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<front>
<journal-meta>
<journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">teri</journal-id>
<journal-title-group>
<journal-title>Teor&#x00ED;a de la Educaci&#x00F3;n. Revista Interuniversitaria</journal-title>
<abbrev-journal-title abbrev-type="publisher">TERI</abbrev-journal-title>
</journal-title-group>
<issn pub-type="ppub">1130-3743</issn>
<issn pub-type="epub">2386-5660</issn>
<publisher>
<publisher-name>Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</publisher-name>
</publisher>
</journal-meta>
<article-meta>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31749</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31749</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Art&#x00ED;culos</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
    <article-title>Educación cívica: análisis del concepto</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
    <trans-title xml:lang="en"><italic>Civic Education: a Concept Analysis</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8488-2888</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>L&#x00D3;PEZ-MESEGUER</surname>
<given-names>Rafael</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-ES"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-ES"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2678-5224</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>M&#x00CD;NGUEZ-VALLEJOS</surname>
<given-names>Ram&#x00F3;n</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2-ES"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-ES"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-ES">
<label><sup>*</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Internacional de la Rioja. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Internacional de la Rioja</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2-ES">
<label><sup>**</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Murcia. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Murcia</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-ES"><email>rafael.lopezmeseguer@unir.net</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-ES"><email>rminguez@um.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
<day>04</day>
<month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
    <day>01</day>
    <month>07</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2024362</issue-id>
<fpage>199</fpage>
<lpage>217</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>30</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2024 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="es">

<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>El concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica est&#x00E1; en el centro de numerosas investigaciones en la actualidad. En tanto que cuesti&#x00F3;n sociopol&#x00ED;tica, se debate su importancia como uno de los procesos fundamentales en la socializaci&#x00F3;n de los individuos. En tanto que cuesti&#x00F3;n educativa, es objeto de numerosas discusiones a prop&#x00F3;sito de su organizaci&#x00F3;n curricular y sobre los fines a los que habr&#x00ED;a de aspirar una educaci&#x00F3;n de este tipo. Lo com&#x00FA;n a todos los estudios y debates es una cierta indeterminaci&#x00F3;n en cuanto al objeto de la misma, pues en todas esas investigaciones es denominada de m&#x00FA;ltiples maneras dando lugar a extensiones conceptuales de todo tipo. El objetivo del presente trabajo ha sido el de llevar a cabo un an&#x00E1;lisis te&#x00F3;rico del concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica a partir del conocimiento disponible desde la teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica, social y educativa. As&#x00ED; pues, tomando como referencia el m&#x00E9;todo del an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual, se propone entender la misma como aquellos procesos educativos formales, informales y no formales que desarrollan determinadas competencias ciudadanas (conocimientos, actitudes y destrezas). Seguidamente, se delimitan te&#x00F3;ricamente los &#x00E1;mbitos en que tiene lugar la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica (formal, informal y no formal), distingui&#x00E9;ndolos de otros espacios de socializaci&#x00F3;n donde se producen aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos. Y, por &#x00FA;ltimo, se establecen y discuten te&#x00F3;ricamente las dimensiones, dominios y subdominios de la competencia ciudadana, erigida en la actualidad como el resultado esperable de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica. Con todo, se destaca que estamos frente a un concepto esencialmente controvertido, y que los an&#x00E1;lisis conceptuales sobre el mismo habr&#x00E1;n de actualizarse de acuerdo al p&#x00FA;blico objeto de estudio y en atenci&#x00F3;n a la realidad de cada tiempo hist&#x00F3;rico.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="en">
