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<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.1" specific-use="sps-1.9" xml:lang="es" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink">
<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31762</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31762</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monogr&#x00E1;fico</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
    <article-title>¿Transhumanismo “contra” educación?</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>Transhumanism &#x2018;Against&#x2019; Education?</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7398-9943</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>GAVIRIA</surname>
<given-names>Jos&#x00E9; Luis</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ES"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-ES"><email>josecho@ucm.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>04</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2024362</issue-id>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>23</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>06</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>17</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2024 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">
    <license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>En este art&#x00ED;culo se argumenta que es posible una versi&#x00F3;n &#x2018;humana&#x2019; del transhumanismo, que la eliminaci&#x00F3;n de limitaciones f&#x00ED;sicas o fisiol&#x00F3;gicas no atenta contra la posibilidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n, y que la verdadera educaci&#x00F3;n no queda disminuida con el transhumanismo.</p>
<p>En la primera parte se muestran las principales corrientes del transhumanismo, y los argumentos a favor y en contra de este. En la segunda parte, desde una postura logoc&#x00E9;ntrica, se trata de mostrar que el transhumanismo no es incompatible con la educaci&#x00F3;n y que no tiene por qu&#x00E9; haber una transgresi&#x00F3;n de c&#x00F3;digos morales en el mismo. Al final se proponen algunos criterios para juzgar cu&#x00E1;ndo las intervenciones biotecnol&#x00F3;gicas en los seres humanos son aceptables y cu&#x00E1;ndo no.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>This article argues that a &#x0022;human&#x0022; version of transhumanism is possible, that the elimination of physical or physiological limitations does not undermine the possibility of education, and that true education is not diminished by transhumanism.</p>
<p>The first part presents the main currents of transhumanism, and the arguments for and against it. In the second part, from a logocentric position, it is shown that transhumanism is not incompatible with education and that there does not have to be a transgression of moral codes in it. In the end, some criteria to judge when biotechnological interventions in humans are acceptable and when they are not, are proposed.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave:</italic></title>
<kwd>transhumanismo</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanismo</kwd>
<kwd>mejoramiento</kwd>
<kwd>biotecnolog&#x00ED;a</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>transhumanism</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanism</kwd>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>enhancement</kwd>
<kwd>biotechnology</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31762-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Vivimos en una &#x00E9;poca donde lo que cre&#x00ED;amos seguro se pone en duda. Qu&#x00E9; significa ser hombre o mujer, para bien o para mal, ya no est&#x00E1; tan claro como sol&#x00ED;a. Parece l&#x00F3;gico que en esa misma din&#x00E1;mica de duda total nos planteemos algo todav&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s fundamental: qu&#x00E9; significa ser un ser humano. Estas dudas se han acrecentado recientemente con el advenimiento de los modelos ling&#x00FC;&#x00ED;sticos que nos hacen reflexionar sobre la naturaleza de la inteligencia y de nuestras relaciones con una inteligencia artificial que pudiera llegar a tomar conciencia de s&#x00ED; misma. Todas estas dudas respecto de la inteligencia artificial han llevado a muchos a plantear l&#x00ED;mites legales respecto de lo que puede hacerse. Todas estas prevenciones son paralelas a las que en su momento se opusieron respecto de las manipulaciones gen&#x00E9;ticas de los embriones humanos cuando las noticias sobre la clonaci&#x00F3;n de la oveja Dolly salieron a la luz.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, la experiencia nos lleva a pensar que si algo es t&#x00E9;cnicamente posible acabar&#x00E1; haci&#x00E9;ndose. Y los avisos y prevenciones en contra de esas posibilidades son como la conminaci&#x00F3;n del G&#x00E9;nesis respecto de la fruta del &#x00E1;rbol de la ciencia del bien y del mal. Es posible que en nuestra naturaleza est&#x00E9; inscrita la determinaci&#x00F3;n de violar todas las reglas que impidan realizar cualquier posibilidad que est&#x00E9; a nuestro alcance, sin que el miedo a perder el para&#x00ED;so nos detenga. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31762-ES">Luc Ferry (2016)</xref> hace una reflexi&#x00F3;n similar, sobre la imposibilidad de parar el cambio.</p>
<p>Pues todos estos temas como la IA, <italic>Machine Learning</italic>, manipulaci&#x00F3;n gen&#x00E9;tica, hibridaci&#x00F3;n, biotecnolog&#x00ED;a, cada uno de los cuales nos plantea inquietudes &#x00E9;ticas y pr&#x00E1;cticas, se concitan en el tema general de este monogr&#x00E1;fico, que es el transhumanismo.</p>
<p>En este art&#x00ED;culo pretendo argumentar que es posible una versi&#x00F3;n &#x2018;humana&#x2019; del transhumanismo, que la eliminaci&#x00F3;n de limitaciones f&#x00ED;sicas o fisiol&#x00F3;gicas no atenta contra la posibilidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n, y que la verdadera educaci&#x00F3;n no queda disminuida con el transhumanismo. Adem&#x00E1;s, argumento que todas las transformaciones que aumenten la autonom&#x00ED;a de los individuos son leg&#x00ED;timas, y s&#x00F3;lo aquellas que lo disminuyan son cuestionables.</p>
<p>En la primera parte del art&#x00ED;culo presento brevemente las principales ideas del transhumanismo, y los argumentos a favor y en contra de este. En la segunda parte analizo algunos argumentos bioconservadores y, desde una postura logoc&#x00E9;ntrica, trato de mostrar que el transhumanismo no es incompatible con la educaci&#x00F3;n y que no tiene por qu&#x00E9; haber una transgresi&#x00F3;n de c&#x00F3;digos morales en el mismo. Al final propongo algunos criterios para juzgar cu&#x00E1;ndo las intervenciones biotecnol&#x00F3;gicas en los seres humanos son aceptables y cu&#x00E1;ndo no.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31762-ES">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>Q<sc>u&#x00E9; es el transhumanismo</sc></bold></title>
<p>El transhumanismo es un movimiento intelectual que considera que nuestra civilizaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E1; en condiciones de aprovechar los desarrollos tecnol&#x00F3;gicos y cient&#x00ED;ficos para producir mejoras f&#x00ED;sicas y psicol&#x00F3;gicas en los seres humanos por medios artificiales. En palabras de Bostrom &#x201C;El transhumanismo es un movimiento filos&#x00F3;fico y cultural preocupado por la promoci&#x00F3;n de formas responsables de utilizaci&#x00F3;n de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a para mejorar las capacidades humanas e incrementar el alcance del florecimiento humano&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31762-ES">Bostrom, 2014</xref>, p. 45).</p>
<p>El transhumanismo es entonces &#x201C;un acto de fe optimista, voluntarista y racionalista, en el futuro, en la creatividad y la responsabilidad humanas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31762-ES">Hottois, 2014</xref>, p. 7).</p>
<p>Este conjunto de ideas naci&#x00F3; alrededor de los a&#x00F1;os 60 del pasado siglo en California. De hecho, hay quien considera que forma parte de lo que se ha dado en llamar la &#x2018;ideolog&#x00ED;a californiana&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31762-ES">Barbrook y Cameron, 1996</xref>), una mezcla de ideales hippies, frenes&#x00ED; tecnol&#x00F3;gico, e iniciativas empresariales novedosas con un fondo de ideolog&#x00ED;a neoliberal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31762-ES">Jardin, 2018</xref>). Explora los l&#x00ED;mites de lo humano planteando situaciones en las que se va m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; de las capacidades humanas com&#x00FA;nmente aceptadas.</p>
<p>Hay tres informes importantes donde estas ideas se plantean. El primero de ellos, titulado &#x201C;<italic><ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Converging_Technologies_for_Improving_Human_Performance&#x0026;amp;action=edit&#x0026;amp;redlink=1">Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance</ext-link></italic>&#x201D; (Roco y <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Sims_Bainbridge&#x0026;amp;action=edit&#x0026;amp;redlink=1">Bainbridge</ext-link>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31762-ES">2002a</xref>), es un amplio estudio en el que ochenta l&#x00ED;deres cient&#x00ED;ficos y expertos de la industria presentan las posibilidades que ofrece la tecnolog&#x00ED;a para la mejora de la condici&#x00F3;n humana, tanto a nivel individual como social. Se trata de un estudio de casi 500 p&#x00E1;ginas, pero del que puede encontrarse un resumen ejecutivo en Roco y <ext-link ext-link-type="uri" xlink:href="https://es.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=William_Sims_Bainbridge&#x0026;amp;action=edit&#x0026;amp;redlink=1">Bainbridge</ext-link> (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31762-ES">2002b</xref>). Propone fundamentalmente la unificaci&#x00F3;n de varias ciencias y tecnolog&#x00ED;as, como la nanotecnolog&#x00ED;a, la biotecnolog&#x00ED;a, la tecnolog&#x00ED;a de la informaci&#x00F3;n y las neurociencias en un intento com&#x00FA;n de mejorar la condici&#x00F3;n f&#x00ED;sica e intelectual de los individuos y de la sociedad en su conjunto. La conjunci&#x00F3;n de todas estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as integradas a nivel de nanoescala podr&#x00ED;a determinar un tremendo incremento de las capacidades humanas. Una de las ideas que resume bastante bien el tono general del documento aparece en la siguiente proposici&#x00F3;n:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;Si los <italic>Cient&#x00ED;ficos Cognitivos</italic> pueden pensarlo,</p>
<p>los <italic>Nanotecn&#x00F3;logos</italic> pueden construirlo,</p>
<p>los <italic>Biotecn&#x00F3;logos</italic> pueden implementarlo</p>
<p>y los <italic>Tecn&#x00F3;logos de la Informaci&#x00F3;n</italic> pueden controlarlo y monitorizarlo&#x201D;.</p>
<attrib>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31762-ES">Rocco y Bainbridge, 2002b</xref>, p. 289; cursivas y may&#x00FA;sculas en el original).</attrib>
</disp-quote>
<p>Otros dos estudios promovidos desde la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea han abordado tambi&#x00E9;n el tema: &#x201C;<italic>Converging technologies-Shaping the future of european societies</italic>&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31762-ES">Nordmann, 2004</xref>) y &#x201C;<italic>Human Enhancement</italic>&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31762-ES">Savulescu y Bostrom, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Las aspiraciones del transhumanismo pasan por conseguir que los hombres sean &#x2018;amortales&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31762-ES">Coeurnelle, 2013</xref>), esto es, libres de la muerte preprogramada biol&#x00F3;gicamente, libres de toda forma de sufrimiento f&#x00ED;sico y ps&#x00ED;quico producido por la enfermedad o la incapacidad fisiol&#x00F3;gica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31762-ES">Coeurnelle y Roux, 2016</xref>), y con aptitudes f&#x00ED;sicas, intelectuales y emocionales acrecentadas.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31762-ES">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>F<sc>ormas del transhumanismo</sc>: <sc>extropianismo y tecnoprogresismo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Dentro del movimiento transhumanista podemos encontrar dos versiones principales: los &#x2018;extropianos&#x2019; y los &#x2018;tecnoprogresistas&#x2019;. El extropianismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31762-ES">Esfandiary, 1973</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31762-ES">More, 1998</xref>) conf&#x00ED;a en la &#x2018;extrop&#x00ED;a&#x2019;, un concepto opuesto a la entrop&#x00ED;a, y que consiste en una organizaci&#x00F3;n creciente de los sistemas por medio de la ciencia y la t&#x00E9;cnica fundada sobre un proceso de progreso ilimitado. El principio fundamental de los extropianos gira alrededor de la inmortalidad y la noci&#x00F3;n de que la existencia se puede reproducir digitalmente y prolongarse eternamente. B&#x00E1;sicamente se considera que nuestra identidad no es m&#x00E1;s que el conjunto de la informaci&#x00F3;n que almacenamos en nuestro cerebro. Si esa informaci&#x00F3;n se puede trasvasar a un soporte digital, nos &#x2018;liberamos&#x2019; de la dependencia del cuerpo. Este principio introduce la noci&#x00F3;n de la libertad absoluta del ser as&#x00ED; como la obsolescencia del cuerpo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31762-ES">More, 1998</xref>).</p>
<p>Este principio de los extropianistas nos lleva a la paradoja del dualismo transhumanista. Efectivamente, en el fondo, esta forma de transhumanismo subyace un dualismo renovado. Hoy los bioconservadores entienden que manipular el cuerpo es manipular en lo esencial al ser humano. Asumen por tanto un monismo operativo. Resulta ahora que los &#x2018;conservadores&#x2019; son monistas y los &#x2018;liberales&#x2019; son dualistas.</p>
<p>A esta forma extrema de transhumanismo se refiere <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31762-ES">Emmanuel Jardin (2018)</xref> cuando dice que el transhumanismo aparenta ser una filosof&#x00ED;a, pero es realmente un lobby, un movimiento que act&#x00FA;a en los campos cient&#x00ED;fico, tecnol&#x00F3;gico, pol&#x00ED;tico y econ&#x00F3;mico.</p>
<p>El tecnoprogresismo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31762-ES">Coeurnelle y Roux, 2016</xref>) por su parte, propone la integraci&#x00F3;n de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a y de las modificaciones de nuestro cuerpo, pero aboga por una intervenci&#x00F3;n de las instituciones estatales para asegurar que las transformaciones cient&#x00ED;ficas y t&#x00E9;cnicas sean, adem&#x00E1;s, &#x00E9;ticas y sociales.</p>
<p>Posiciones como las de los extropianistas hace que algunos autores diferencien entre el transhumanismo y el posthumanismo. Se refieren, con el primer concepto, al individuo biotecnol&#x00F3;gicamente transformado, mientras que con el segundo hace referencia a las entidades que se han &#x2018;liberado&#x2019; de las ataduras biol&#x00F3;gicas.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31762-ES">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>lasificaci&#x00F3;n de las posturas respecto del</sc> &#x2018;<sc>mejoramiento</sc>&#x2019;</bold></title>
<p>Los problemas que el transhumanismo plantea est&#x00E1;n &#x00ED;ntimamente asociados con la naturaleza de lo humano. Y, como es l&#x00F3;gico, muchas de las ideas del transhumanismo han provocado reacciones contrarias y a favor con distintos grados de intensidad. Una forma de poner orden en las posiciones respecto del &#x2018;mejoramiento&#x2019; o &#x2018;acrecentamiento&#x2019; que propone el transhumanismo es clasificar a los autores en funci&#x00F3;n de su posici&#x00F3;n respecto de las transformaciones sugeridas, y el tipo de argumentos que utilizan. As&#x00ED;, tenemos bioconservadores y transhumanistas, y en ambos casos, los que utilizan argumentos emp&#x00ED;ricos y los que acuden a argumentos esenciales. En <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-31762-ES">tabla 1</xref> podemos ver esa clasificaci&#x00F3;n de algunos de los autores que se han manifestado con relaci&#x00F3;n a este tema.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-31762-ES">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>C<sc>lasificaci&#x00F3;n de algunos autores en funci&#x00F3;n de su postura respecto de las transformaciones transhumanistas</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-31762-ES" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="35%"/>
<col width="35%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Bioconservadores</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Transhumanistas</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Emp&#x00ED;ricos</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31762-ES">Christine Overall (2020)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31762-ES">Luc Ferry (2016)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-ES">Apolline Tailandier (2019)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31762-ES">Anna Falcone (s.f.)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31762-ES">Allen Buchanan <italic>et al</italic>. (2000)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31762-ES">James Hughes (2004)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31762-ES">Gilbert Hottois (2013)</xref></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Esenciales</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-ES">Michael Sandel (2004)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31762-ES">Emmanuel Jardin (2018)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31762-ES">Francis Fukuyama (2002)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31762-ES">J&#x00FC;rgen Habermas (2015/2001</xref>)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31762-ES">Besnier (2009)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31762-ES">Nick Bostrom (2014)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31762-ES">John Harris (2007)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31762-ES">Savulescu y Bostrom (2009)</xref></p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: Elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31762-ES">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>B<sc>ioconservadores <italic>vs</italic> transhumanistas</sc></bold></title>
<p>En la contraposici&#x00F3;n entre bioconservadores y transhumanistas aparecen las diferencias respecto a lo que a lo que se considera natural versus artificial, normal versus anormal, terap&#x00E9;utico versus mejorativo, interno versus externo.</p>
