Fullan, 2014</xref>); this aspect is not particularly realistic (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-32500-EN">Schwab, 2023</xref>) within a school system that is more connective than cohesive (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32500-EN">Havelock &#x0026; Huberman, 1980</xref>). Thirdly, there are barriers and obstacles to the development of change processes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-32500-EN">Ertmer, 1999</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-32500-EN">Ertmer &#x0026; Ottenbreit-Leftwich, 2010</xref>). These and many other aspects lead us into a &#x2018;Tangled school&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-77-32500-EN">San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso, 2009</xref>) that is difficult to access for the systematic and in-depth study of digital technologies, which necessitates attention and control of variables that can rapidly mutate or even disappear over brief periods.</p>
<p>In the context of the prevailing uncertainty that characterises the operation of school systems, a discernible consensus has emerged over the past five years with respect to the process of school digitalisation, understood as a process of innovation &#x2018;in the making&#x2019;. This consensus is predicated on the notion that the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic constituted a pivotal moment in this regard (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-32500-EN">Carrillo &#x0026; Flores, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-32500-EN">Fazekas, 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-59-32500-EN">Murphy, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-86-32500-EN">Timotheou et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-93-32500-EN">Valverde-Berrocoso et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-97-32500-EN">Voogt &#x0026; Knezek, 2021</xref>). To a certain extent, the pandemic period can be regarded as a turning point in the digitalisation of schools. Initially, the process of digitalisation before the pandemic was characterised by a cautious approach, reminiscent of previous technological implementation processes. In such cases, the top-down model often encountered greater resistance than support among educational stakeholders (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-32500-EN">Rossi Cordero and Barajas Frutos, 2018</xref>). In contrast, digitalisation during the pandemic and post-pandemic has become a digital tsunami which, although forced at the outset, has been able to leave a wake that has permeated the education system structurally and, above all, school culture at all levels, including teaching practices and concepts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-65-32500-EN">Pokhrel &#x0026; Chhetri, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-95-32500-EN">Vidergor, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>The education administration has been expeditious in seizing the opportunities presented by the pandemic, with a concerted effort to (re)digitalise schools through the provision of substantial technological tools and resources, with significant backing from the European Union&#x2019;s Next Generation funds and the Spanish Government&#x2019;s Recovery, Transformation, and Resilience Plan. This has provided schools with the opportunity to access digital resources that would be very difficult to acquire with their annual budgets, at least in such a short period.</p>
<p>Analyses of technology transfer and digitalisation in recent decades report on various pre-pandemic technology programmes that are of interest to us (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-32500-EN">Culp et al., 2005</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-32500-EN">Ghavifekr and Rosdy, 2015</xref>). In Spain, the Escuela 2.0 Programme was a significant attempt to digitalise schools (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32500-EN">Area Moreira et al., 2014</xref>), even being proposed as a strategy for educational inclusion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-32500-EN">Cerrillo et al., 2014</xref>). However, it fell far short of achieving these goals and sometimes even generated inequality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-32500-EN">Fraga-Varela &#x0026; Alonso-Ferreiro, 2023</xref>). In the regions not participating in the Escuela 2.0 programme, alternatives with analogous content but different formats emerged (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-78-32500-EN">San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso et al., 2014a</xref>), underscoring inconsistencies in the placement of technology transfer processes at the organisational level, characterised by a political rather than a technical context.</p>
<p>The Escuela 2.0 programme represented an unsuccessful endeavour to achieve efficient digitalisation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32500-EN">Area Moreira et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32500-EN">Area Moreira and Sanabria, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-79-32500-EN">San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso et al., 2014b</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-32500-EN">Santiago Campi&#x00F3;n et al., 2013</xref>). It can now be used as a precedent for analysing technology transfer systems and their implementation in schools. This retrospective analysis prompts the consideration of whether past errors could be repeated. These include: the provision of resources without consideration of the particularities and needs of each centre and its context; the absence of structures within the centres to facilitate effective functioning; the lack of a viable maintenance plan for technological resources; and ongoing teacher training with a greater emphasis on technical skills than on didactic approaches (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-32500-EN">Area Moreira et al., 2011</xref>). The latter, ongoing teacher training, is of particular interest in this work: to reflect on whether there are tendencies in educational administration to repeat actions that consume human, technological and economic resources with little impact on improving classroom practice (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-32500-EN">Unesco, 2024</xref>).</p>