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>The concept of civic education is the focus of numerous contemporary studies. As a socio-political issue, its importance is debated as one of the fundamental processes in the socialization of individuals. As an educational issue, it is the subject of numerous discussions regarding its curricular organization and goals. What is common to all the studies and debates is a certain indeterminacy regarding its conceptualization, as it is referred to in multiple ways, giving rise to various conceptual extensions. The objective of this present study was to carry out a concept analysis of civic education based on knowledge from political, social and education theory. Thus, by using the method of concept analysis, the objective was to try to understand it from the perspective of formal, informal and non-formal educational processes that develop certain citizenship competences (knowledge, attitudes, and skills). Subsequently, the contexts in which civic education takes place (formal, informal, and non-formal) are theoretically delimited, distinguishing them from other contexts of socialization where civic learning occurs. Finally, the dimensions, domains and subdomains of citizenship competence, currently considered the expected outcome of civic education, are theoretically outlined and discussed. Nonetheless, we must emphasize that we are dealing with an essentially controversial concept, and that the concept analysis will need to be interpreted according to different target audiences, and considering the reality of each historical moment.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave</italic>:</title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n ciudadana</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica</kwd>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica</kwd>
<kwd>ciudadan&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>competencias sociales</kwd>
<kwd>an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords</italic>:</title>
<kwd>citizenship education</kwd>
<kwd>civic education</kwd>
<kwd>political education</kwd>
<kwd>citizenship</kwd>
<kwd>interpersonal skills</kwd>
<kwd>concept analysis</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</article-meta>
</front>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31749-ES" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroducci&#x00F3;n</sc></bold></title>
<p>Uno de los problemas m&#x00E1;s controvertidos y recurrentes en la mayor&#x00ED;a de los pa&#x00ED;ses democr&#x00E1;ticos actuales es la configuraci&#x00F3;n de un modelo de educaci&#x00F3;n dirigido a la promoci&#x00F3;n de una ciudadan&#x00ED;a que responda a los desaf&#x00ED;os de cada etapa hist&#x00F3;rica. As&#x00ED;, cada generaci&#x00F3;n ha de enfrentar la tarea de discernir qu&#x00E9; alcance le concede a la pol&#x00ED;tica en la formaci&#x00F3;n de ciudadanos. Y, correlativamente, ha de ponderar los efectos o consecuencias de la formaci&#x00F3;n de ciudadanos en la configuraci&#x00F3;n de la comunidad pol&#x00ED;tica. A ese respecto, conviene recordar que la educaci&#x00F3;n es un acto pol&#x00ED;ticamente condicionante y a su vez est&#x00E1; pol&#x00ED;ticamente condicionado (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31749-ES">B&#x00E1;rcena, 1998</xref>).</p>
<p>Sobre el primero de los aspectos, recientemente se ha publicado un monogr&#x00E1;fico en esta revista que explora las relaciones entre la teor&#x00ED;a de la educaci&#x00F3;n y la pol&#x00ED;tica por lo que remitimos al mismo para una indagaci&#x00F3;n actualizada sobre esta cuesti&#x00F3;n. Sin embargo, parece prudente partir del supuesto de que el ser humano es alguien que se construye en el marco de una cultura o tradici&#x00F3;n, vinculado a una forma de ver el mundo y de relacionarse con el otro, por lo que cualquier proceso educativo est&#x00E1; necesariamente vinculado a una concepci&#x00F3;n del hombre como ser hist&#x00F3;rico y relacional, que interact&#x00FA;a con los dem&#x00E1;s en funci&#x00F3;n del ejercicio de su libertad y responsabilidad. Sin &#x00E1;nimo de exhaustividad, es suficiente tener presente que sus convicciones y decisiones repercuten sin duda en la vida com&#x00FA;n, por lo que lo educativo presenta exigencias innegables con consecuencias inevitables sobre lo pol&#x00ED;tico.</p>