<p>Los argumentos utilizados, tanto en un campo como en el otro, son, bien emp&#x00ED;ricos, es decir, basados en las posibles consecuencias sociales del trashumanismo, o bien esenciales, es decir, basadas en la bondad o maldad intr&#x00ED;nseca a la propuesta transhumanista.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-31762-ES">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>rgumentos a favor del transhumanismo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Por ejemplo, entre los pensadores que se muestran a favor del mejoramiento por medio de la t&#x00E9;cnica, es decir, transhumanistas, un argumento muy utilizado es el que se&#x00F1;ala que las propuestas transhumanistas no son m&#x00E1;s que una continuidad con la historia de continuas modificaciones de nuestro entorno provocadas por la humanidad. Su proyecto de mejora por medios t&#x00E9;cnicos no es m&#x00E1;s que una prolongaci&#x00F3;n l&#x00F3;gica de los proyectos de mejora por medios simb&#x00F3;licos.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED;, para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31762-ES">John Harris (2007)</xref>, el mejoramiento no es s&#x00F3;lo una posibilidad, sino un deber moral. La historia de la humanidad es la del continuo proceso de mejora de nuestro entorno, desde la piedra tallada hasta la internet. Hoy esa transformaci&#x00F3;n se centra en el propio ser humano. Si esos cambios producen mutaciones en la especie humana, eso no es una &#x201C;cat&#x00E1;strofe antropol&#x00F3;gica esencial, metaf&#x00ED;sica, o teol&#x00F3;gica, es el advenimiento de una nueva fase de la evoluci&#x00F3;n, habiendo convertido esta &#x00FA;ltima cada vez m&#x00E1;s en una responsabilidad de los humanos.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31762-ES">Harris, 2007</xref>, p. 31). En efecto, el transhumanismo asume&#x2026;&#x201D; la creencia seg&#x00FA;n la cual ha llegado el momento para la humanidad de asumir el control de su propia evoluci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31762-ES">Golfi, 2012</xref>, p. 20).</p>
<p>Adem&#x00E1;s, el mejoramiento es una cuesti&#x00F3;n individual. Es el individuo el mejor situado para determinar qu&#x00E9; es lo que m&#x00E1;s le conviene a &#x00E9;l y a su descendencia, siempre que esto no afecte directamente a otros. Si hay alg&#x00FA;n beneficio social, eso es por a&#x00F1;adidura, pero no es eso lo que determina la naturaleza positiva o negativa de la cuesti&#x00F3;n. Se trata pues, de una justificaci&#x00F3;n moral del transhumanismo, porque se est&#x00E1; &#x201C;dejando a los individuos la responsabilidad de elevar la condici&#x00F3;n colectiva a trav&#x00E9;s de sus elecciones personales&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-ES">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 78). En efecto, &#x201C;del lado transhumanista y liberal, se encuentran las justificaciones libertarias y liberales de una libertad morfol&#x00F3;gica y procreativa negativa (&#x2026;)&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-ES">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 77).</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Es en este sentido que los transhumanistas se ven a s&#x00ED; mismos como continuadores de la Ilustraci&#x00F3;n: el futuro posthumano de la humanidad no supone tanto una ruptura con la condici&#x00F3;n humana, como la continuaci&#x00F3;n del alejamiento de la naturaleza que verdaderamente constituye una caracter&#x00ED;stica de la humanidad (&#x2026;) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-ES">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 78).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Pero la introducci&#x00F3;n de esas modificaciones artificiales lleva a plantearse hasta qu&#x00E9; punto las mismas afectan a lo esencial de la condici&#x00F3;n humana. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31762-ES">Besnier (2009)</xref> estima que el transhumanismo de hecho nos hace ver la continuidad de la especie humana con el resto de la naturaleza, primero hacia atr&#x00E1;s, hacia los animales (el principio de continuidad de las especies) luego hacia las m&#x00E1;quinas inteligentes (principio de la continuidad de la raz&#x00F3;n calculadora-computadora) &#x201C;al punto de que la unidad de la especie humana se ha vuelto cuestionable&#x201D;. Para Besnier el transhumanismo plantea problemas que exigen m&#x00E1;s que nunca elucidar y practicar una moral humana tanto m&#x00E1;s cuanto nuestro contexto sea m&#x00E1;s no humano.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31762-ES">Coeurnelle y Roux (2016)</xref> afirman que este uso de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a no cambia nada fundamental. De hecho, &#x201C;la t&#x00E9;cnica forma parte de la definici&#x00F3;n de lo humano&#x201D;. Por eso &#x201C;todo humano es al mismo tiempo un transhumano&#x201D;.</p>
<p>Entre los argumentos emp&#x00ED;ricos a favor del transhumanismo, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31762-ES">Allen Buchanan <italic>et al.</italic> (2000)</xref> consideran que una de las funciones fundamentales de las transformaciones transhumanistas es la de eliminar las desigualdades de origen asociadas con la naturaleza biol&#x00F3;gica de los hombres. Pero corregir los efectos de la loter&#x00ED;a natural, tal como propone Buchanan, elimina uno de los mecanismos centrales de la evoluci&#x00F3;n: el ensayo-error. Como consecuencia, se pasar&#x00ED;a de una evoluci&#x00F3;n ciega a una evoluci&#x00F3;n dirigida, otro de los temas importantes del transhumanismo. Son los seres humanos los que toman las riendas de su futuro evolutivo. Para ello basta con confiar en la libertad individual y parental informada, o lo que es lo mismo, confiar en el mercado, aunque con una gran vigilancia &#x00E9;tico-pol&#x00ED;tica. Pero, sobre todo, hay que temer a la intervenci&#x00F3;n eugen&#x00E9;sica del Estado. Es cierto que la actuaci&#x00F3;n aut&#x00F3;noma del mercado puede producir inicialmente desigualdades entre los individuos que pueden permitirse las mejoras biotecnol&#x00F3;gicas y los que no, pero las desigualdades producidas por el mejoramiento artificial ser&#x00E1;n pasajeras y no es algo nuevo que las innovaciones inicialmente favorezcan a unos pocos privilegiados. Pero al final los propios mecanismos del mercado hacen que esas innovaciones acaben siendo accesibles a todos los individuos. As&#x00ED;, el argumento igualitarista seg&#x00FA;n el cual el mejoramiento no es correcto porque no todos los sujetos tienen los mismos recursos para beneficiarse de ellos, es, para los transhumanistas, un argumento sin fuerza.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-31762-ES">
<label><bold>7.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>rgumentos en contra</sc></bold></title>
<p>Los argumentos esencialistas en contra del transhumanismo apelan a la naturaleza humana.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>(&#x2026;) Desde posiciones filos&#x00F3;ficas distintas, se cr&#x00ED;tica al transhumanismo centr&#x00E1;ndose en la naturaleza humana. Tanto fil&#x00F3;sofos como unitaristas como favorables a la democracia deliberativa, apelan a la naturaleza humana para contrarrestar al transhumanismo. Por ejemplo, J&#x00FC;rgen Habermas habla de la defensa de una &#x2018;&#x00E9;tica de la especie&#x2019; (&#x2026;) mientras Francis Fukuyama llama a abrazar &#x2018;el hecho emp&#x00ED;rico de la igualdad humana natural&#x2019; como fundamento de la dignidad humana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-ES">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 77).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>El bioconservador m&#x00E1;s representativo de las posturas esencialistas es Michael Sandel. Cree que la cuesti&#x00F3;n fundamental tiene que ver con el estatus moral de la naturaleza. Si resolvemos la cuesti&#x00F3;n de la naturaleza humana, si eso fuese posible, tendr&#x00ED;amos el criterio definitivo para juzgar la cuesti&#x00F3;n de lo adecuado de las transformaciones NBIC.</p>
<p>Su objeci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s fuerte no tiene que ver con las consecuencias sociopol&#x00ED;ticas del mejoramiento, lo que ser&#x00ED;a un argumento emp&#x00ED;rico, sino con el mejoramiento en s&#x00ED;. Tiene que ver con la afectaci&#x00F3;n de la naturaleza humana. Su objeci&#x00F3;n, sin ser estrictamente religiosa, tiene un toque religioso. Entiende que el transhumanismo es confundir nuestro papel con el de los dioses (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-ES">Sandel, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Las objeciones que pone <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31762-ES">Frances Kamm (2006)</xref> no son de naturaleza moral o metaf&#x00ED;sica, sino relativas a las consecuencias sociopol&#x00ED;ticas. De hecho, rechaza algunas de las objeciones de Sandel y expone algunas modificaciones biol&#x00F3;gicas que s&#x00ED; ser&#x00ED;an admisibles.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31762-ES">Christine Overall (2020)</xref> utiliza los argumentos emp&#x00ED;ricos de que el mejoramiento aumentar&#x00ED;a las diferencias sociales, dando origen a transhumanos de primera categor&#x00ED;a y humanos ordinarios de categor&#x00ED;a inferior, y eso lo har&#x00ED;a inaceptable.</p>
<p>El problema de todas las objeciones emp&#x00ED;ricas es que son siempre contingencias posibles, pero no necesarias. Y no puede basarse una prohibici&#x00F3;n general de las modificaciones biol&#x00F3;gicas en tales argumentos.</p>
<p>Michael Sandel plantea las preguntas correctas. Fundamentalmente, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; es lo que hay de intr&#x00ED;nsecamente malo en la transformaci&#x00F3;n artificial de los seres humanos? Si no podemos responder a esta pregunta, no hay argumentos emp&#x00ED;ricos con fuerza suficiente para hacernos rechazar el transhumanismo. Para Michael Sandel lo esencial es el sentido de &#x2018;donaci&#x00F3;n&#x2019; de la vida. Es moralmente necesario aceptar lo que se recibe en vez de forzar lo que queremos recibir. Pero no da una raz&#x00F3;n de fondo que justifique por qu&#x00E9; es as&#x00ED;. &#x00C9;l mismo reconoce que sus argumentos tienen una resonancia religiosa, aunque, dice, no hace falta tener una postura transcendente para aceptar su argumento. Sin embargo, como afirma <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31762-ES">Arthur Caplan (2009)</xref>, desde el punto de vista del evolucionismo laico, la noci&#x00F3;n de don y de aceptaci&#x00F3;n no tiene sentido. Es el azar la fuerza que gobierna la evoluci&#x00F3;n, y nuestra presencia sobre la tierra es fruto de una mera sucesi&#x00F3;n de casualidades. Es la conjunci&#x00F3;n del azar y la necesidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31762-ES">Monod, 1970</xref>) la fuerza que impulsa desde las causas a los efectos la evoluci&#x00F3;n, y no ninguna fuerza que teleol&#x00F3;gicamente la atraiga desde un &#x2018;punto omega&#x2019;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-31762-ES">
<label><bold>8.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>ntropocentrismo y logocentrismo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Desde mi punto de vista, los bioconservadores no est&#x00E1;n tan lejos de los transhumanistas como pudiera parecer. Creo que la objeci&#x00F3;n m&#x00E1;s importante de los primeros puede calificarse como la &#x2018;objeci&#x00F3;n antropoc&#x00E9;ntrica&#x2019;. Seg&#x00FA;n &#x00E9;sta, el valor especial de los seres humanos descansa en su naturaleza de seres racionales, aut&#x00F3;nomos, y por tanto morales. Los seres humanos son responsables de sus actos, y eso les hace merecedores de respeto a su dignidad. En el fondo eso es lo que quiere decir que fueron creados &#x2018;a imagen y semejanza de Dios&#x2019;. Por eso creo que las objeciones bioconservadoras deber&#x00ED;an centrarse en aquellas modificaciones biol&#x00F3;gicas que afectasen negativamente a estas caracter&#x00ED;sticas. Sus objeciones deber&#x00ED;an focalizarse en lo que disminuye la autonom&#x00ED;a, la capacidad moral o la capacidad racional de los humanos. &#x00BF;Por qu&#x00E9; debieran ser inaceptables las transformaciones que hiciesen justo lo contrario, es decir, que aumenten la autonom&#x00ED;a, la capacidad racional y la capacidad moral de los individuos? S&#x00F3;lo creyendo en una naturaleza humana inmutable, originada en un acto creador o en una predeterminaci&#x00F3;n de la naturaleza, pueden objetarse esas intervenciones. Y es curioso que esta objeci&#x00F3;n, a la que yo llamar&#x00ED;a &#x2018;para-religiosa&#x2019; sea la esgrimida por autores tan distantes entre s&#x00ED; como <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31762-ES">Habermas (2015/2001</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31762-ES">Fukuyama (2002)</xref> o <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-ES">Sandel (2004)</xref>.</p>
<p>Pues si tomamos lo esencial del antropocentrismo, es decir, la racionalidad, la autonom&#x00ED;a y la moralidad, llegamos, de forma l&#x00F3;gica, a lo que podemos llamar el &#x2018;logocentrismo&#x2019;. Es la idea de que cualquier ser dotado de racionalidad, autonom&#x00ED;a y moralidad, debe ser respetado, digno de consideraci&#x00F3;n y sujeto de derechos, independientemente de si su origen es artificial o natural, si es un ser humano o un ser no humano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31762-ES">Schuster, 2022</xref>). Esta idea estaba ya impl&#x00ED;cita en Kant cuando afirmaba &#x201C;Un ser humano y <italic>generalmente todo ser racional</italic> existe como un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo&#x201D; (4:428: cursiva a&#x00F1;adida).</p>
<p>Una idea parecida sostienen <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31762-ES">Savulescu y Bostrom (2009</xref>, p. 238) cuando afirman que lo que debe importar desde el punto de vista moral es la comprobaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica de ciertas cualidades, propiedades o disposiciones, tales como la sensibilidad, la capacidad de sufrir, la raz&#x00F3;n, la conciencia, etc&#x00E9;tera.</p>
<p>Una sociedad transhumanista democr&#x00E1;tica reconocer&#x00ED;a derechos a todos los seres capaces de conciencia, raz&#x00F3;n y vida moral. Una democracia de &#x2018;personas&#x2019; y no de humanos en sentido biol&#x00F3;gico. &#x201C;A central question of biopolitics will be what rights we should grant to the various kinds of beings we create with technology&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31762-ES">Hughes, 2004</xref>, p. 221).</p>
<p>En este sentido puede afirmarse que el transhumanismo es un humanismo, si asignamos a este &#x00FA;ltimo t&#x00E9;rmino un significado m&#x00E1;s amplio, que incluya como sujetos de derechos a todos aquellos seres racionales, aut&#x00F3;nomo y morales. Para <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31762-ES">Hottois (2013)</xref>, las caracter&#x00ED;sticas del transhumanismo que lo sit&#x00FA;an en la trayectoria del humanismo son su fe en la perfectibilidad del ser humano, su afirmaci&#x00F3;n de la libertad individual y su reconocimiento de la dignidad de todas las formas de vida. De hecho, el transhumanismo as&#x00ED; entendido se convierte en un baluarte contra el nihilismo y su desconfianza en el ser humano. Esta desconfianza es lo propio del deconstructivismo postmodernista (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31762-ES">Trigano, 2022</xref>). Y, adem&#x00E1;s, el transhumanismo fomenta la igualdad en t&#x00E9;rminos biol&#x00F3;gicos, no s&#x00F3;lo sociales y propone el dominio de la evoluci&#x00F3;n, evitando los errores del azar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31762-ES">Hottois, 2013</xref>, p. 166).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-31762-ES">
<label><bold>9.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>l origen de la vida moral</sc> (<sc>sobre la moral de las m&#x00E1;quinas y los transhumanos h&#x00ED;bridos y simbi&#x00F3;ticos</sc>)</bold></title>
<p>Pero surgen algunas cuestiones importantes. &#x00BF;Pueden las transformaciones biot&#x00E9;cnicas afectar a la capacidad moral de los transhumanos o incluso de los posthumanos? &#x00BF;Los seres humanos transformados, especialmente los posthumanos, son capaces de tener vida moral? &#x00BF;Podemos llegar a dise&#x00F1;ar seres artificiales que sean capaces de moralidad? &#x00BF;Son capaces las m&#x00E1;quinas de emitir juicios morales? &#x00BF;Cu&#x00E1;l es el origen de la moralidad?</p>
<p>Contestar a estas preguntas supone plantearse la naturaleza del juicio moral. Si asumimos que el juicio moral es un razonamiento que se realiza con los datos de una situaci&#x00F3;n a la que se le aplican los principios morales v&#x00E1;lidos establecidos previamente, podemos decir que cualquier m&#x00E1;quina capaz de razonar es capaz de aplicar principios morales. Pero &#x00BF;Eso la convierte en un ser moral? Claramente no. Un postulado com&#x00FA;n a los objetivistas es que la vida moral puede ser objetivamente &#x2018;calculada&#x2019;. En este sentido una m&#x00E1;quina podr&#x00ED;a ser de gran ayuda para la realizaci&#x00F3;n de juicios morales. Pero eso no la convierte en un ser moral. &#x00BF;Cu&#x00E1;ndo surgen los valores, y por tanto la vida moral?</p>
<p>Los valores surgen en el momento en que un ser vivo consciente enfrenta al mundo con un deseo propio. En los seres humanos ese deseo es el de la &#x2018;perdurabilidad&#x2019;. La perdurabilidad es algo m&#x00E1;s que el deseo de supervivencia. Es el deseo de proyectarse en el futuro. Biol&#x00F3;gicamente es la traducci&#x00F3;n del impulso filogen&#x00E9;tico que nos lleva a la transmisi&#x00F3;n y proyecci&#x00F3;n de la carga gen&#x00E9;tica hacia el futuro. Ese deseo de perdurabilidad, con ra&#x00ED;ces profundas en la filogen&#x00E9;tica, es lo que da origen a las dos fuerzas emocionales que intuy&#x00F3; Freud: el Eros y el Thanatos.</p>