<p>This erratic d&#x00E9;j&#x00E0; vu in education can be justified from different perspectives: humanistic, in the sense that &#x2018;Human beings do not always know how to discern according to reason, and therefore do not learn from experience and make the same mistakes again in similar situations&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-32500-EN">Centro Virtual Cervantes, n.d.</xref>); political, given the short-term nature and disregard for scientific recommendations by political agents who prioritise economic and electoral criteria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32500-EN">Casta&#x00F1;eda et al., 2018</xref>); organisational, due to the inflexibility of such a complex, bureaucratic system that hinders flexible models and substantial changes; or professional, due to teachers&#x2019; lack of motivation and sense of professional fulfilment (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-32500-EN">Fern&#x00E1;ndez Enguita, 2009</xref>). Be that as it may and bearing in mind that the perspectives indicated are a reductionist example, reality seems to once again place ongoing teacher training in a theoretical-technical approach, far removed from the didactic reality of the classroom and prioritising political-economic criteria over pedagogical-rational criteria (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-32500-EN">Falloon, 2020</xref>).</p>
<p>Such is the current boom in DTs that TDC has become the first competency to be assessed and certified in the Professional Framework of Teaching Competencies, highlighting its importance for the administration and setting a precedent for the assessment and certification of professional teaching competencies.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-32500-EN">
<label>4.</label>
<title>C<sc>itizen digital competence</sc>: <sc>the preamble</sc></title>
<p>The first steps in developing digital competence, whether in an educational context or not, lead us to consider the links between digitalisation and technology. The latter is understood as something inherent in human beings that has systematically generated both affinities and phobias throughout history (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-32500-EN">Guijarro Mora and Gonz&#x00E1;lez de la Lastra, 2015</xref>). Currently, most of the technologies in our environment are related to digital media. This has led to the Third Industrial Revolution, also known as the Digital Revolution (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-73-32500-EN">Rifkin, 2011</xref>), or the Fourth Industrial Revolution, which is characterised by the advent of artificial intelligence (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-81-32500-EN">Schwab, 2023</xref>). Some authors argue that these technological milestones indicate a change of era, and the terms &#x2018;Information Society&#x2019;, &#x2018;Network Society&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-32500-EN">Castells, 1998</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-32500-EN">2006</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-32500-EN">2020</xref>) and &#x2018;Digital Society&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-66-32500-EN">Polo Roca, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-71-32500-EN">Redshaw, 2020</xref>) attempt to describe the present historical period. This change of era is also accompanied by initiatives in the US, China, Singapore and the EU, as well as organisations such as the OECD and UNESCO, which aim to develop models to inform and govern the current and future &#x2018;digital&#x2019; society.</p>
<p>As part of the development of digital competence, in 2006 the European Union made its interest explicit with a recommendation from the European Parliament committing to a shift towards a citizen competence model and establishing a series of competences for lifelong learning called Key Competences, among which &#x2018;Digital Competence&#x2019; appears (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-32500-EN">European Parliament, 2006</xref>). Seven years later, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-32500-EN">Ferrari (2013)</xref> published DIGCOMP: The Framework for the Development and Understanding of Digital Competence in Europe, which develops a classification and description in five major groups of the skills, knowledge and attitudes desirable for the proper development of Digital Competence, which in turn presents different levels of achievement: &#x2018;A-Basic, B-Intermediate, and C-Advanced&#x2019; (p.14). Three years later, a review was conducted, culminating in the formulation of DigComp v2.0 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-99-32500-EN">Vuorikari et al., 2016</xref>). This was subsequently augmented by the incorporation of attitude levels in 2018, resulting in DigComp v2.1 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-32500-EN">Carretero Gomez et al., 2017</xref>). Presently, DigComp v2.2 (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-98-32500-EN">Vuorikari et al., 2022</xref>) is in effect, with the objective of consolidating the model of specific domains and competencies incorporated in DigComp v2.0 (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-1-32500-EN">Figure 1</xref>), with the aim of facilitating greater specificity and comprehension of the proposed domains and competencies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-32500-EN">Centeno and Herrero, 2023</xref>). This evolution has marked different political, economic, cultural, social, and educational lines in the European framework in pursuit of Digital Citizenship Competence, serving as the basis for <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-32500-EN">Redecker&#x2019;s (2017)</xref> proposal for Teachers&#x2019; Digital Competence (DigCompEdu).</p>