<p>En cuanto al segundo aspecto mencionado, la investigaci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica sobre lo que es la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica sigue envuelta en interminables debates te&#x00F3;rico-pol&#x00ED;ticos de todo tipo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31749-ES">Rodr&#x00ED;guez <italic>et al.</italic>, 2015</xref>). Y, adem&#x00E1;s, resulta f&#x00E1;cil de constatar que el concepto mismo ha ido incorporando nuevas ideas a consecuencia de los vaivenes de los sistemas de pensamiento y de acci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica a lo largo de los &#x00FA;ltimos decenios, ya sea por la influencia de decisiones pol&#x00ED;ticas e institucionales, o bien por la concurrencia de atentados terroristas u otros acontecimientos de violencia colectiva, que suelen ir acompa&#x00F1;ados de respuestas pol&#x00ED;ticas en materia de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31749-ES">Kells, 2022</xref>). Se advierte, por tanto, que la misma noci&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica es una cuesti&#x00F3;n tan actual como controvertida y sujeta a constante discusi&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica, educativa y acad&#x00E9;mica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31749-ES">J&#x00F3;nsson y Garces Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31749-ES">Naval <italic>et al</italic>., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31749-ES">Anderson, 2023</xref>). Y de ah&#x00ED; surge la importancia de seguir investigando sobre la delimitaci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica del concepto &#x2014;tarea de la que se ocupa el presente trabajo&#x2014;, para lo cual resulta conveniente detenerse, de entrada, en la construcci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rica m&#x00E1;s reciente del mismo.</p>
<p>Si bien es cierto que tanto la idea de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, como su desarrollo conceptual a lo largo del tiempo, hunde sus ra&#x00ED;ces en los debates cl&#x00E1;sicos, modernos y contempor&#x00E1;neos sobre la funci&#x00F3;n social de la educaci&#x00F3;n y el significado de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a en cada periodo hist&#x00F3;rico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2022</xref>), es a partir de la d&#x00E9;cada de los noventa cuando tiene lugar lo que podr&#x00ED;amos denominar un <italic>giro competencial</italic> de los sistemas educativos de los pa&#x00ED;ses m&#x00E1;s desarrollados y donde se produce un renovado inter&#x00E9;s por la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, tanto en el &#x00E1;mbito institucional (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31749-ES">Keating <italic>et al.</italic>, 2009</xref>), como en el acad&#x00E9;mico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31749-ES">Garc&#x00ED;a Guiti&#x00E1;n, 2008</xref>).</p>
<p>Este renovado inter&#x00E9;s, en el plano institucional, se materializ&#x00F3; en que las instituciones comunitarias decidieron promover conjuntamente en los sistemas educativos la competencia social y c&#x00ED;vica como una de las competencias clave del aprendizaje permanente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31749-ES">Recomendaci&#x00F3;n del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, 2006</xref>). La adquisici&#x00F3;n de estas competencias, entendidas como un haz de conocimientos, destrezas y actitudes, capacitaba a los individuos para &#x201C;participar plenamente en la vida c&#x00ED;vica gracias al conocimiento de conceptos y estructuras sociales y pol&#x00ED;ticas, y al compromiso de participaci&#x00F3;n activa y democr&#x00E1;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31749-ES">Recomendaci&#x00F3;n del Parlamento Europeo y del Consejo, 2006</xref>, p. 7). Por tanto, la competencia c&#x00ED;vica se convert&#x00ED;a as&#x00ED; en el resultado esperado de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, siendo una de las exigencias m&#x00E1;s destacadas de la Uni&#x00F3;n Europea, como ya ocurriera en el &#x00E1;mbito norteamericano algunos a&#x00F1;os atr&#x00E1;s (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31749-ES">Center for Civic Education, 1994</xref>).</p>