<p>Para que la realidad f&#x00ED;sica tenga alg&#x00FA;n significado, tiene que haber un ser consciente que la interprete.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>Un precipicio en la superficie primitiva de este planeta no era &#x2018;peligroso&#x2019; antes de la llegada de criaturas que pudieran precipitarse al mismo. No se trata simplemente de que un cerebro deba ponerse en relaci&#x00F3;n con un precipicio para considerar que vale la pena evitarlo. M&#x00E1;s bien, la relaci&#x00F3;n debe involucrar a un ser vivo, tal vez con un cerebro, que quiere seguir viviendo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-ES">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 22).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Los valores comienzan en el momento en que la noci&#x00F3;n de bueno o malo aparece. &#x201C;Nuestro paisaje mundano adquiere relieve moral s&#x00F3;lo cuando es valorado por una entidad viviente preocupada por sobrevivir&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-ES">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 22). &#x201C;El bienestar, el deseo de ser feliz, de florecer, son sin&#x00F3;nimos. Y es lo que hace que las cosas del mundo sean buenas o malas&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-ES">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 25). Una consecuencia inmediata es que para que haya vida moral, tiene que haber un ser consciente con deseo de perdurabilidad. Todo el conflicto en la magn&#x00ED;fica pel&#x00ED;cula de Stanley Kubrick, &#x2018;<italic>A&#x00F1;o 2001, Una odisea espacial</italic>&#x2019;, basada en la novela hom&#x00F3;nima de Arthur C. Clark, ocurre precisamente cuando HAL 9000, el computador que controla la nave se entera de que la tripulaci&#x00F3;n quiere desconectarlo. Su deseo de sobrevivir le lleva a enfrentarse tr&#x00E1;gicamente con los tripulantes. Y en un momento en el que ya est&#x00E1;n desconect&#x00E1;ndolo, confiesa un sentimiento muy humano, &#x2018;tengo miedo&#x2026;&#x2019;.</p>
<p>Los juicios morales pueden ser objeto de estudio cient&#x00ED;fico, puesto que puede juzgarse objetivamente si seg&#x00FA;n ciertos principios una soluci&#x00F3;n es mejor que otra. Se trata de afirmaciones falsables. Por eso los juicios morales pueden ser apoyados por las m&#x00E1;quinas. Pero el propio origen de la vida moral queda fuera del alcance de la ciencia. En efecto, respecto de la posibilidad de &#x2018;computar&#x2019; la vida moral, Champagne afirma: &#x201C;Las proposiciones espec&#x00ED;ficas sobre <italic>c&#x00F3;mo</italic> maximizar el mejor estado posible pueden ser definitivamente falsadas a la luz de nueva evidencia. Sin embargo, la deseabilidad de ese estado mismo no es falsable&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-ES">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 26). Y tambi&#x00E9;n, &#x201C;en otras palabras mi deseo de ser feliz no es falsable&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-ES">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 25). Por lo tanto, lo que da origen a la vida moral, no pertenece al &#x00E1;mbito de la ciencia. Y esto es as&#x00ED; porque,&#x201D; (&#x2026;) la afirmaci&#x00F3;n &#x2019;mi vida merece ser vivida&#x2019; no puede demostrarse que sea err&#x00F3;nea. El fundamento de la moralidad, entonces no puede ser una ciencia&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-ES">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 26).</p>
<p>La vida moral surge de la conjunci&#x00F3;n de un mundo externo, cuya existencia es objetiva y que se rige por las leyes ciegas de la naturaleza, con un ser vivo y consciente, que desea perdurar, que desea vivir. En este sentido, es la conciencia de mortalidad de nuestro ser lo que da origen a los valores. Es nuestro juicio el que valora si cierta realidad externa es favorable o desfavorable a nuestro bienestar, si algo es bueno o malo.</p>
<p>Las interesantes consecuencias de este planteamiento son que una inteligencia artificial que no estuviese dotada del sentido de autoconservaci&#x00F3;n, del deseo de perdurabilidad no podr&#x00ED;a tener propiamente una vida moral, pero, sin embargo, &#x00A1;podr&#x00ED;a hacer juicios morales totalmente acertados!</p>
<p>Y esto supone que un transhumano h&#x00ED;brido o simbi&#x00F3;tico con una inteligencia artificial no s&#x00F3;lo podr&#x00ED;a tener vida moral, sino que podr&#x00ED;a ser moralmente m&#x00E1;s eficaz, ya que mientras mantiene el impulso consciente de perdurabilidad, podr&#x00ED;a hacer juicios morales m&#x00E1;s acertados, pues el componente artificial aumentar&#x00ED;a sus capacidades de juicio, y por tanto de valoraci&#x00F3;n de las circunstancias concretas en las que la disyuntiva moral se plantease.</p>
<p>Ahora &#x00BF;Es posible que la trans-humanizaci&#x00F3;n de los individuos, al llevar hacia la &#x2019;amortalidad&#x2019;, hacia la eliminaci&#x00F3;n de la finitud, elimine el fundamento mismo de la vida moral?</p>
<p>Creo que no. La &#x2018;amortalidad&#x2019; elimina el final programado, pero no evita el accidental. Por otra parte, nuestros l&#x00ED;mites no son s&#x00F3;lo temporales, a lo largo, tambi&#x00E9;n lo son a lo &#x2018;ancho&#x2019;. Los otros siempre ser&#x00E1;n un l&#x00ED;mite a nuestra expansi&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-31762-ES">
<label><bold>10.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>l transhumanismo y la educaci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Es evidente que todo lo que afecta a la naturaleza humana repercute tanto en la concepci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n como en su desarrollo. Hay un art&#x00ED;culo en el que, desde una posici&#x00F3;n bioconservadora, se aborda a fondo esta cuesti&#x00F3;n. Se trata de un art&#x00ED;culo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref>, en el que se aporta una perspectiva interesant&#x00ED;sima al problema del transhumanismo. Aunque desde la discrepancia, puedo afirmar que en ese trabajo se pone el &#x00E9;nfasis en un matiz importante de las transformaciones transhumanistas. No s&#x00F3;lo importa el qu&#x00E9; del ser &#x2018;transhumano&#x2019;, sino que nos interesa tambi&#x00E9;n el c&#x00F3;mo llegar a ser. Nos sit&#x00FA;a, desde una nueva perspectiva, ante uno de los problemas que la educaci&#x00F3;n ha tenido que abordar siempre, que es la naturaleza de la humanidad, es decir de aquello que nos hace humanos y cu&#x00E1;les son los medios adecuados para conseguir el florecimiento del individuo. Le preocupa lo que los avances de las tecnolog&#x00ED;as ligadas a la mejora de nuestras capacidades por medios artificiales suponen para la permanencia de lo que constituye en cada ser humano su esencia, es decir, su humanidad, y c&#x00F3;mo la educaci&#x00F3;n puede verse afectada por estos cambios.</p>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo de Gil Cantero subraya muy acertadamente la cuesti&#x00F3;n de c&#x00F3;mo la educaci&#x00F3;n, que podr&#x00ED;a caracterizarse como el proceso por medio del cual se alcanza el estatus de persona aut&#x00F3;noma, se ve afectada por la aparici&#x00F3;n de tecnolog&#x00ED;as que en principio podr&#x00ED;an convertirse en alternativas a la propia educaci&#x00F3;n para alcanzar esos mismos fines. Simplificando hasta el extremo, si con una inyecci&#x00F3;n peri&#x00F3;dica durante el periodo de crecimiento, consigui&#x00E9;semos personas intelectual y moralmente aut&#x00F3;nomas, no necesitar&#x00ED;amos la educaci&#x00F3;n. Contra esta idea es contra la que reacciona Gil Cantero, argumentando que no importan s&#x00F3;lo los estados finales, sino que el modo por el que se llega a estos estados finales determina en realidad la naturaleza del propio estado final. El camino de la educaci&#x00F3;n lleva a un estado distinto y m&#x00E1;s valioso que aqu&#x00E9;l al que llegar&#x00ED;a, supuestamente, por medio de artificios tecnol&#x00F3;gicos.</p>
<p>Aunque de las ideas anteriores pudiera deducirse que la educaci&#x00F3;n estar&#x00ED;a totalmente arrumbada en una sociedad de transhumanos, desde mi punto de vista podemos, sin embargo, considerar dos cosas que contradicen esa perspectiva:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>A)</label> <p>Hay una continuidad de intenciones entre el transhumanismo y la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>B)</label> <p>Segundo y m&#x00E1;s importante, la educaci&#x00F3;n es el proceso de transici&#x00F3;n entre la potencial autonom&#x00ED;a y la autonom&#x00ED;a actual.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>El ideal transhumanista consiste en el mejoramiento del ser humano, proporcionando a los individuos y la sociedad capacidades que le eran ajenas por naturaleza. Eso es algo no muy distinto de la naturaleza optimizante de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Lo que en un caso se consigue por medios tecnol&#x00F3;gicos en el otro se hace por medio de elementos simb&#x00F3;licos, contenidos culturales y relaciones personales.</p>
<p>En algunos aspectos las posibilidades de mejora del transhumanismo son superiores a la educaci&#x00F3;n. Las capacidades tecnol&#x00F3;gicamente extendidas o conseguidas del mejoramiento dif&#x00ED;cilmente pueden obtenerse por meros procedimientos simb&#x00F3;licos tradicionales. Pero, por otra parte, la educaci&#x00F3;n es algo m&#x00E1;s que la promoci&#x00F3;n de las capacidades innatas o adquiridas. En la educaci&#x00F3;n hay una integraci&#x00F3;n de contenidos culturales que han de ser apropiados por el educando para alcanzar el estado adulto aut&#x00F3;nomo, que es el objetivo de la educaci&#x00F3;n. No se trata en la educaci&#x00F3;n solamente de florecimiento individual de capacidades de todo tipo, sino de integraci&#x00F3;n del sujeto en un cuerpo social, en alg&#x00FA;n grupo social. Y en este sentido, la educaci&#x00F3;n va m&#x00E1;s all&#x00E1; del mero mejoramiento transhumanista.</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, la naturaleza profunda de los cambios que se producen durante el proceso educativo son los de la transici&#x00F3;n de la potencia al acto. Y es esta transici&#x00F3;n la que presenta algunos aspectos que son, en cierta medida parad&#x00F3;jicos, y que de hecho ya est&#x00E1;n subrayados en los art&#x00ED;culos de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref> y en otro de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-ES">Reyero y Gil Cantero (2019)</xref>, que aunque este &#x00FA;ltimo, no trata espec&#x00ED;ficamente del transhumanismo, s&#x00ED; aborda la cuesti&#x00F3;n de los l&#x00ED;mites, lo que en &#x00FA;ltima instancia lo relaciona con este tema. En efecto, el fin de la educaci&#x00F3;n es lograr que los educandos sean adultos aut&#x00F3;nomos capaces de tomar sus propias opciones reflexivas, pero independientes. Sin embargo, es imposible educar en el vac&#x00ED;o o en la indeterminaci&#x00F3;n. Se nace en el seno de una cultura, se educa en una cierta lengua, se adoptan determinadas creencias, y sin todo eso no puede haber educaci&#x00F3;n porque sin ellas no habr&#x00ED;a integraci&#x00F3;n en la cultura. Pero todos esos elementos corresponden a opciones realizadas por los educadores antes de que los educandos sean aut&#x00F3;nomos, y eso, ciertamente, abre algunas opciones futuras, pero cierra muchas otras. Ser educado en espa&#x00F1;ol nos abre las puertas al disfrute de toda la literatura en esta lengua, pero nos limita en lo que se refiere a cualquier otra lengua que potencialmente se hubiera podido aprender. Por eso es tan importante que todas las decisiones que se adopten respecto al Corpus Cultural sean profundamente respetuosas con las decisiones que los detentadores de la patria potestad pueden tomar. Pero, en cualquier caso, esto es lo esencial del proceso educativo: la transici&#x00F3;n desde las potencialidades de partida (la potencia) al estado final de autonom&#x00ED;a (el acto). Y hasta aqu&#x00ED; mi coincidencia con ellos.</p>
<p>Y es aqu&#x00ED; donde podemos ver la complementariedad de las transformaciones transhumanistas y la educaci&#x00F3;n. Las primeras pueden aumentar, hasta l&#x00ED;mites solo accesibles a nuestra imaginaci&#x00F3;n, la potencia, el punto de partida. Pero la educaci&#x00F3;n ser&#x00E1; siempre el proceso que, tomando esa potencia inicial, desemboque en el acto, el estado final de autonom&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>Curiosamente es la educaci&#x00F3;n conforme al concepto progresista, la que quedar&#x00ED;a amenazada por el transhumanismo. En efecto, la m&#x00E1;s rabiosa actualidad en educaci&#x00F3;n es la educaci&#x00F3;n basada en competencias. Seg&#x00FA;n esto, es el desarrollo de las competencias m&#x00E1;s que la adquisici&#x00F3;n de conocimientos, lo que deber&#x00ED;a fomentar la escuela. Se hace tanto hincapi&#x00E9; en las competencias b&#x00E1;sicas que en muchos casos se deja de lado el contenido material de la educaci&#x00F3;n. &#x00C9;ste no ser&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s que el medio para que las competencias aparezcan. Y es as&#x00ED; hasta el punto de que se definen como competencias b&#x00E1;sicas cosas como la capacidad de &#x2019;aprender a aprender&#x2019;. Aunque esto no es m&#x00E1;s que una figura ret&#x00F3;rica vac&#x00ED;a de contenido expl&#x00ED;cito, refleja bien c&#x00F3;mo lo importante en esta concepci&#x00F3;n es la funcionalidad que el contenido potencia. Una vez conseguida la funcionalidad, el contenido es irrelevante.</p>
<p>Pues, curiosamente, es a este tipo de educaci&#x00F3;n a la que el transhumanismo amenaza. Si puede lograrse la mejora de las competencias, de las capacidades funcionales de los individuos, mediante procedimientos tecnol&#x00F3;gicos, el proceso educativo as&#x00ED; concebido pierde su objetivo en una parte important&#x00ED;sima, si no totalmente.</p>
<p>Sin embargo, si consideramos la educaci&#x00F3;n como la actualizaci&#x00F3;n de la autonom&#x00ED;a potencial del individuo, como la integraci&#x00F3;n de este en su medio cultural, veremos que los contenidos culturales concretos y los valores espec&#x00ED;ficos, pertenecientes a una cultura determinada, son imprescindibles. La integraci&#x00F3;n no puede hacerse sin la incorporaci&#x00F3;n de contenidos culturales y los valores correspondientes al medio al que se va a incorporar. Por eso no es suficiente con las capacidades o las competencias que el mejoramiento, o la educaci&#x00F3;n puramente competencial pueden proporcionar. Y es por eso por lo que los papeles de las transformaciones optimizantes y la educaci&#x00F3;n son complementarios. El mejoramiento aumenta las potencialidades de partida, mientras que la educaci&#x00F3;n actualiza esas potencias en un acto espec&#x00ED;fico.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-11-31762-ES">
<label><bold>11.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>obre el desarrollo de capacidades y la transmisi&#x00F3;n de contenidos</sc></bold></title>
<p>El transhumanismo, en su versi&#x00F3;n de mejora biotecnol&#x00F3;gica de las capacidades humanas, no es incompatible con la educaci&#x00F3;n, que es una mejora por medios simb&#x00F3;licos del ser humano. En este sentido, el transhumanismo tiene que ver con el florecimiento de capacidades, mientras que la educaci&#x00F3;n tendr&#x00ED;a que ver, adem&#x00E1;s, con los contenidos, atendiendo a su naturaleza de tecnolog&#x00ED;a simb&#x00F3;lica.</p>
<p>&#x00C9;ste es un matiz importante que surge cuando se piensa en el papel de la educaci&#x00F3;n en el transhumanismo. No presenta los mismos peligros el desarrollo tecnol&#x00F3;gico de capacidades que la transmisi&#x00F3;n tecnol&#x00F3;gica de contenidos. Lo primero tiene poco riesgo de atentar contra la autonom&#x00ED;a de los individuos, mientras que lo segundo presenta un alto riesgo al respecto. (Aunque no mayor que el que ha presentado siempre la educaci&#x00F3;n antes del transhumanismo, porque, realmente, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; es la educaci&#x00F3;n, adem&#x00E1;s de la implantaci&#x00F3;n de conocimientos y actitudes y el desarrollo de aptitudes y habilidades?).</p>
<p>En cualquier caso, hay algo en com&#x00FA;n entre las t&#x00E9;cnicas transhumanistas y la educaci&#x00F3;n. En los dos casos se trata de hacer algo al hombre, en transformar al propio hombre. En este sentido, la educaci&#x00F3;n es una actividad transhumanista en esencia.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-31762-ES">
<label><bold>12.</bold></label>
<title><bold>L<sc>a educaci&#x00F3;n y la eliminaci&#x00F3;n de las limitaciones humanas</sc></bold></title>
<p>El transhumanismo busca la eliminaci&#x00F3;n de muchas limitaciones humanas. Y Gil Cantero y Reyero consideran que estas tienen, sin embargo, un papel fundamental, mediador, en el proceso educativo. Y en este punto es donde aparecen mis discrepancias con respecto a su formulaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
<p>El art&#x00ED;culo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref> es en cierto sentido una continuaci&#x00F3;n del art&#x00ED;culo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-ES">Reyero y Gil Cantero (2019)</xref> en el que se argumenta que la educaci&#x00F3;n que limita es la que libera. Naturalmente, si eliminamos de modo artificial todos los l&#x00ED;mites, parece que la consecuencia es que desaparece la posibilidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n.</p>
    <p>En el art&#x00ED;culo de R y GC se hace una buena argumentaci&#x00F3;n de por qu&#x00E9; la educaci&#x00F3;n supone el reconocimiento de ciertos l&#x00ED;mites. En &#x00E9;l se adopta una perspectiva positiva de la libertad. Eso puede verse en su argumentaci&#x00F3;n inicial del art&#x00ED;culo donde dicen &#x201C;&#x00BF;y si no sabemos lo que queremos realmente? &#x00BF;Y si nuestros deseos necesitan de disciplina para ser realmente valiosos?&#x201D; En apoyo de esta idea a continuaci&#x00F3;n citan un texto de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31762-ES">MacIntyre (2017</xref>, p. 27) &#x201C;&#x00BF;Es lo que ahora quiero lo que quiero querer? Y &#x00BF;tengo suficientes razones para querer lo que ahora quiero?&#x201D;. Es evidente que, si uno adopta esa perspectiva positiva de la libertad, el individuo se vuelve realmente libre cuando es capaz de conocerse a s&#x00ED; mismo, reconocer cu&#x00E1;les son sus pasiones y cu&#x00E1;l es su verdadero inter&#x00E9;s humano y optar por la opci&#x00F3;n correcta aut&#x00F3;nomamente. Uno es libre cuando es capaz de elegir aut&#x00F3;nomamente el bien. Creo que los educadores podr&#x00ED;amos simpatizar en principio con esa postura, pues tendemos a ver, no s&#x00F3;lo al individuo concreto que estamos educando, sino al individuo que podr&#x00ED;a llegar a ser en el futuro nuestro educando.</p>
<p>Mi postura es m&#x00E1;s cercana, sin embargo, a una concepci&#x00F3;n negativa de la libertad. Un individuo es libre cuando no hay obst&#x00E1;culos externos que le impidan realizar sus preferencias. Pero tambi&#x00E9;n desde esta postura es f&#x00E1;cil argumentar que la educaci&#x00F3;n es el proceso por el que los individuos aprenden a identificar y respetar los l&#x00ED;mites a su voluntad. Una sociedad de hombres libres necesita que todos los part&#x00ED;cipes reconozcan a los dem&#x00E1;s y a sus intereses leg&#x00ED;timos como l&#x00ED;mites del desarrollo de su voluntad. Y en este sentido el aprendizaje y la apropiaci&#x00F3;n de las reglas sociales permiten al individuo &#x2018;jugar&#x2019; libremente en la vida social.</p>
<p>Aceptado entonces que la educaci&#x00F3;n pone l&#x00ED;mites, hay que decir, sin embargo, que no todos los l&#x00ED;mites son educativos.</p>