<fig id="fig-1-32500-EN">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>R<sc>egulatory framework for digital competence</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-1-32500-EN.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-98-32500-EN">Vuorikari et al., 2022</xref>, p. 67)</attrib>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-32500-EN">
<label>5.</label>
<title>D<sc>igital technologies in schools</sc>: <sc>past</sc>, <sc>present</sc>, <sc>and future</sc></title>
<p>The preceding section places us within a global social framework concerning the integration of digital technology in education, a field in which it has played an active role for just over three decades (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-32500-EN">Area-Moreira et al., 2016</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-32500-EN">Escudero Mu&#x00F1;oz et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-32500-EN">Fu, 2013</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-32500-EN">Law et al., 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-32500-EN">Loveless, 2003</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-68-32500-EN">Ram&#x00ED;rez Orellana et al., 2017</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-69-32500-EN">2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-87-32500-EN">Tondeur et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-89-32500-EN">Uluyol &#x0026; &#x015E;ahin, 2016</xref>). In school settings, the integration of digital technology is often accompanied by top-down policies from the administration, engendering a climate of pressure on schools, teachers and students. These actors, to varying extents, endeavour to assimilate this technology within their existing operational frameworks (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-32500-EN">Cuban, 2001</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-32500-EN">2013</xref>). Consequently, management teams are tasked with the decision-making process concerning the integration of DTs in the school environment, encompassing aspects such as the allocation of resources, software licences, and technical support. Conversely, teachers strive to incorporate DTs into their daily pedagogical practices, encompassing the utilisation of resources, materials, assessment systems, and attendance monitoring. Finally, students endeavour to ascertain the application of DTs in their academic pursuits and the extent to which their performance will be evaluated using this technology, including in areas such as presentations, homework, exams, and content (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-75-32500-EN">Rossi Cordero and Barajas Frutos, 2018</xref>).</p>
<p>In this sense, the commitment being made by educational (and non-educational) administrations to the integration of DT in its broadest sense in school contexts is a variable to be analysed, given that its priorities at the political, regulatory and economic levels reflect this, for example, explicitly in organic laws (LOE, LOMCE or LOMLOE), in their curricular derivations from compulsory stages or in TDC certifications (the latter still in its early stages of application). A further avenue for exploration lies in the analysis of publishers&#x2019; and technology companies&#x2019; interest in digitalising school materials and resources, as evidenced by recent studies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-62-32500-EN">Pardo Baldov&#x00ED; and San Mart&#x00ED;n Alonso, 2020</xref>). Additionally, the emergence of agreements with major corporations such as Microsoft, Google, and Zoom, as well as more ad hoc technologies like Snappet, Additio, Smartboard, and Smile&#x0026;Learn, which are collaborating and potentially colluding with publishers in the lucrative field of school materials and resources, warrants further investigation. In addition to the aforementioned variables, pressure from the labour market is exerted on educational institutions to provide fundamental and technical digital training, to minimise future investment in job training. In a similar vein, the pressure from certain sectors of families and education professionals who propose the integration of DT as a measure of quality and innovation in school environments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-32500-EN">Mart&#x00ED;n-Dominguez et al, 2019</xref>) must also be considered. These are some of the many variables that must be considered when incorporating these technologies into schools.</p>
<p>Another salient issue pertaining to DTs arises in the field of research, specifically educational research. Since its inception, the field of educational technology has witnessed a steady rise in both popularity and scientific productivity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-32500-EN">Cabero Almenara and Llorente Cejudo, 2008</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-32500-EN">Cabero-Almenara, 1994</xref>). Consequently, the increasing visibility of digital technology is leading to the adjectivisation of educational terms (e.g. digital education, digital resources, digital content, etc.), producing binomials that are difficult to break and which perhaps displace or blur debates, studies and reflections on other &#x2018;non-digital&#x2019; but central to teaching and learning issues (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-32500-EN">Bol&#x00ED;var Bot&#x00ED;a, 2001</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32500-EN">Doyle, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32500-EN">Doyle and Carter, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32500-EN">Gimeno Sacrist&#x00E1;n, 1988</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32500-EN">Gimeno Sacrist&#x00E1;n, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-85-32500-EN">Stenhouse, 1987</xref>).</p>