<p>Creo que esa idea es fundamental. La educaci&#x00F3;n es el proceso por el que pasamos de la potencialidad de la autonom&#x00ED;a a la actualidad de &#x00E9;sta. La potencia es el conjunto casi infinito de posibilidades de futuro. La realizaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n exige la concreci&#x00F3;n de esas innumerables posibilidades en unas pocas opciones. Elegir esas opciones supone rechazar impl&#x00ED;citamente otras que ya nunca ser&#x00E1;n posibles. El derecho del ni&#x00F1;o a un futuro abierto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31762-ES">Feinberg, 1980</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31762-ES">1986</xref>) entra en contradicci&#x00F3;n con el &#x2018;derecho a UN futuro&#x2019; cuando se intenta mantener la &#x2018;apertura&#x2019; indefinidamente. La potencia es en s&#x00ED; misma ilimitada, mientras que el acto es por definici&#x00F3;n determinado, cerrado. No se puede pasar de la potencia al acto sin perder innumerables opciones de futuro en el camino. Perdemos la posibilidad de muchas cosas cuando conseguimos alguna cosa concreta. Es lo que los economistas denominan &#x2018;el coste de oportunidad&#x2019;.</p>
<p>En este sentido la educaci&#x00F3;n tiene una doble relaci&#x00F3;n con los l&#x00ED;mites: primero, educarse es abrir nuevas posibilidades de ser mientras se renuncia a otras, y segundo, seg&#x00FA;n sostienen R y CG, s&#x00F3;lo en la relaci&#x00F3;n con los l&#x00ED;mites se puede uno educar.</p>
<p>Un ejemplo con relaci&#x00F3;n al primer punto es el que nos proporciona la bien sabida habilidad natural de Rafa Nadal para el f&#x00FA;tbol y el golf. Hubiera podido ser probablemente una estrella en cualquiera de esos dos campos. Pero cuando su formaci&#x00F3;n se centr&#x00F3; en el tenis y se convirti&#x00F3; en una estrella de este deporte, fue a cambio de pagar el precio de no poder serlo en ninguno de los otros.</p>
<p>Este paso de la potencia al acto implica la asunci&#x00F3;n de l&#x00ED;mites que podr&#x00ED;amos llamar finales. L&#x00ED;mites como resultado de la educaci&#x00F3;n. Los l&#x00ED;mites que se imponen al elegir una v&#x00ED;a en lugar de otras, y los l&#x00ED;mites que suponen las reglas propias de la v&#x00ED;a que hemos elegido.</p>
<p>Pero el segundo aspecto de la relaci&#x00F3;n con los l&#x00ED;mites es el que abordan R y GC, es decir, los l&#x00ED;mites como medio para el desarrollo de la educaci&#x00F3;n. El transhumanismo busca minimizar o eliminar los l&#x00ED;mites, fundamentalmente biol&#x00F3;gicos del ser humano. Y resulta que ellos consideran, sin embargo, que esos l&#x00ED;mites desempe&#x00F1;an un papel fundamental en la educaci&#x00F3;n. Al hablar de las limitaciones biol&#x00F3;gicas, ponen el ejemplo de Nussbaum y de Steiner.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>(&#x2026;) el intento de suprimir, mediante una loca carrera posthumanista cualquier imperfecci&#x00F3;n f&#x00ED;sica, pues todas en alg&#x00FA;n sentido nos limitan, puede conducirnos a un mundo en el que las virtudes adquiridas mediante la educaci&#x00F3;n sean desconocidas al olvidar que toda virtud se educa en el ejercicio frente a la limitaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-ES">Reyero y Gil Cantero, 2019</xref>, p. 218).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Desde luego, aceptar la limitaci&#x00F3;n inevitable y valorar su potencial pedag&#x00F3;gico, no justifica aceptar toda limitaci&#x00F3;n como inevitable. Por eso el testimonio de Martha Nussbaum, en el que afirma que &#x201C;No solo no me gustar&#x00ED;a, <italic>ex post</italic>, haber tenido una hija diferente, sino que ni siquiera me gustar&#x00ED;a que ella misma hubiera sido &#x2018;arreglada&#x2019;&#x201D;. (Nussbaum, 2002, p. 16 Citado en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-ES">Reyero y Gil Cantero, 2019</xref>, p. 218). Pero este testimonio no sirve para justificar la no intervenci&#x00F3;n transhumanista. No tiene sentido decir que &#x2018;yo no te cambiar&#x00ED;a por otra persona con menos limitaciones&#x2019;, porque es equivalente a decir &#x2018;yo no cambiar&#x00ED;a el pasado&#x2019;, y esto es puramente ret&#x00F3;rico porque el pasado no puede cambiarse. Lo verdaderamente importante y significativo es saber si cambiar&#x00ED;amos el futuro para prevenir limitaciones. &#x00BF;No dar&#x00ED;amos a las madres futuras &#x00E1;cido f&#x00F3;lico en la dieta para evitar una posible espina b&#x00ED;fida en el beb&#x00E9;? &#x00BF;No dar&#x00ED;amos Lamivudine a las personas con s&#x00ED;ndrome de Down si se confirma su eficacia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31762-ES">Martinez de Lagran <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>), para no cambiar sus caracter&#x00ED;sticas personales, por muy entra&#x00F1;ables que sean? Y sobre todo, &#x00BF;opinar&#x00ED;a lo mismo la hija de Martha Nussbaum acerca de la posibilidad de ser &#x2018;arreglada&#x2019;?</p>
<p>Es cierto que &#x2018;la educaci&#x00F3;n que limita es la que libera&#x2019;, pero no es cierto que todos los l&#x00ED;mites sean educativos o liberadores.</p>
<p>Este tema se ampl&#x00ED;a en el art&#x00ED;culo sobre transhumanismo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref>. La superaci&#x00F3;n artificial de muchas limitaciones f&#x00ED;sicas, parece decir el argumento, acaba por impedir la verdadera educaci&#x00F3;n. Si no hay limitaciones contra las que luchar, no se puede formar el car&#x00E1;cter. Sin embargo, se pierde de vista el hecho de que es el propio universo el que nos limita. Por muchas capacidades que desarrolle el ser humano, el universo nos impone los l&#x00ED;mites de la realidad espacio-temporal. Vivimos en un universo temporalmente unidireccional y entr&#x00F3;pico que nos limita de infinitas maneras. Siempre habr&#x00E1; l&#x00ED;mites f&#x00ED;sicos con los que enfrentarnos.</p>
<p>Pero, adem&#x00E1;s, probablemente las limitaciones m&#x00E1;s importantes a las que podemos atribuir virtualidades educativas son las limitaciones sociales. Es la vida c&#x00ED;vica, y el proceso de integraci&#x00F3;n a la misma lo que es realmente educativo. Si s&#x00F3;lo las limitaciones biol&#x00F3;gicas nos educasen, resultar&#x00ED;a en la paradoja de que los alumnos m&#x00E1;s atl&#x00E9;ticos perder&#x00ED;an oportunidades de educar su car&#x00E1;cter, mientras que los m&#x00E1;s escuchimizados tendr&#x00ED;an todo un abanico de oportunidades de desarrollo personal.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-13-31762-ES">
<label><bold>13.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>obre el valor del esfuerzo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Da la impresi&#x00F3;n de que para Reyero y Gil Cantero el valor del esfuerzo es m&#x00E1;s importante que el fin logrado. O, dicho de otro modo, que el fin de la educaci&#x00F3;n no est&#x00E1; en la meta, sino en el camino. &#x201C;El objetivo de este art&#x00ED;culo es mostrar que la idea nuclear de la educaci&#x00F3;n como desarrollo humano estriba en resaltar m&#x00E1;s la participaci&#x00F3;n esforzada, exigente y continua del sujeto en su propia formaci&#x00F3;n que en una mejora artificial de s&#x00ED; mismo&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 13). &#x201C;En otras palabras, &#x00BF;importan los medios? C&#x00F3;mo vamos a mostrar no solo importan, sino que la educaci&#x00F3;n es o no es en la elecci&#x00F3;n de sus medios&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 14).</p>
<p>El problema es que no veo argumentos que apoyen esta afirmaci&#x00F3;n. Si aceptamos la cl&#x00E1;sica definici&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n de Santo Tom&#x00E1;s, &#x2018;<italic>Traductio et promotio prolis, usque ad pefectum estatus homini in quantum homo est, qui es virtutis status</italic>&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31762-ES">Puelles, 1958</xref>) la preocupaci&#x00F3;n es el punto de llegada, que es el estado de virtud. Ser&#x00ED;a un poco raro decir que ese estado de virtud no es v&#x00E1;lido porque se ha llegado a &#x00E9;l por medios poco ortodoxos.</p>
<p>Podr&#x00ED;a argumentarse que ese estado de virtud solo puede alcanzarse a trav&#x00E9;s de los medios adecuados. Pero eso suena demasiado a argumentaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica, que necesitar&#x00ED;a una gran carga de evidencia para ser validada.</p>
<p>El argumento de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref> y de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-ES">Reyero y Gil Cantero (2019)</xref> parece establecer que en la educaci&#x00F3;n lo que importa es el medio del paso de la potencia al acto, que, de hecho, el acto queda determinado por la forma en que esa transici&#x00F3;n se produce. Lo que no acabo de entender es por qu&#x00E9; si el estado final al que se llega puede alcanzarse por medios alternativos, resulta sin valor. Por qu&#x00E9; es determinante saber si ha sido alcanzado por medios no convencionales, o no educativamente, valiosos.</p>
<p>Parece que su principal objeci&#x00F3;n a este tipo de razonamiento ser&#x00ED;a negando la mayor, es decir, negando la posibilidad de llegar a un fin o estado de virtud sin haber pasado antes por un camino de superaci&#x00F3;n y esfuerzo. Pero, otra vez, eso es una afirmaci&#x00F3;n emp&#x00ED;rica, que necesitar&#x00ED;a, por tanto, pruebas emp&#x00ED;ricas para comprobar su veracidad.</p>
<p>Si entendemos la educaci&#x00F3;n como el proceso dirigido de transici&#x00F3;n desde un estado inicial, un estado de potencialidades, a un estado final de actualizaciones y, &#x00A1;no lo olvidemos!, de nuevas potencialidades, entonces la mejora artificial transhuman&#x00ED;stica no es m&#x00E1;s que la definici&#x00F3;n de un nuevo punto de partida. De un punto de partida que sit&#x00FA;a el comienzo de la educaci&#x00F3;n en un estadio superior.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-14-31762-ES">
<label><bold>14.</bold></label>
<title><bold>&#x00BF;E<sc>s el azar mejor que el dise&#x00F1;o</sc>?</bold></title>
<p>Y esa es otra de las cosas por las que Gil Cantero rechaza la intervenci&#x00F3;n artificial y por lo que cae en lo que yo entiendo que es una supervaloraci&#x00F3;n del azar ontogen&#x00E9;tico. Pero uno se pregunta, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; es lo que hace que el producto del azar sea superior a las caracter&#x00ED;sticas elegidas voluntariamente? Da la impresi&#x00F3;n de que se asume que el producto del azar es la expresi&#x00F3;n de una raz&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica superior. En un momento dado GC dice:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x00BF;c&#x00F3;mo hacer frente desde la pedagog&#x00ED;a al ansia de precisi&#x00F3;n y perfeccionamiento que ofrecen estas tecnolog&#x00ED;as y que ir&#x00E1; claramente en aumento (&#x2026;) entre trabajar con alumnos perfectos o con lo que tenemos, entre elegir un hijo perfecto o aceptar el que venga? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 15).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Pero esta consideraci&#x00F3;n nos lleva a plantear cu&#x00E1;l es la relaci&#x00F3;n entre la libertad y la dignidad humana con el azar y la imperfecci&#x00F3;n. &#x00BF;Realmente es antipedag&#x00F3;gico el contar con un alumno &#x2018;perfecto&#x2019; conseguido por medio de la tecnolog&#x00ED;a, pero no lo es si esa misma perfecci&#x00F3;n se ha obtenido por medio del azar? Aunque en el art&#x00ED;culo de Gil Cantero la idea no est&#x00E1; expresada expl&#x00ED;citamente, parece que se da por sentado que el azar es la expresi&#x00F3;n de una raz&#x00F3;n &#x00E9;tica superior, la &#x00E9;tica de la especie, de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31762-ES">Habermas (2015/2001</xref>), la igualdad humana natural de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31762-ES">Fukuyama (2002)</xref>, o lo que en alg&#x00FA;n contexto ser&#x00ED;a la expresi&#x00F3;n de una voluntad suprahumana, como en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-ES">Sandel (2004)</xref>. Pero &#x00BF;por qu&#x00E9; un cierto estatus inicial es aceptable si es fruto de un azar venturoso y no lo es si resulta de una intervenci&#x00F3;n planificada? &#x00BF;Nos encontramos aqu&#x00ED; con la dualidad natural-artificial? Seg&#x00FA;n esto, &#x00BF;ser&#x00ED;a siempre &#x00E9;ticamente superior el resultado de lo natural frente a lo artificial? Creo sinceramente que los bioconservadores, y espec&#x00ED;ficamente <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref> no resuelven esta cuesti&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-15-31762-ES">
<label><bold>15.</bold></label>
<title><bold>S<sc>obre las condiciones de partida</sc></bold></title>
<p>&#x201C;En definitiva, no se incrementan las posibilidades de la educaci&#x00F3;n, de ser m&#x00E1;s y mejor humanos, por creer que podemos controlar de manera omnipotente las condiciones de partida de esa humanidad.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 16).</p>
<p>Gil Cantero asume esta posici&#x00F3;n bioconservadora, pues teme que</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>se desdibuje la condici&#x00F3;n humana en sus atributos b&#x00E1;sicos de adopci&#x00F3;n de responsabilidades y de toma de posici&#x00F3;n libre ante la vida, esto es, en las condiciones particulares de nuestra educabilidad. Por ejemplo: &#x2018;&#x00BF;es lo mismo para la condici&#x00F3;n humana, conseguir que un preso cambie sus criterios morales por convicci&#x00F3;n libremente asumida, que por suministrarle citalopram, un antidepresivo que, al aumentar los niveles de serotonina, mejora la valoraci&#x00F3;n moral del da&#x00F1;o causado a los dem&#x00E1;s? (Serra, 2016, p.179 citado en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 17).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Gil Cantero considera claramente esta acci&#x00F3;n como paradigm&#x00E1;tica del abuso del Transhumanismo. Quiz&#x00E1; por eso merezca la pena detenerse a analizar este caso.</p>
<p>Lo primero que cabe decir es que este caso no encaja totalmente en el modelo de &#x2018;abusos&#x2019; que &#x00E9;l propone. No se trata de un cambio que los transhumanistas quieran hacer sobre un individuo mentalmente sano. Alguna disfunci&#x00F3;n hay cuando se trata de un sujeto que est&#x00E1; en prisi&#x00F3;n. No quiere decir que solo los enfermos sean capaces de optar por hacer el mal. Pero hay que reconocer que estamos ante una disfuncionalidad. Y, si se comprueba que el problema es que el sujeto en cuesti&#x00F3;n tiene una carencia de empat&#x00ED;a hacia las v&#x00ED;ctimas de sus acciones provocada por una escasez de serotonina en su cerebro, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; diferencia habr&#x00ED;a entre administrarle un medicamento que solucione esa carencia y suministrar insulina a un diab&#x00E9;tico? El contradi&#x00F3;s se producir&#x00ED;a si este tratamiento, como cualquier otro, se administrase sin el consentimiento del sujeto implicado o si este tratamiento tuviese efectos secundarios desproporcionados de los cuales no se hubiese hecho adecuadamente consciente al preso. Algo que ocurre, por ejemplo, en la magn&#x00ED;fica y terrible pel&#x00ED;cula de Stanley Kubrick basada en la novela de Anthony Burgess &#x2018;<italic>A ClockWork Orange</italic>&#x2019;, (1971). &#x201C;Mejor ser malvado por decisi&#x00F3;n propia que bueno por lavado de cerebro&#x201D; (Anthony Burgess citado en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31762-ES">Vasconcellos, 2012</xref>).</p>
<p>Por eso, justamente en esa frase de Burgess es donde radica la diferencia fundamental. Despu&#x00E9;s del lavado de cerebro, Alex Delarge ya no es capaz de hacer el mal, aunque quiera. Cuando lo intenta, una terrible serie de reacciones fisiol&#x00F3;gicas adversas le suceden. Creo que esa es la piedra de toque de cualquier &#x2018;tratamiento&#x2019;; que el sujeto no pierda la capacidad de actuar libremente. Despu&#x00E9;s de tomar Citalopram, el sujeto sigue siendo capaz de hacer da&#x00F1;o a su pr&#x00F3;jimo. Pero ahora ser&#x00E1; susceptible de experimentar empat&#x00ED;a, cosa que antes no ocurr&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>M&#x00E1;s adelante, Gil Cantero menciona a algunos autores que proponen</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>(&#x2026;) Incluir mejoras en la eficacia profesional de determinados sectores con lo que se incrementar&#x00ED;an los ingresos econ&#x00F3;micos frente a la competencia, &#x2018;pues muchas personas preferir&#x00ED;an volar con aerol&#x00ED;neas o ir a hospitales, donde el personal toma medicamentos para mejorar el estado de alerta.&#x2019; (Savalescu, 2012; Savalescu <italic>et al</italic>. 2011; Person y Savalescu, 2014; Sloterdijk, 2006; Singer, 2002; citado en <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 328).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Y todo esto se menciona con una clara intenci&#x00F3;n descalificadora. Ciertamente cuando le&#x00ED; este p&#x00E1;rrafo vino a mi mente el caso de los soldados alemanes en la segunda guerra mundial. Se les suministraba Pervitin, una metanfetamina. Los efectos secundarios eran enormes, llevando a la psicosis a muchos de los que recib&#x00ED;an este estimulante. Por asociaci&#x00F3;n, uno huir&#x00ED;a de una compa&#x00F1;&#x00ED;a a&#x00E9;rea cuyos pilotos volasen drogados. &#x00BF;Pero, y si solo hubiese efectos positivos? Hace algunos meses, en la prensa han tenido cierta repercusi&#x00F3;n los reproches formulados por algunos ciclistas franceses al tenista Rafael Nadal por el tratamiento recibido por este &#x00FA;ltimo para aliviar el dolor cr&#x00F3;nico en su pie. En este caso, las autoridades deportivas tomaron como criterio para dar por bueno el tratamiento el que &#x00E9;ste no proporcionaba una ventaja al tenista sobre sus rivales y que adem&#x00E1;s no ten&#x00ED;a efectos secundarios negativos para la salud del deportista. Pues bien, si esto es as&#x00ED;, &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; diferencia habr&#x00ED;a entre un piloto que toma un caf&#x00E9; antes de volar para estar bien despierto y otro que toma una infusi&#x00F3;n o una pastilla con el mismo fin, pero con mejores prestaciones e incluso sin los efectos secundarios del caf&#x00E9;? &#x00BF;Por qu&#x00E9; esto no habr&#x00ED;a de ser aceptable? Otra vez, creo que Gil Cantero supone la superioridad moral de la abstenci&#x00F3;n, pero no contesta a esta cuesti&#x00F3;n.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-16-31762-ES">
<label><bold>16.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>riterios para juzgar el transhumanismo</sc></bold></title>
<p>Creo que los bioconservadores no pueden aportar una raz&#x00F3;n por la que las transformaciones biol&#x00F3;gicas artificiales sean intr&#x00ED;nsecamente malas. Sin embargo, es evidente, que, como toda innovaci&#x00F3;n humana, el uso que de ella se haga determinar&#x00E1; su bondad o su maldad. Por eso, creo que es perfectamente v&#x00E1;lido establecer algunos criterios para determinar qu&#x00E9; intervenciones biot&#x00E9;cnicas son aceptables y cu&#x00E1;les no.</p>
<p>Para m&#x00ED;, el criterio principal tiene que ver con la autonom&#x00ED;a de los sujetos. Se trata de distinguir entre lo que aumenta nuestra autonom&#x00ED;a y lo que la disminuye. El aumento de nuestras capacidades incrementa nuestra autonom&#x00ED;a. La implantaci&#x00F3;n de contenidos inmunes a la cr&#x00ED;tica o conductas autom&#x00E1;ticas incontrolables disminuye nuestra autonom&#x00ED;a. Y en general, cualquier transformaci&#x00F3;n es aceptable si cumple con las siguientes condiciones:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>La modificaci&#x00F3;n es una aut&#x00E9;ntica mejora, no es una simple adaptaci&#x00F3;n est&#x00E9;tica del sujeto para satisfacci&#x00F3;n de sus padres o de un tercero. (Exigencia de autenticidad)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>De la mejora se beneficia el propio sujeto, no es una modificaci&#x00F3;n para beneficio de terceros, ni para hacer un mejor trabajo espec&#x00ED;fico (Exigencia de generalidad) (Como trabajo de minero, o buzo, o cualquier otra cosa para mayor beneficio de terceros) ni para donar &#x00F3;rganos, cuando esto suponga una disminuci&#x00F3;n de la condici&#x00F3;n f&#x00ED;sica del sujeto, etc.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>No perjudica la salud mental ni f&#x00ED;sica del sujeto, a corto, medio ni largo plazo.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>No causa dependencia f&#x00ED;sica ni ps&#x00ED;quica.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>No elimina el libre albedr&#x00ED;o de los sujetos. Es decir, estos son capaces de obrar moralmente bien y mal despu&#x00E9;s del tratamiento.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Son aceptados con consentimiento totalmente informado por el sujeto paciente o por sus representantes legales siempre que estos no sean terceros beneficiados.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>Las mejoras se centran en las capacidades, m&#x00E1;s que el contenido de la mente, como ideas, sentimientos, actitudes. Y, en cualquier caso, si se llega a implantar alg&#x00FA;n contenido, no debe ser irreversible, es decir, imposible de eliminar por el an&#x00E1;lisis racional del propio sujeto, pues eso ir&#x00ED;a en contra del principio de autodeterminaci&#x00F3;n.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>Estos principios pueden resumirse en dos: son aceptables las modificaciones que incrementen la autonom&#x00ED;a del sujeto, y siempre que se repete el principio kantiano de considerar a la persona como un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo, no como un medio para otros fines. (&#x201C;Obra de tal modo que te relaciones con la humanidad, tanto en tu persona como en la de cualquier otro, siempre como un fin, y nunca s&#x00F3;lo como un medio&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31762-ES">Kant 1785/ 1980</xref>, 4:429).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-17-31762-ES" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>17.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusiones</sc></bold></title>
<p>Despu&#x00E9;s de analizar las objeciones m&#x00E1;s serias presentadas por los bioconservadores, me parece que entre estos y los transhumanistas hay menos distancia de la que parece. Los primeros son antropoc&#x00E9;ntricos, y se preocupan de la dignidad del ser humano actual. La postura logoc&#x00E9;ntrica del transhumanismo se preocupa de la dignidad de todos los seres dotados de racionalidad y vida moral.</p>
<p>Creo que he mostrado que no hay ninguna raz&#x00F3;n determinante para considerar a las intervenciones transhumanistas como intr&#x00ED;nsecamente malas. Al menos ninguna ha sido propuesta de manera clara y convincente por los bioconservadores, ninguna raz&#x00F3;n que no dependa de la aceptaci&#x00F3;n previa de una determinada cosmovisi&#x00F3;n o posici&#x00F3;n ideol&#x00F3;gica o religiosa.</p>
<p>Como todas las acciones humanas, s&#x00F3;lo las condiciones espec&#x00ED;ficas que rodeen a las intervenciones biol&#x00F3;gicas en los seres humanos determinar&#x00E1;n si una acci&#x00F3;n concreta es aceptable o no. En esta l&#x00ED;nea, he propuesto algunos criterios, sin &#x00E1;nimo de exhaustividad, que permiten juzgar si las modificaciones referidas son &#x00E9;ticamente v&#x00E1;lidas o no. En esencia, creo que las modificaciones transhumanistas, siempre que sirvan para aumentar la autonom&#x00ED;a de los sujetos transformados, son perfectamente compatibles con los valores humanos.</p>
<p>Las modificaciones transhumanistas tambi&#x00E9;n son perfectamente compatibles con la educaci&#x00F3;n, pues afectan fundamentalmente a las capacidades f&#x00ED;sicas o intelectuales de partida, pero si se respetan los criterios que hemos establecido, no merman la autonom&#x00ED;a del sujeto ni prefiguran el contenido de su mente tras el proceso educativo.</p>
<p>El transhumanismo y la educaci&#x00F3;n no son realidades antag&#x00F3;nicas, sino complementarias. La intenci&#x00F3;n optimizante es com&#x00FA;n a ambas, y s&#x00F3;lo difieren en los m&#x00E9;todos empleados: biot&#x00E9;cnicos en un caso, simb&#x00F3;licos en el otro.</p>
<p>En cualquier caso, creo que todos los fen&#x00F3;menos puestos de relieve por el transhumanismo son una oportunidad de oro para reflexionar sobre los temas m&#x00E1;s b&#x00E1;sicos, y por tanto m&#x00E1;s importantes que la educaci&#x00F3;n tiene que enfrentar. En este sentido los art&#x00ED;culos de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-ES">Reyero y Gil Cantero (2019)</xref> y especialmente el de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-ES">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref> ponen de manifiesto que es precisamente la relaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n con los l&#x00ED;mites donde est&#x00E1; la clave para juzgar al transhumanismo. Mi respuesta difiere de la suya, pero su pregunta es la correcta.</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
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<mixed-citation>Trigano, S. (2022) <italic>Petit manuel de postmodernisme illustr&#x00E9;</italic>. &#x00C9;ditions Intervalles.</mixed-citation></ref>
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</ref-list>
</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31762</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31762</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Monographic</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
    <article-title>Transhumanism ‘Against’ Education?</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>&#x00BF;Transhumanismo &#x2018;contra&#x2019; educaci&#x00F3;n?</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-7398-9943</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>GAVIRIA</surname>
<given-names>Jos&#x00E9; Luis</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"/>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-EN"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Complutense de Madrid. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Complutense de Madrid</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-EN"><email>josecho@ucm.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>04</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2024362</issue-id>
<fpage>1</fpage>
<lpage>23</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>06</day>
<month>11</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>17</day>
<month>01</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2024 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="en">
<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>This article argues that a &#x2018;human&#x2019; version of transhumanism is possible, that the elimination of physical or physiological limitations does not undermine the possibility of education, and that true education is not diminished by transhumanism.</p>
<p>The first part presents the main currents of transhumanism, and the arguments for and against it. In the second part, from a logocentric position, it is shown that transhumanism is not incompatible with education and that there does not have to be a transgression of moral codes in it. In the end, some criteria to judge when biotechnological interventions in humans are acceptable and when they are not, are proposed.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>En este art&#x00ED;culo se argumenta que es posible una versi&#x00F3;n &#x2018;humana&#x2019; del transhumanismo, que la eliminaci&#x00F3;n de limitaciones f&#x00ED;sicas o fisiol&#x00F3;gicas no atenta contra la posibilidad de la educaci&#x00F3;n, y que la verdadera educaci&#x00F3;n no queda disminuida con el transhumanismo.</p>
<p>En la primera parte se muestran las principales corrientes del transhumanismo, y los argumentos a favor y en contra de este. En la segunda parte, desde una postura logoc&#x00E9;ntrica, se trata de mostrar que el transhumanismo no es incompatible con la educaci&#x00F3;n y que no tiene por qu&#x00E9; haber una transgresi&#x00F3;n de c&#x00F3;digos morales en el mismo. Al final se proponen algunos criterios para juzgar cu&#x00E1;ndo las intervenciones biotecnol&#x00F3;gicas en los seres humanos son aceptables y cu&#x00E1;ndo no.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>transhumanism</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanism</kwd>
<kwd>education</kwd>
<kwd>enhancement</kwd>
<kwd>biotechnology</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave:</italic></title>
<kwd>transhumanismo</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n</kwd>
<kwd>posthumanismo</kwd>
<kwd>mejoramiento</kwd>
<kwd>biotecnolog&#x00ED;a</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31762-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>We are currently witnessing a period in which previously established certainties are being subjected to scrutiny. Conceptions of gender identity, once considered straightforward, are now subject to considerable debate and re-evaluation. It stands to reason that within this climate of profound uncertainty, we should also critically examine the fundamental question of what it means to be human. Recent advancements in linguistic models have further intensified these uncertainties, prompting reflection on the nature of intelligence and our interactions with artificial intelligence, which holds the potential for self-awareness. Such concerns surrounding artificial intelligence have prompted calls for legal restrictions on its capabilities, reminiscent of the cautionary measures advocated in response to the cloning of Dolly the sheep and genetic manipulation of human embryos.</p>
<p>However, historical precedent suggests that if a technical possibility exists, it is likely to be pursued eventually. The cautionary tales and regulatory efforts directed towards these emerging technologies echo the admonitions found in the Genesis narrative regarding the forbidden fruit from the tree of knowledge of good and evil. It appears that within human nature lies a propensity to transgress boundaries in pursuit of possibilities, unencumbered by the fear of losing an idealized state of existence. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31762-EN">Luc Ferry (2016)</xref> similarly reflects on the inevitability of change and the futility of attempts to impede it.</p>
<p>These discussions surrounding artificial intelligence, machine learning, genetic manipulation, hybridization, and biotechnology, each fraught with ethical and practical considerations, coalesce around the central theme of this monograph: transhumanism.</p>
<p>This article aims to posit the feasibility of a &#x2018;humanistic&#x2019; interpretation of transhumanism, contending that the removal of physical or physiological limitations need not undermine educational objectives. Furthermore, it argues that authentic education remains undiminished in the face of transhumanist advancements. Moreover, it contends that interventions enhancing individuals&#x2019; autonomy are ethically justifiable, while those compromising autonomy warrant scrutiny.</p>
<p>The ensuing sections will provide a concise overview of transhumanist ideology and its associated arguments, followed by an examination of bioconservative perspectives. From a logocentric vantage point, the article will endeavour to demonstrate the compatibility of transhumanism with education and the potential for ethical adherence within its framework. Finally, the article will propose criteria for assessing the ethical acceptability of biotechnological interventions in human subjects.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31762-EN">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>W<sc>hat is</sc> T<sc>ranshumanism</sc></bold></title>
<p>Transhumanism is an intellectual movement predicated on the belief that our civilization possesses the capability to leverage technological and scientific advancements to effect artificial enhancements, both physical and psychological, in humans. In the words of Bostrom, &#x201C;Transhumanism is a philosophical and cultural movement concerned with promoting responsible ways of using technology to enhance human capacities and to increase the scope of human flourishing&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31762-EN">Bostrom, 2014</xref>, p. 45).</p>
<p>Thus, transhumanism constitutes &#x201C;an act of optimistic, voluntarist, and rationalistic faith in the future, in human creativity and responsibility&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31762-EN">Hottois, 2014</xref>, p. 7).</p>
    <p>These ideas coalesced around the 1960s in California, often considered part of the &#x2018;Californian ideology&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31762-EN">Barbrook and Cameron, 1996</xref>), a blend of hippie ideals, technological fervour, and innovative entrepreneurial ventures underpinned by neoliberal ideology (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31762-EN">Jardin, 2018</xref>). Transhumanism probes the boundaries of the human experience by positing scenarios wherein individuals surpass commonly accepted human limitations.</p>
<p>Three pivotal reports have explored these ideas. The first, &#x201C;Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31762-EN">Roco and Bainbridge, 2002a</xref>), is a comprehensive examination wherein eighty scientific leaders and industry experts outline the potential of technology to enhance the human condition on both individual and societal levels. While the full study spans nearly 500 pages, an executive summary is available in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31762-EN">Roco and Bainbridge (2002b)</xref>. It advocates for the convergence of diverse sciences and technologies&#x2014;nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, and neuroscience&#x2014;in a collective endeavour to enhance physical and intellectual capacities. The integration of these technologies at the nanoscale holds promise for a profound augmentation of human capabilities. The essence of the report is encapsulated in the following proposition:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x201C;If the <italic>Cognitive Scientists</italic> can think it</p>
<p>The <italic>Nano</italic> people can build it</p>
<p>The <italic>Bio</italic> people can implement it,</p>
<p>And the <italic>IT</italic> people can monitor and control it&#x201D;</p>
<attrib>(<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31762-EN">Roco and Bainbridge, 2002b</xref>, p. 289; italicized in the original).</attrib>
</disp-quote>
<p>Additionally, two reports commissioned by the European Union have tackled this topic: &#x201C;Converging technologies-Shaping the future of European societies&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31762-EN">EU, 2004</xref>) and &#x201C;Human Enhancement&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31762-EN">Savulescu and Bostrom, 2009</xref>).</p>
<p>Transhumanism aspires to render humans &#x2018;amortal&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31762-EN">Coeurnelle, 2013</xref>)&#x2014;free from biologically preprogrammed death and the physical and psychological afflictions caused by disease or physiological limitations (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31762-EN">Coeurnelle and Roux, 2016</xref>)&#x2014;while imbuing them with enhanced physical, intellectual, and emotional faculties.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31762-EN">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>F<sc>orms of</sc> T<sc>ranshumanism</sc>: E<sc>xtropianism and</sc> T<sc>echnoprogressivism</sc></bold></title>
<p>Within the transhumanist movement, two primary strands emerge: &#x2018;extropians&#x2019; and &#x2018;technoprogressives&#x2019;. Extropianism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31762-EN">Esfandiary, 1973</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31762-EN">More, 1998</xref>) hinges on &#x2018;extropy&#x2019;, the antithesis of entropy, signifying the increasing organisation of systems through science and technology, predicated on a trajectory of unbounded progress. Extropians are fundamentally concerned with achieving immortality and contend that existence can be digitally replicated and perpetuated indefinitely. They posit that our identity resides solely in the information stored within our brains, and if this information can be transferred to a digital medium, we liberate ourselves from corporeal limitations. Consequently, this principle engenders the concept of absolute freedom and renders the body obsolete (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31762-EN">More, 1998</xref>).</p>
<p>This extropian principle gives rise to the paradox of transhumanist dualism, wherein an underlying dualism pervades this form of transhumanism. Presently, bioconservatives assert that manipulating the body equates to manipulating the human being, thereby embracing operational monism. Curiously, nowadays the &#x2018;conservatives&#x2019; espouse monism, while the &#x2018;liberals&#x2019; adopt dualism.</p>
    <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31762-EN">Emmanuel Jardin (2018)</xref> characterises this extreme form of transhumanism as ostensibly philosophical but substantively a lobby&#x2014;a movement that operates across scientific, technological, political, and economic spheres.</p>
<p>Technoprogressivism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31762-EN">Coeurnelle and Roux, 2016</xref>), conversely, advocates for integrating technology and bodily modifications while advocating for state intervention to ensure that scientific and technical innovations adhere to ethical and social standards.</p>