<p>Notwithstanding, the integration of DTs in schools is an enduring phenomenon, poised for continued expansion and coexistence. This phenomenon is not merely a response to societal, market, and administrative demands; it is also beginning to take root in school culture, with educational policies supporting the modification of curricular and organisational aspects of the dynamics that underpin classroom practices around digital technologies (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-32500-EN">Alt, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-32500-EN">Cuban, 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-61-32500-EN">OECD, 2015</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-63-32500-EN">Pardo-Baldov&#x00ED; et al., 2023</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-76-32500-EN">Sailer et al., 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-96-32500-EN">Voogt &#x0026; Knezek, 2018</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-32500-EN">
<label>6.</label>
<title>T<sc>eachers</sc>&#x2019; <sc>digital competence</sc>: D<sc>ig</sc>C<sc>omp</sc>E<sc>du and regulations in</sc> S<sc>pain</sc></title>
<p>Finally, to address the development of the integration of digital technology and the conceptual and competency frameworks that regulate it in political, social, and educational contexts from their inception to the present day, we must analyse the concept of digital competence in the school environment, i.e. Teachers&#x2019; Digital Competence. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-94-32500-EN">Verd&#x00FA;-Pina et al. (2023</xref>, p. 9) provide a definition based on a review of the literature, understanding it as &#x2018;a complex professional competence that brings together a set of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that teachers must possess and mobilise simultaneously in order to use digital technologies in their professional practice&#x2019;. Nevertheless, it is a complex term that is addressed more implicitly than explicitly (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-32500-EN">Hidalgo, 2024</xref>). It is more commonly glimpsed in approaches through areas and levels of competence development than in a concrete definition (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-32500-EN">Jim&#x00E9;nez Hern&#x00E1;ndez et al., 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>One such model is the Digital Competence Framework for Educators, or DigCompEdu (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-32500-EN">Redecker, 2017</xref>), which is perhaps the most relevant in the European and Spanish educational context. It is based on the Digital Competence Framework for Citizens (DigComp), but focuses on defining what it means to be a digitally competent teacher. The challenge of DigCompEdu lies in defining and conceptualising the features that characterise teaching in the use and integration of digital technology, and identifying the skills that teachers need in an increasingly digital world. More specifically, DigCompEdu (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-70-32500-EN">Redecker, 2017</xref>) details 22 competences organised into six areas such as: professional engagement (involving the use of digital technologies for communication, collaboration and professional development), digital resources (related to the search, creation and exchange of digital resources), teaching and learning (management and organisation of the use of digital technologies in teaching and learning), assessment and feedback (use of digital technologies and strategies to improve student assessment), student empowerment (use of digital technologies to improve inclusion, personalisation and active engagement of students in their own learning) and development of students&#x2019; digital competence (training students to use digital technologies creatively and responsibly for information, communication, content creation, well-being and problem solving), which serve as a reference for constructing the concept of TDC in school environments (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-32500-EN">Cabero-Almenara et al., 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-32500-EN">Casta&#x00F1;eda et al., 2018</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-67-32500-EN">Pozo-S&#x00E1;nchez et al., 2022</xref>).</p>
<p>Under the umbrella of DigCompEdu and its areas and levels of competence, various tools have emerged that aim to measure TDC. In the case of Spain, two are particularly noteworthy: Selfie for Teachers (Early Childhood, Primary and Secondary Education) and DigCompEdu Check-in (Higher Education), which have attempted to capture the essence of DigComp in 32 and 25 items respectively, with the aim of validating and measuring teachers&#x2019; self-perception of TDC. Selfie for Teachers, for example, has been made available to schools by the administration to establish a voluntary analysis of TDC, reporting both individual data and data for the teaching staff as a whole.</p>
<p>Beyond these self-perception tests, the regulatory framework established a first step through the Resolution of 2 July 2020, of the Directorate-General for Evaluation and Territorial Cooperation, which published the Agreement of the Sectoral Conference on Education on the reference framework for teachers&#x2019; digital competence. In this way, the European Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning was taken into consideration, and the Digital Competence Framework for Educators (DigCompEdu) was adapted to the Spanish education system.</p>
<p>The previous regulation was specified in the 4 May 2022 Resolution of the Directorate-General for Evaluation and Territorial Cooperation, which published the Sectoral Conference on Education Agreement and updated this framework. It defined digital teaching competence as &#x2018;the integration of knowledge, skills, abilities, and attitudes that must be brought into play simultaneously to perform duties, implement digital technologies, solve problems, and address unforeseen events in specific situations as education professionals. Its final structure consisted of six areas (<xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-2-32500-EN">Figure 2</xref>), 23 competencies, three stages (A-access, B-experience and C-innovation), and two levels per stage (A1-knowledge, A2-initiation, B1-adoption, B2-adaptation, C1-leadership, and C2-transformation). In addition, this proposal includes achievement indicators and examples through statements about performance corresponding to the level of each competency.</p>