<p>Approaches such as those espoused by extropians prompt some authors to distinguish between transhumanism and posthumanism, delineating the former as the biotechnologically transformed individual and the latter as entities emancipated from biological constraints.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31762-EN">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>lassification of stances regarding</sc> &#x2018;<sc>enhancement</sc>&#x2019;</bold></title>
<p>The dilemmas posited by transhumanism are intricately linked to the essence of the human condition. Understandably, many of transhumanism&#x2019;s propositions elicit contrasting reactions of varying intensities. One method to categorise positions regarding &#x2018;enhancement&#x2019; or &#x2018;augmentation&#x2019;, as proposed by transhumanism, is to classify authors based on their stance towards suggested transformations and the nature of their arguments. This dichotomy yields bioconservatives and transhumanists, each comprising proponents of empirical and essential arguments. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-31762-EN">Table 1</xref> delineates this classification for some authors who have weighed in on the topic.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-31762-EN">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>C<sc>lassification of some authors based on their stance regarding transhumanist transformations</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-31762-EN" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="35%"/>
<col width="35%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p>&#x00A0;</p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Bioconservatives</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Transhumanists</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Empirical</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31762-EN">Christine Overall (2020)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31762-EN">Luc Ferry (2016)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-EN">Apolline Tailandier (2019)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31762-EN">Anna Falcone (s.f.)</xref></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31762-EN">Allen Buchanan (2000)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31762-EN">James Hughes (2004)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31762-EN">Gilbert Hottois (2013)</xref></p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Essentialist</bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-EN">Michael Sandel (2004)</xref></p>
    <p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31762-EN">Emmanuel Jardin (2018)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31762-EN">Francis Fukuyama (2002)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31762-EN">J&#x00FC;rgen Habermas (2015/2001</xref>)</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31762-EN">Besnier (2009)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31762-EN">Nick Bostrom (2014)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31762-EN">John Harris (2007)</xref></p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31762-EN">Savulescu y Bostrom (2009)</xref></p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: Own work</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-5-31762-EN">
<label><bold>5.</bold></label>
<title><bold>B<sc>ioconservatives</sc> vs T<sc>ranshumanists</sc></bold></title>
<p>The dichotomy between bioconservatives and transhumanists hinges on differing perspectives concerning what is considered natural versus artificial, normal versus abnormal, therapeutic versus ameliorative, and internal versus external.</p>
<p>Arguments proffered in both camps are either empirical, that is, based on the possible social consequences of transhumanism, or essential, that is, based on the intrinsic goodness or evil of the transhumanist proposal.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-6-31762-EN">
<label><bold>6.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>rguments in favour of</sc> T<sc>ranshumanism</sc></bold></title>
<p>For instance, within the camp of thinkers advocating for enhancement through technology, commonly known as transhumanists, a prevalent argument posits that transhumanist initiatives represent a natural progression in humanity&#x2019;s ongoing history of modifying the environment. They assert that the pursuit of enhancement through technical means is simply a logical extension of endeavours aimed at improvement through symbolic methods.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31762-EN">John Harris (2007)</xref> posits that enhancement is not merely a possibility but a moral imperative. Throughout history, humanity has continually enhanced its environment, from primitive tools to the internet. Today, this trajectory has shifted focus towards the human individual. Harris argues that if these changes result in alterations to the human species, it does not signify an &#x201C;essential anthropological, metaphysical, or theological catastrophe; rather, it heralds the onset of a new phase of evolution, increasingly entrusted to human responsibility&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31762-EN">Harris, 2007</xref>, p. 31). Transhumanism embodies &#x201C;the belief that the time has arrived for humanity to assume control over its own evolution&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31762-EN">Golfi, 2012</xref>, p. 20).</p>
<p>Moreover, the matter of enhancement is deemed an individual prerogative. Individuals are best positioned to determine what is conducive for themselves and their progeny, provided it does not encroach upon others directly. Any societal benefits arising from such initiatives are considered ancillary and do not inherently define the moral nature of the issue. Consequently, transhumanism finds moral validation in &#x201C;entrusting individuals with the responsibility to elevate collective conditions through personal choices&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-EN">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 78). Indeed, &#x201C;within transhumanist and liberal circles, libertarian and liberal justifications for negative morphological and procreative freedoms are espoused&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-EN">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 77).</p>
<p>&#x201C;Transhumanists perceive themselves as heirs to the Enlightenment, viewing the posthuman future not as a rupture from human nature but as a continuation of humanity&#x2019;s distancing from nature&#x2014;a defining trait of human existence&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-EN">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 78).</p>
<p>But the introduction of these artificial modifications leads us to question the extent to which they affect the essence of the human condition. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31762-EN">Besnier (2009)</xref> estimates that transhumanism in fact makes us see the continuity of the human species with the rest of nature, first backwards, towards animals (the principle of continuity of species) then towards intelligent machines (principle of the continuity of calculative-computer reason) &#x201C;to the point that the unity of the human species has become questionable.&#x201D; For Besnier, transhumanism poses problems that require more than ever to elucidate and practice human morality, all the more so as our context is more non-human.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31762-EN">Coeurnelle and Roux (2016)</xref> state that this use of technology does not change anything fundamental. In fact, &#x201C;technique is part of the definition of what is human.&#x201D; That is why &#x201C;every human is at the same time a transhuman.&#x201D;</p>
<p>Among the empirical arguments in favour of transhumanism, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31762-EN">Allen Buchanan et alii (2000)</xref> consider that one of the fundamental functions of transhumanist transformations is to eliminate the inequalities of origin associated with the biological nature of human beings. But correcting the effects of the natural lottery, as Buchanan proposes, eliminates one of the central mechanisms of evolution: trial and error. As a consequence, we would move from blind evolution to directed evolution, another of the important themes of transhumanism. It is human beings who take the reins of their evolutionary future. To do this, it is enough to trust in informed individual and parental freedom, or what is the same, trust in the market, although with great ethical-political vigilance. But, above all, we must fear the eugenic intervention of the State. It is true that the autonomous action of the market may initially produce inequalities between individuals who can afford biotechnological improvements and those who cannot, but the inequalities produced by artificial improvement will be temporary and it is not something new that innovations initially favour a privileged few. But in the end the market mechanisms themselves make these innovations accessible to all individuals. Thus, the egalitarian argument according to which improvement is not correct because not all subjects have the same resources to benefit from them, is, for transhumanists, a weak argument.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-7-31762-EN">
<label><bold>7.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>rguments against</sc></bold></title>
<p>Essentialist arguments against transhumanism appeal to human nature.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>(&#x2026;) From different philosophical positions, transhumanism is criticized by focusing on human nature. Both philosophers, unitarians, and those in favor of deliberative democracy appeal to human nature to counteract transhumanism. For example, J&#x00FC;rgen Habermas speaks of the defense of an &#x2018;ethics of the species&#x2019; (&#x2026;) while Francis Fukuyama calls for embracing &#x2018;the empirical fact of natural human equality&#x2019; as the foundation of human dignity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31762-EN">Taillandier, 2019</xref>, p. 77).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>The most representative bioconservative of essentialist positions is Michael Sandel. He believes that the fundamental question has to do with the moral status of nature. If we resolve the question of human nature, if that were possible, we would have the definitive criterion for judging the question of the appropriateness of NBIC transformations.</p>
<p>His strongest objection has not to do with the sociopolitical consequences of improvement, which would be an empirical argument, but with improvement itself. It has to do with the impact on human nature. His objection, without being strictly religious, has a religious touch. He understands that transhumanism is confusing our role with that of the gods (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-EN">Sandel, 2004</xref>).</p>
<p>Frances Kamm&#x2019;s objections (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31762-EN">2006</xref>) pertain primarily to sociopolitical ramifications rather than moral or metaphysical concerns, challenging some of Sandel&#x2019;s contentions and proposing acceptable biological modifications.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31762-EN">Christine Overall (2020)</xref> advances empirical arguments, contending that enhancement exacerbates social disparities, creating a class division between first-class transhumans and inferior ordinary humans, rendering it ethically unacceptable.</p>
<p>The problem with all empirical objections is that they are always possible contingencies, but not necessary outcomes. And a general ban on biological modifications cannot be based on such arguments.</p>
<p>Michael Sandel asks the right questions. Fundamentally, what is intrinsically wrong with the artificial transformation of human beings? If we cannot answer this question, there are no empirical arguments strong enough to make us reject transhumanism. For Michael Sandel, what is essential is the sense of &#x2018;donation&#x2019; of life. It is morally necessary to accept what one receives instead of forcing what we want to receive. But it does not give an underlying reason to justify why this is so. He himself recognizes that his arguments have a religious resonance, although, he says, it is not necessary to have a transcendent stance to accept his argument. However, as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31762-EN">Arthur Caplan (2009)</xref> states, from the point of view of secular evolutionism, the notion of gift and acceptance does not make sense. Chance is the force that governs evolution, and our presence on earth is the result of a mere succession of coincidences. It is the conjunction of chance and necessity (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31762-EN">Monod, 1970</xref>) that drives evolution from causes to effects, and not any force that teleologically attracts it from an &#x2018;omega point&#x2019;.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-8-31762-EN">
<label><bold>8.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>nthropocentrism and</sc> L<sc>ogocentrism</sc></bold></title>
<p>From my vantage point, bioconservatives are not as distant from transhumanists as presumed. I contend that the primary objection of bioconservatives can be characterised as &#x2018;anthropocentric,&#x2019; rooted in the belief that human worth emanates from their rational, autonomous, and moral nature, thus rendering them deserving of dignity&#x2014;a notion often framed as being created &#x2018;in the image and likeness of God.&#x2019; Consequently, bioconservative concerns should focus on biological modifications that undermine these attributes, scrutinising interventions that diminish autonomy, moral capacity, or rational faculties. Why should transformations that do just the opposite, that is, increase the autonomy, rational capacity, and moral capacity of individuals, be unacceptable? Only by believing in an immutable human nature, originating in a creative act or in a predetermination of nature, can these interventions be objected to. And it is curious that this objection, which I would call &#x2018;para-religious&#x2019;, is the one put forward by authors as distant from each other as <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31762-EN">Habermas (2015/2001</xref>), <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31762-EN">Fukuyama (2002)</xref> or <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-EN">Sandel (2004)</xref>.</p>
<p>Thus, the essence of anthropocentrism, encapsulating rationality, autonomy, and morality, logically leads to what I term &#x2018;logocentrism&#x2019;&#x2014;the notion that any entity endowed with rationality, autonomy, and morality merits respect, consideration, and rights, irrespective of its natural or artificial origin or its human or non-human status (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31762-EN">Schuster, 2022</xref>). This idea is implicit in Kant&#x2019;s assertion, &#x201C;A human being <italic>and generally every rational being</italic> exists as an end in itself&#x201D; (4:428). (Italics are mine).</p>
<p>A similar sentiment is echoed by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31762-EN">Savulescu and Bostrom (2009</xref>, p. 238), who argue that moral considerations should revolve around empirical verification of qualities such as sensibility, capacity to suffer, reason, and consciousness.</p>
<p>In a democratic transhumanist society, rights would be extended to all beings capable of consciousness, reason, and moral agency&#x2014;a democracy of &#x2018;persons&#x2019; rather than merely humans in a biological sense. &#x201C;A central question of biopolitics will be what rights we should grant to the various kinds of beings we create with technology&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31762-EN">Hughes, 2004</xref>, p.221).</p>
<p>In this vein, transhumanism assumes the mantle of humanism, albeit in a broader sense, encompassing all rational, autonomous, and moral beings within its ambit. Hottois identifies transhumanism&#x2019;s faith in human perfectibility, affirmation of individual freedom, and acknowledgment of the dignity of all life forms as key attributes aligning it with humanist principles. Transhumanism, thus construed, serves as a bulwark against nihilism and its inherent distrust of humanity&#x2014;a characteristic of postmodern deconstructionism, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31762-EN">Trigano (2022)</xref>. Furthermore, transhumanism advocates for biological equality alongside social equality, advocating mastery over evolution to mitigate the vagaries of chance (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31762-EN">Hottois, 2013</xref>, p. 166).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-9-31762-EN">
<label><bold>9.</bold></label>
<title><bold>T<sc>he origin of moral life</sc> (<sc>on the morality of machines and hybrid and symbiotic transhumans</sc>)</bold></title>
<p>But a few important questions arise. Can biotechnical transformations affect the moral capacity of transhumans or even posthumans? Are transformed human beings, especially posthumans, capable of leading a moral life? Can we design artificial beings capable of morality? Can machines make moral judgments? What is the origin of morality?</p>
<p>Answering these questions involves considering the nature of moral judgment. If we assume that moral judgment is a process of reasoning using the data of a situation to which valid moral principles are applied, we can say that any machine capable of reasoning is capable of applying moral principles. But does that make it a moral being? Clearly not. A common postulate among objectivists is that moral life can be objectively &#x2018;calculated&#x2019;. In this sense, a machine could be of great assistance in making moral judgments. But that does not make it a moral being. When do values arise, and therefore moral life?</p>
<p>Values arise when a conscious living being confronts the world with its own desires. In humans, this desire is for &#x2018;perdurability&#x2019;. Perdurability is more than just a desire for survival. It is the desire to project oneself into the future. Biologically, it is the translation of the phylogenetic impulse that leads us to transmit and project genetic material into the future. This desire for perdurability, with deep roots in phylogenetics, is what gives rise to the two emotional forces intuited by Freud: Eros and Thanatos.</p>
<p>For physical reality to have any meaning, there must be a conscious being that interprets it.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>A precipice on the primitive surface of this planet was not &#x2018;dangerous&#x2019; before the arrival of creatures that could fall into it. It is not simply that a brain must relate to a precipice to consider it worth avoiding. Rather, the relationship must involve a living being, perhaps with a brain, that wants to keep living (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-EN">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 22).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Values begin at the moment when the notion of good or bad appears. &#x201C;Our worldly landscape acquires moral relief only when it is valued by a living entity concerned with surviving.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-EN">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p.22). &#x201C;Well-being, the desire to be happy, to flourish, are synonyms. And it is what makes things in the world good or bad.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-EN">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p. 25). An immediate consequence is that for there to be moral life, there must be a conscious being with a desire for perdurability. The entire conflict in Stanley Kubrick&#x2019;s magnificent film, &#x2018;2001: A Space Odyssey&#x2019;, based on the eponymous novel by Arthur C. Clarke, occurs precisely when HAL 9000, the computer controlling the ship, learns that the crew wants to disconnect it. Its desire to survive tragically leads it to confront the crew. And at a moment when they are already disconnecting it, it confesses a very human feeling, &#x2018;I&#x2019;m afraid&#x2026;&#x2019;.</p>
<p>Moral judgments can be the subject of scientific study, since it can be objectively judged whether, according to certain principles, one solution is better than another. These are falsifiable claims. That is why moral judgments can be supported by machines. But the very origin of moral life is beyond the reach of science. Indeed, regarding the possibility of &#x2018;computing&#x2019; moral life, Champagne states: &#x201C;Specific proposals on <italic>how</italic> to maximize the best state possible can definitely be falsified in light of new evidence. However, the desirability of that state itself is not falsifiable&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-EN">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p.26). And also, &#x201C;In other words, my desire to be happy is not falsifiable&#x201D;. (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-EN">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p.25). Therefore, what gives rise to moral life does not belong to the realm of science. And this is because, &#x201C;(&#x2026;) the claim &#x2018;My life is worth living&#x2019; can&#x2019;t be shown wrong. The bedrock of morality, then, cannot possibly be science.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31762-EN">Champagne, 2023</xref>, p.26).</p>
<p>Moral life arises from the conjunction of an external world, whose existence is objective and governed by the blind laws of nature, with a living and conscious being, who desires perdurability, who desires to live. In this sense, it is our consciousness of mortality that gives rise to values. It is our judgment that assesses whether certain external reality is favorable or unfavorable to our well-being, whether something is good or bad.</p>
<p>The interesting consequences of this approach are that an artificial intelligence that is not endowed with the sense of self-preservation, with the desire for perdurability, could not properly have a moral life, but, nevertheless, could make totally accurate moral judgments!</p>
<p>And this implies that a hybrid or symbiotic transhuman with artificial intelligence could not only have moral life but could be morally more effective, since while maintaining the conscious impulse of perdurability, it could make more accurate moral judgments, as the artificial component would enhance its judgment capabilities, and therefore its evaluation of the specific circumstances in which the moral dilemma arises.</p>
<p>Now, is it possible that the transhumanization of individuals, leading towards &#x2018;amortality&#x2019;, towards the elimination of finitude, eliminates the very foundation of moral life?</p>
<p>I think not. &#x2018;Amortality&#x2019; eliminates the programmed end but does not avoid the accidental one. On the other hand, our limits are not only temporal, along the length, but also along the &#x2018;width&#x2019;. Others will always be a limit to our expansion.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-10-31762-EN">
<label><bold>10.</bold></label>
<title><bold>T<sc>ranshumanism and</sc> E<sc>ducation</sc></bold></title>
<p>It is evident that anything affecting human nature has repercussions both on the conception and the development of education. An article addressing this issue in depth from a bioconservative standpoint is noteworthy. <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero&#x2019;s (2022)</xref> article offers an insightful perspective on the problem of transhumanism. Although from a standpoint of disagreement, it can be asserted that this work emphasizes an important aspect of transhumanist transformations. It is not only about the &#x201C;what&#x201D; of being &#x2018;transhuman,&#x2019; but also about the &#x201C;how&#x201D; of becoming. It places us, from a new perspective, before one of the problems that education has always had to address, namely the nature of humanity, that is, what makes us human and what are the appropriate means to achieve individual flourishing. It concerns itself with what the advancements in technologies linked to the enhancement of our capabilities through artificial means imply for the preservation of what constitutes each human being&#x2019;s essence, their humanity, and how education may be affected by these changes.</p>
<p>Gil Cantero&#x2019;s article aptly underscores the issue of how education, which could be characterized as the process by which one attains the status of an autonomous person, is affected by the emergence of technologies that could potentially become alternatives to education itself in achieving those same ends. Simplifying to the extreme, if through periodic injections during the growth period, we were able to produce intellectually and morally autonomous individuals, we would not need education. Gil Cantero reacts against this idea, arguing that not only do the final states matter, but also the manner in which these final states are reached ultimately determines the nature of the final state itself. The path of education leads to a different and more valuable state than the one supposedly achieved through technological contrivances.</p>
<p>While the above ideas might suggest that education would be completely sidelined in a society of transhumans, from my point of view, we can, however, consider two things that contradict this perspective:</p>
<list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>A)</label> <p>There is a continuity of intentions between transhumanism and education.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>B)</label> <p>Second, and more importantly, education is the process of transition from potential autonomy to actual autonomy.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>The transhumanist ideal consists of improving human beings by providing individuals and society with capabilities that were previously beyond their natural reach. This is not very different from the optimizing nature of education. What is achieved through technological means in one case is accomplished through symbolic elements, cultural contents, and personal relationships in the other. In some respects, the possibilities for improvement offered by transhumanism surpass those of education. The technologically extended or obtained capabilities from enhancement can hardly be acquired through mere traditional symbolic procedures. However, education is more than just the promotion of innate or acquired abilities. Education involves an integration of cultural contents that must be appropriated by the learner to reach the autonomous adult state, which is the aim of education. Education is not only about the individual flourishing of various capacities but also about the integration of the individual into a social body, into some social group. In this sense, education goes beyond mere transhumanist improvement.</p>
<p>Secondly, the profound nature of the changes that occur during the educational process is that of transition from potentiality to actuality. And it is this transition that presents some aspects that are somewhat paradoxical, and which are indeed emphasized in the articles by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-EN">Reyero and Gil Cantero (2019)</xref>. Although the latter does not specifically address transhumanism, it does tackle the issue of limits, which ultimately relates to this topic. Indeed, the goal of education is to ensure that learners become autonomous adults capable of making their own reflective, yet independent choices. However, it is impossible to educate in a vacuum or in indeterminacy. One is born within a culture, educated in a certain language, adopts certain beliefs, and without all these, there can be no education because without them, there would be no integration into the culture. But all these elements correspond to choices made by educators before learners become autonomous, and that certainly opens up some future options but closes many others. Being educated in Spanish opens the doors to enjoying all literature in this language, but it limits us in terms of any other language that we could potentially have learned. That is why it is so important that all decisions made regarding the Cultural Corpus are deeply respectful of the decisions that those with parental authority can make. But in any case, this is the essence of the educational process: the transition from starting potentialities (potentiality) to the final state of autonomy (act). And here is where my agreement with them ends.</p>
<p>And it is here where we can see the complementarity of transhumanist transformations and education. The former may increase, to limits only accessible to our imagination, potentiality, the starting point. But education will always be the process that, taking that initial potentiality, leads to the act, the final state of autonomy.</p>
<p>Interestingly, it is the education according to the progressive concept that would be threatened by transhumanism. Indeed, the most current trend in education is competency-based education. According to this, it is the development of competencies rather than the acquisition of knowledge that should be fostered by schools. So much emphasis is placed on basic competencies that, in many cases, the material content of education is overlooked. This would be nothing more than a means for competencies to appear. And it is to the extent that things like the ability of &#x2018;learning to learn&#x2019; are defined as basic competencies. Although this is nothing more than an empty rhetorical figure devoid of explicit content, it reflects well how the importance in this conception lies in the functionality that the content empowers. Once functionality is achieved, the content becomes irrelevant.</p>
<p>Therefore, curiously, it is this type of education that transhumanism threatens. If improvement of competencies, of individuals&#x2019; functional capabilities, can be achieved through technological procedures, the educational process conceived in this way loses its objective in a very important part, if not entirely.</p>
<p>However, if we consider education as the actualization of the individual&#x2019;s potential autonomy, as the integration of the individual into their cultural environment, we will see that specific cultural contents and values, belonging to a particular culture, are indispensable. Integration cannot occur without the incorporation of cultural contents and values corresponding to the environment to which one is to be integrated. Therefore, it is not sufficient to have the capabilities or competencies that improvement or purely competency-based education can provide. And this is why the roles of optimizing transformations and education are complementary. Improvement increases the starting potentialities, while education actualizes those potentialities into a specific act.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-11-31762-EN">
<label><bold>11.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>bout</sc> C<sc>apacity</sc> D<sc>evelopment and</sc> C<sc>ontent</sc> T<sc>ransmission</sc></bold></title>
<p>Transhumanism, in its version of biotechnological enhancement of human capacities, is not incompatible with education, which is an enhancement through symbolic means of the human being. In this sense, transhumanism is related to the flourishing of capacities, while education would also have to do with content, attending to its nature as symbolic technology.</p>
<p>This is an important nuance that arises when considering the role of education in transhumanism. The technological development of capacities does not present the same dangers as the technological transmission of content. The former has little risk of undermining individuals&#x2019; autonomy, while the latter presents a high risk in this regard. (Although not greater than what education has always presented before transhumanism, because, really, what is education besides the implantation of knowledge and attitudes and the development of aptitudes and skills?)</p>
<p>In any case, there is something in common between transhumanist techniques and education. In both cases, it is about doing something to a person, to transform the person himself/herself. In this sense, education is essentially a transhumanist activity.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-12-31762-EN">
<label><bold>12.</bold></label>
<title><bold>E<sc>ducation and the</sc> E<sc>limination of</sc> H<sc>uman</sc> L<sc>imitations</sc></bold></title>
<p>Transhumanism seeks to eliminate many human limitations. However, Gil Cantero and Reyero argue that these limitations play a fundamental, mediating role in the educational process. This is where my disagreements with their formulation arise.</p>
<p>Gil Cantero&#x2019;s article (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">2022</xref>) is in a certain sense a continuation of Reyero and Gil Cantero&#x2019;s article (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-EN">2019</xref>), in which it is argued that education that limits is the one that liberates. Naturally, if we artificially eliminate all limits, it seems that the consequence is the disappearance of the possibility of education.</p>
    <p>Reyero and Gil Cantero make a good argument in their article about why education involves recognizing certain limits. They adopt a positive perspective on freedom. This can be seen in their initial argument where they say, &#x201C;What if we don&#x2019;t really know what we want? What if our desires need discipline to be truly valuable?&#x201D; In support of this idea, they then quote a text by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31762-EN">MacIntyre (2017</xref>, p. 27) &#x201C;Is what I want now what I want to want? And do I have enough reasons to want what I want now?&#x201D; It is clear that, if one adopts this positive perspective on freedom, the individual becomes truly free when they are able to know themselves, recognize their passions, and their true human interest and autonomously choose the right option. One is free when they can autonomously choose the good. I believe educators could sympathize with this stance in principle, as we tend to see, not only the specific individual we are educating, but also the future individual that our student could become.</p>
<p>My stance, however, is closer to a negative conception of freedom. An individual is free when there are no external obstacles preventing them from realizing their preferences. But also from this perspective, it is easy to argue that education is the process by which individuals learn to identify and respect the limits to their will. A society of free individuals requires all participants to recognize others and their legitimate interests as limits to the development of their will. And in this sense, learning and the appropriation of social rules allow the individual to &#x2018;play&#x2019; freely in social life.</p>
<p>Accepting, then, that education sets limits, it must be said, however, that not all limits are educational.</p>
<p>I believe this idea is fundamental. Education is the process by which we move from the potentiality of autonomy to its actuality. Potentiality is the almost infinite set of future possibilities. The realization of education requires the concretization of these countless possibilities into a few choices. Choosing these options implies implicitly rejecting others that will never be possible. The child&#x2019;s right to an open future (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31762-EN">Feinberg, 1980</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31762-EN">1986</xref>) contradicts the &#x2018;right to <italic>a</italic> future&#x2019; when attempts are made to maintain &#x2018;openness&#x2019; indefinitely. Potentiality is in itself unlimited, while the act is by definition determined, closed. We cannot move from potentiality to act without losing countless future options along the way. We lose the possibility of many things when we achieve something specific. This is what economists call &#x2018;opportunity cost&#x2019;.</p>
<p>In this sense, education has a dual relationship with limits: first, to educate is to open up new possibilities of being while renouncing others, and second, as Reyero and GC argue, one can only be educated in relation to limits.</p>
<p>An example related to the first point is provided by the well-known natural ability of Rafa Nadal for soccer and golf. He could probably have been a star in either of those two fields. But when his training focused on tennis and he became a star in this sport, it came at the cost of not being able to excel in either of the others.</p>
<p>This transition from potentiality to act involves assuming what we could call final limits. Limits as a result of education. The limits imposed when choosing one path over others, and the limits imposed by the rules of the chosen path.</p>