<fig id="fig-2-32500-EN">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 2</label>
<caption><title>A<sc>reas and scope of</sc> D<sc>ig</sc>C<sc>om</sc>P<sc>edu</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-2-32500-EN.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-32500-EN">Ministry of Education and Vocational Training (2022)</xref></attrib>
</fig>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-32500-EN">
<label>7.</label>
<title>O<sc>ngoing teacher training in digital competence</sc></title>
<p>The notion of ongoing teacher training has been a recurring topic of study in the field of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-32500-EN">Escudero Mu&#x00F1;oz, 2020</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-32500-EN">Guarro et al., 2017</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-32500-EN">Mayorga-Fern&#x00E1;ndez et al., 2024</xref>). In the context of an environment characterised by its complexity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-32500-EN">Davis and Sumara, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32500-EN">Gimeno Sacrist&#x00E1;n, 1988</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-32500-EN">Gimeno Sacrist&#x00E1;n, 2015</xref>), it is challenging for educational institutions to provide teachers with comprehensive training to address the diverse demands that emerge in contemporary society (e.g. digital, multicultural, inclusive, etc.). These demands, in various forms, necessitate that schools be responsive to the challenges that lie ahead, despite the fact that many of these challenges are highly changeable and unpredictable in the medium term.</p>
<p>In this sense, the integration of digital technologies is a clear example of uncertainty, where technologies appear, develop, mutate and disappear with such speed that both the administration and the centres and teachers find themselves overwhelmed and perhaps unable to respond to everything. In this study, the view is put forward that ongoing teacher training is an essential cornerstone for channelling the professional growth of teachers. It is argued that, in this regard, education administration must be able to coordinate a training process that is useful for meeting the demands of society, but also for the professional growth of its workers (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-82-32500-EN">Shulman, 1986</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-83-32500-EN">1987</xref>).</p>
<p>Neither Spain in general nor Castile and Le&#x00F3;n in particular have been immune to this digital avalanche. The curriculum and certification regulations demonstrate this commitment, and must be complemented by massive technology provision programmes. Similarly, ongoing teacher training has also been affected, and we find examples such as INTEF, which is largely responsible for school digitalisation through a wide range of courses, most of which are virtualised and accessible and disseminated on a massive scale nationwide. However, at a more local level, the focus is on teacher training centres (CFIE, CEP, CEPES, etc.) and their range of courses related to digital competence. These courses are organised in different ways across the country, yet they are characterised by highly similar structures.</p>
<p>It is at this local level that we elect to situate ourselves to carry out a descriptive-interpretative analysis of the training courses offered to teachers in Castile and Le&#x00F3;n by teacher training centres, as illustrated below.</p>
<sec id="sec-8-32500-EN">
<label>7.1.</label>
<title>Some preliminary figures for Castile and Le&#x00F3;n</title>
<p>For this purpose, we took a sample of all the courses registered on the platform by the Regional Ministry of Education of the Regional Government of Castile and Le&#x00F3;n during the 2023&#x2013;24 academic year.</p>
<p>These courses cover all stages of education and represent those offered through thirteen CFIE centres in the nine provinces of Castile and Le&#x00F3;n, as well as three regional centres specialising in ICT, higher teacher training and language teacher training: the ICT Teacher Training Resource Centre, the Castile and Le&#x00F3;n Higher Teacher Training Centre and the Language Teacher Training Centre (CRFPTIC, CSFP and CFPI, respectively).</p>
<p>The data indicate that a total of 7,263 courses were offered at the aforementioned 16 centres from September 2023 to July 2024, as recorded by the Regional Ministry of Education&#x2019;s platform. Using the platform&#x2019;s categorisation system, courses classified under the priority area of ICT in Education were selected. A total of 5,010 courses were found to be directly linked to this area, accounting for 68.9% of the total.</p>
<p>To further refine the analysis, all DT-related courses were compiled, and the title and centre offering them were recorded. This data enabled us to observe the distribution of the 16 centres and determine whether their offerings were similar or if any one centre might be skewing the total percentage. However, as <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-3-32500-EN">Figure 3</xref> shows, the relationship between the total number of courses offered and those related to DT is fairly consistent and rarely falls below 60% (only in the cases of Zamora and Soria). With the obvious exception of the Teacher Training Resource Centre for ICT (CRFPTIC), no centres were found to offer more than 75% DT-related courses.</p>
<fig id="fig-3-32500-EN">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 3</label>
<caption><title>P<sc>ercentages of courses related to dt by training centre</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-3-32500-EN.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors</attrib>
</fig>
<p>As can be seen in <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-3-32500-EN">Figure 3</xref>, the range of courses offered is quite imbalanced with respect to those catalogued outside the digital context. This imbalance prompted us to conduct another descriptive analysis to gain insight into how this teacher training process is being addressed. By this, we mean the analysis of the frequency of words in the course titles. <xref ref-type="fig" rid="fig-4-32500-EN">Figure 4</xref> is particularly illustrative in this regard, as it highlights the focus of the course titles, which we believe to be related to the content covered in the courses.</p>
<fig id="fig-4-32500-EN">
<label>F<sc>igure</sc> 4</label>
<caption><title>W<sc>ord frequency cloud in the titles of the courses offered</sc></title></caption>
<graphic xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="fig-4-32500-EN.jpg"/>
<attrib>Source: Prepared by the authors</attrib>
</fig>
<p>Although ICT (902) is the most frequently occurring word in the 5,010 Digital Competence courses, other words stand out in the analysis and reveal the topics of the courses, such as Robotics (457), Digital (456), Tools (409), Radio (377) and Digital (300), among others. Other terms that appear to a lesser extent include Assessment (235), Pedagogical (88) and Competence (71), which are more related to other curricular aspects of the teaching process than to the resources themselves. This analysis of the words in the course titles shows that digital technologies are present in both generic (ICT, digital, tools) and specific (radio, video, robotics, printing) forms. However, references to the teaching method appear less frequently (learning, education, development, creation, competence, etc.). In other words, resources predominate over didactics.</p>
</sec>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-32500-EN" sec-type="conclusions">
<label>8.</label>
<title>C<sc>onclusions</sc></title>
<p>This article critically and reflectively considers how ongoing teacher training in digital competence is addressed in school environments. Understanding this requires an appreciation of the political, economic and social context in which a multitude of variables shape different scenarios for the transition to a digital society.</p>
<p>The various documents, articles and studies on the integration of digital technologies reveal a political and economic alignment towards this integration, showing that there is no turning back from digital technology, which is here to stay and grow. This issue is emphasised even more in the school context following the pandemic, and must be considered alongside the uncertain scenario surrounding artificial intelligence.</p>
<p>Given this situation, this study is particularly focused on understanding, through a retrospective and comparative analysis, how educational administrations are addressing the training of their employees, what the purpose of this training is, and what approaches they are taking to certify and monitor the level of digital competence of their teaching staff. The initial results show that the training is quite technical, with digital resources forming the backbone of the programmes offered, and with a certification process that is difficult to analyse efficiently from outside the practice.</p>
<p>Although this descriptive study focuses on a specific Autonomous Community and period, the usual dynamics of administration in ongoing teacher training suggest that significant differences will emerge in the short term, particularly as this training model endorses a certification process at almost all levels and in most Autonomous Communities. It should be noted that ICT training accompanied by large-scale technological provision is not a new phenomenon in our country (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-32500-EN">Area Moreira et al., 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-32500-EN">Area Moreira &#x0026; Sanabria, 2014</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-80-32500-EN">Santiago Campi&#x00F3;n et al., 2013</xref>). However, some reports have already shown that integrating resources in the classroom does not guarantee improved results (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-92-32500-EN">UNESCO, 2024</xref>) and is even less effective in a top-down connective system (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-32500-EN">Havelock &#x0026; Huberman, 1980</xref>).</p>
<p>We do not intend this to be understood as a criticism of all ongoing teacher training provided by the education administration. Rather, we wish to highlight the model on which it is based and the fact that certification is becoming an end in itself rather than a means of improvement. This may distort the true purpose of ongoing teacher training, which is to promote professional development and effective curriculum design and management (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-32500-EN">Doyle, 1992</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-32500-EN">Doyle &#x0026; Carter, 1984</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-32500-EN">Gimeno Sacrist&#x00E1;n, 1988</xref>).</p>
<p>In short, the article provides an initial overview of the integration of digital technologies within a conceptual and regulatory framework based on DigCompEdu. It also examines how continuing education courses designed by the education administration are intended to help teachers acquire digital integration and teaching skills. Analysis of these courses reveals an overemphasis on technical training focused on resources and tools that is not sufficiently linked to training in the didactic design and management of curricular elements for classroom practice.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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