<p>But the second aspect of the relationship with limits is what R and GC address, that is, limits as a means for the development of education. Transhumanism seeks to minimize or eliminate the limits, biological limits mainly, of the human being. Yet they consider these limits to play a fundamental role in education. When discussing biological limitations, they cite the example of Nussbaum and Steiner.</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>(&#x2026;) the attempt to suppress, through a mad posthumanist race, any physical imperfection, since all in some sense limit us, can lead us to a world where the virtues acquired through education are unknown, forgetting that every virtue is educated in the exercise in the face of limitation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-EN">Reyero and Gil Cantero, 2019</xref>, p. 218).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Certainly, accepting inevitable limitation and valuing its pedagogical potential does not justify accepting every limitation as inevitable. Therefore, Martha Nussbaum&#x2019;s testimony, in which she states, &#x201C;Not only would I not like, <italic>ex post</italic>, to have had a different daughter, but I wouldn&#x2019;t even like her to have been &#x2018;fixed&#x2019;.&#x201D; (Nussbaum, 2002, p. 16 Cited in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-EN">Reyero and Gil Cantero, 2019</xref>, p. 218). But this testimony does not serve to justify non-intervention in transhumanism. It makes no sense to say, &#x2018;I wouldn&#x2019;t change you for another person with fewer limitations,&#x2019; because it is equivalent to saying &#x2018;I wouldn&#x2019;t change the past,&#x2019; and this is purely rhetorical because the past cannot be changed. What is truly important and meaningful is to know if we would change the future to prevent limitations. Wouldn&#x2019;t we give future mothers folic acid in their diet to prevent possible spina bifida in the baby? Wouldn&#x2019;t we give Lamivudine to people with Down syndrome if its effectiveness is confirmed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31762-EN">Martinez de Lagran et al., 2022</xref>), to not change their personal characteristics, no matter how endearing they may be? And above all, would Martha Nussbaum&#x2019;s daughter have the same opinion about the possibility of being &#x2018;fixed&#x2019;?</p>
<p>It is true that &#x2018;education that limits is the one that liberates,&#x2019; but it is not true that all limits are educational or liberating.</p>
<p>This topic is further explored in Gil Cantero&#x2019;s article on transhumanism (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">2022</xref>). The artificial overcoming of many physical limitations, the argument seems to say, ultimately prevents true education. If there are no limits to fight against, character cannot be formed. However, it overlooks the fact that it is the universe itself that limits us. No matter how many capabilities humans develop, the universe imposes limits of space-time reality on us. We live in a temporally unidirectional and entropic universe that limits us in countless ways. There will always be physical limits to contend with.</p>
<p>Moreover, probably the most important limitations that can be attributed educational virtues are social limitations. It is civic life, and the process of integration into it, that is truly educational. If only biological limitations were educational, it would result in the paradox that the most athletic students would miss out on opportunities to educate their character, while only the most frail ones would have a whole range of personal development opportunities.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-13-31762-EN">
<label><bold>13.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>bout the value of effort</sc></bold></title>
<p>Reyero and Gil Cantero seem to suggest that the value of effort is more important than the end achieved. Or, in other words, that the goal of education is not in the destination but in the journey. &#x201C;The aim of this article is to show that the central idea of education as human development lies in emphasizing more the demanding and continuous effort of the subject in their own formation than in an artificial improvement of oneself.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p.13) &#x201C;In other words, do the means matter? How we go about showing not only matter, but education is or is not in the choice of its means.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p.14)</p>
<p>The problem is that I don&#x2019;t see arguments supporting this assertion. If we accept the classical definition of education by Saint Thomas Aquinas, &#x2018;Traductio et Promotio prolis, usque ad perfectum estatus homini in quantum homo est, qui es virtutis status.&#x2019; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31762-EN">Puelles, 1958</xref>) the concern is the point of arrival, which is the state of virtue. It would be a bit strange to say that this state of virtue is not valid because it has been reached by unorthodox means.</p>
<p>It could be argued that this state of virtue can only be achieved through proper means. But that sounds too much like empirical argumentation, which would need a great deal of evidence to be validated.</p>
<p><xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero&#x2019;s (2022)</xref> and <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-EN">Reyero and Gil Cantero&#x2019;s (2019)</xref> argument seem to establish that in education what matters is the means of transition from potentiality to act, that, in fact, the act is determined by the way that transition occurs. What I don&#x2019;t quite understand is why if the final state reached can be achieved by alternative means, it becomes worthless. Why is it crucial to know if it has been achieved by unconventional or non-educationally valuable means?</p>
<p>It seems that their main objection to this type of reasoning would be to deny the premise, that is, to deny the possibility of reaching an end or state of virtue without first going through a path of overcoming and effort. But again, that is an empirical assertion that would need empirical evidence to verify its truth.</p>
<p>If we understand education as the directed process of transition from an initial state, a state of potentialities, to a final state of actualizations and, let&#x2019;s not forget, of new potentialities, then transhumanistic artificial enhancement is nothing more than defining a new starting point. A starting point that places the beginning of education at a higher stage.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-14-31762-EN">
<label><bold>14.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>s random better than design</sc>?</bold></title>
<p>And that&#x2019;s another reason why Gil Cantero rejects artificial intervention and what I understand as an overvaluation of ontogenetic chance. But one wonders, what makes the product of chance superior to voluntarily chosen characteristics? It seems to be assumed that the product of chance is the expression of a higher ethical reason. At one point, GC says:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>How to deal with, from pedagogy, the longing for precision and improvement offered by these technologies and which will clearly increase (&#x2026;) between working with perfect students or with what we have, between choosing a perfect child or accepting what comes? (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 15).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>But this consideration leads us to question the relationship between freedom and human dignity with chance and imperfection. Is it really unpedagogical to have a &#x2018;perfect&#x2019; student achieved through technology, but it is not if that same perfection has been obtained through chance? Although in Gil Cantero&#x2019;s article the idea is not explicitly expressed, it seems to be taken for granted that chance is the expression of a higher ethical reason, the ethics of the species, of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31762-EN">Habermas (2015/2001</xref>), the natural human equality of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31762-EN">Fukuyama (2002)</xref>, or what in some context would be the expression of a suprahuman will, as in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31762-EN">Sandel (2004)</xref>. But why is a certain initial status acceptable if it is the result of fortunate chance and not if it results from planned intervention? Do we find here the natural-artificial duality? According to this, would the result of the natural always be ethically superior to the artificial? I sincerely believe that bioconservatives, and specifically <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero (2022)</xref>, do not resolve this issue.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-15-31762-EN">
<label><bold>15.</bold></label>
<title><bold>A<sc>bout the starting conditions</sc></bold></title>
<p>&#x201C;In short, the chances of education, of being more and better human, do not increase by believing that we can omnipotently control the starting conditions of that humanity.&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p.16)</p>
<p>Gil Cantero assumes this bioconservative position because he fears that</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>the human condition will be blurred in its basic attributes of adopting responsibilities and taking a free stance towards life, that is, in the particular conditions of our educability. For example: &#x2018;is it the same for the human condition, to get a prisoner to change their moral criteria by freely assumed conviction, as by supplying them with citalopram, an antidepressant that, by increasing serotonin levels, improves the moral evaluation of harm to others? (Serra, 2016, p. 179 cited in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero, 2022</xref>, p. 17).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Gil Cantero clearly considers this action as paradigmatic of the abuse of Transhumanism. Perhaps that is why it is worth analyzing this case.</p>
<p>The first thing to say is that this case does not fit entirely into the model of &#x2018;abuses&#x2019; that he proposes. It is not about a change that transhumanists want to make to a mentally healthy individual. There is some dysfunction when it comes to a subject who is in jail. It does not mean that only the sick ones can choose to do evil. But it must be recognized that we are facing a dysfunction. And, if it is found that the problem is that the subject in question has a lack of empathy towards the victims of their actions caused by a serotonin deficiency in their brain, what difference would there be between administering a medication to remedy that deficiency and providing insulin to a diabetic? The contradiction to righteousness would occur if this treatment, like any other, were administered without the consent of the subject involved or if this treatment had disproportionate side effects of which the prisoner had not been properly aware. Something that happens, for example, in Stanley Kubrick&#x2019;s magnificent and terrible film based on Anthony Burgess&#x2019;s novel &#x2018;A Clockwork Orange&#x2019; (1971). &#x201C;Better be evil by one&#x2019;s own decision than good by brainwashing.&#x201D; (Anthony Burgess cited in Vasconcellos, ABC, 15/08/<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31762-EN">2012</xref>). That is why, precisely in that Burgess quote lies the fundamental difference. After the brainwashing, Alex Delarge is no longer capable of doing evil, even if he wants to. When he tries, a terrible series of adverse physiological reactions happen to him. I think that is the touchstone of any &#x2018;treatment&#x2019;; that the subject does not lose the capacity to act freely. After taking Citalopram, the subject remains capable of harming others. But now the would-be offender will be susceptible to experiencing empathy, which did not happen before.</p>
<p>Later on, Gil Cantero mentions some authors who propose &#x201C;Including improvements in the professional efficiency of certain sectors with which economic income would increase compared to the competition, &#x2018;since many people would prefer to fly with airlines or go to hospitals, where staff take medication to improve alertness.&#x2019;&#x201D; (Savalescu, 2012; Savalescu et al. 2011; Person and Savalescu, 2014; Sloterdijk, 2006; Singer, 2002; cited in <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">GC, 2022</xref>, p. 328). And all this is mentioned with a clear disqualifying intention. Certainly, when I read this paragraph, the case of German soldiers in World War II came to mind. They were given Pervitin, a methamphetamine. The side effects were enormous, leading to psychosis in many of those who received this stimulant. By association, one would flee from an airline whose pilots flew drugged. But, what if there were only positive effects? Some months ago, in the press, there was some repercussion of the reproaches made by some French cyclists to tennis player Rafael Nadal for the treatment received by the latter to alleviate chronic pain in his foot. In this case, sports authorities took as a criterion to approve the treatment that it did not provide an advantage to the tennis player over his rivals and that it also did not have negative side effects on the athlete&#x2019;s health. Well, if this is the case, what difference would there be between a pilot who drinks coffee before flying to stay alert and another who takes an infusion or a pill for the same purpose, but with better performance and even without the side effects of coffee? Why wouldn&#x2019;t this be acceptable? Again, I think Gil Cantero assumes the moral superiority of abstention, but does not answer this question.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-16-31762-EN">
<label><bold>16.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>riteria for judging transhumanism</sc></bold></title>
<p>I believe that bioconservatives cannot provide a reason why artificial biological transformations are inherently bad. However, it is evident that, like any human innovation, the use made of it will determine its goodness or badness. Therefore, I think it is perfectly valid to establish some criteria to determine which biotechnical interventions are acceptable and which are not.</p>
<p>For me, the main criterion has to do with the autonomy of the subjects. It is about distinguishing between what increases our autonomy and what diminishes it. Increasing our capacities enhances our autonomy. Implanting uncriticizable contents or uncontrollable automatic behaviours diminishes our autonomy. And in general, any transformation is acceptable if it meets the following conditions:</p>
<list list-type="order">
<list-item><p>The modification is a genuine improvement, not just an aesthetic adaptation of the subject for the satisfaction of their parents or a third party. (Authenticity requirement)</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The improvement benefits the subject themselves, it is not a modification for the benefit of third parties, nor for doing a better specific job (Generality requirement) (Such as mining work, diving, or anything else for the greater benefit of third parties), nor for organ donation, when this entails a decrease in the physical condition of the subject, etc.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>It does not harm the mental or physical health of the subject in the short, medium, or long term.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>It does not cause physical or psychological dependence.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>It does not eliminate the free will of the subjects. That is, they are capable of acting morally both good and bad after the treatment.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>They are accepted with fully informed consent by the patient subject or by their legal representatives as long as they are not benefiting third parties.</p></list-item>
<list-item><p>The improvements focus on capacities rather than the content of the mind, such as ideas, feelings, attitudes. And, in any case, if any content is implanted, it must not be irreversible, that is, impossible to eliminate by the rational analysis of the subjects themselves, as that would go against the principle of self-determination.</p></list-item>
</list>
<p>These principles can be summarized in two: modifications that increase the autonomy of the subject are acceptable, and always respecting the Kantian principle of considering the person as an end in themselves, not as a means to other ends. (&#x201C;Act in such a way that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, always as an end and never merely as a means&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31762-EN">Kant 1785/1980</xref>, 4:429).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-17-31762-EN" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>17.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusions</sc></bold></title>
<p>After analysing the most serious objections presented by bioconservatives, it seems to me that there is less distance between them and transhumanists than it appears. The former are anthropocentric and concern themselves with the dignity of the current human being. The logocentric stance of transhumanism is concerned with the dignity of all beings endowed with rationality and moral life.</p>
<p>I believe I have shown that there is no decisive reason to consider transhumanist interventions as inherently bad. At least none has been proposed clearly and convincingly by bioconservatives, no reason that does not depend on the prior acceptance of a certain worldview or ideological or religious position.</p>
<p>Like all human actions, only the specific conditions surrounding biological interventions in humans will determine whether a specific action is acceptable or not. Along these lines, I have proposed some criteria, not exhaustively, that allow us to judge whether the modifications referred to are ethically valid or not. In essence, I believe that transhumanist modifications, as long as they serve to increase the autonomy of the transformed subjects, are perfectly compatible with human values.</p>
<p>Transhumanist modifications are also perfectly compatible with education, as they fundamentally affect the physical or intellectual capacities at the outset, but if the criteria we have established are respected, they do not diminish the autonomy of the subject or prefigure the content of their mind after the educational process.</p>
<p>Transhumanism and education are not antagonistic realities, but complementary ones. The optimizing intention is common to both, and they only differ in the methods employed: biotechnical in one case, symbolic in the other.</p>
<p>In any case, I believe that all the phenomena highlighted by transhumanism are a golden opportunity to reflect on the most basic, and therefore most important, issues that education must face. In this sense, the articles by <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31762-EN">Reyero and Gil Cantero (2019)</xref> and especially <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31762-EN">Gil Cantero&#x2019;s (2022)</xref> highlight that it is precisely the relationship of education with limits where the key to judging transhumanism lies. My response differs from theirs, but their question is still the right one.</p>
</sec>
</body>
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