<p>A partir de entonces, la competencia c&#x00ED;vica se ha convertido en un obligado referente de la identidad comunitaria, adquiriendo mayor reconocimiento y notoriedad pol&#x00ED;tica tanto en documentos oficiales, como tambi&#x00E9;n en las directrices de sus diferentes sistemas educativos. Sin embargo, recientemente se han incorporado nuevas matizaciones en su conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n, pasando de una competencia c&#x00ED;vica reconocida a otra m&#x00E1;s amplia y actualizada &#x2014;denominada competencia ciudadana&#x2014;, se&#x00F1;alando ahora que dicha competencia deber&#x00ED;a centrarse en la &#x201C;posibilidad de actuar como ciudadanos responsables y participar completamente en la vida c&#x00ED;vica y social, basada en un entendimiento de los conceptos y estructuras econ&#x00F3;micas, legales y pol&#x00ED;ticas, as&#x00ED; como de los desarrollos globales y la sostenibilidad&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31749-ES">Recomendaci&#x00F3;n del Consejo, 2018</xref>, p. 10).</p>
<p>Estas cuestiones, aparentemente nominales, han tenido su traslaci&#x00F3;n al &#x00E1;mbito de la pol&#x00ED;tica internacional, sucedi&#x00E9;ndose numerosos intentos de promover lo que ser&#x00ED;an distintas formulaciones de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, m&#x00E1;s afines a la sensibilidad colectiva y a la problem&#x00E1;tica socio-pol&#x00ED;tica del momento. As&#x00ED;, no resulta dif&#x00ED;cil detectar que, en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os, se han producido variados pronunciamientos sobre determinados procesos de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje c&#x00ED;vico, como la noci&#x00F3;n e importancia de la educaci&#x00F3;n para la ciudadan&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica y los derechos humanos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31749-ES">Consejo de Europa, 2017</xref>), la educaci&#x00F3;n para la paz, la educaci&#x00F3;n intercultural, la educaci&#x00F3;n para la ciudadan&#x00ED;a global o mundial (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-31749-ES">UNESCO, 2015</xref>) y el desarrollo sostenible (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31749-ES">UNESCO, 2019</xref>). Estas declaraciones, entre otras, no son sino modulaciones en torno a la misma cuesti&#x00F3;n, la formaci&#x00F3;n del ciudadano adaptado a las circunstancias hodiernas, introduciendo diferentes matices en lo que a la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica se refiere, pero sin cambiar en lo sustantivo el inter&#x00E9;s porque los sistemas educativos se comprometan activamente en la tarea de educar a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>En el &#x00E1;mbito de la investigaci&#x00F3;n acad&#x00E9;mica, desde la emergencia y progresiva popularizaci&#x00F3;n del concepto de competencia c&#x00ED;vica como &#x00AB;output&#x00BB; de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, se han sucedido numerosos intentos de operacionalizar el concepto, siendo la propuesta de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31749-ES">Hoskins <italic>et al.</italic>, (2012)</xref> la que mayor alcance y recorrido ha tenido. Estos autores entienden la competencia c&#x00ED;vica como el conjunto de &#x201C;conocimientos, habilidades, valores y actitudes necesarios para ser un ciudadano activo&#x201D; (p. 13). Para hacer operativo este concepto, establecieron cuatro dimensiones de la competencia c&#x00ED;vica: valores c&#x00ED;vicos, justicia social, aptitudes participativas y conocimientos y habilidades democr&#x00E1;ticas. A su vez, consideraron dos dominios de la competencia c&#x00ED;vica (cognitivo y afectivo-actitudinal), divididos tambi&#x00E9;n en varios subdominios (conocimientos y juicio, para el dominio cognitivo; valores, actitudes, intenciones, acciones, para el dominio afectivo-actitudinal). Cada una de las dimensiones de la competencia c&#x00ED;vica consideradas conlleva una serie de indicadores, referidos a uno o m&#x00E1;s dominios. Desde entonces, los distintos modos de operacionalizar el concepto en el marco de las mediciones internacionales han seguido pautas similares (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31749-ES">Schulz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>), si bien conviene precisar que la &#x00FA;ltima edici&#x00F3;n del informe internacional m&#x00E1;s relevante en materia de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica (ICSS) lleva a cabo una mayor diferenciaci&#x00F3;n entre los dominios y confiere una mayor independencia al dominio afectivo-actitudinal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31749-ES">Schulz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>) Adem&#x00E1;s, esas operacionalizaciones se han visto progresivamente enriquecidas gracias a la posibilidad de recabar nuevos indicadores en funci&#x00F3;n de las nuevas sensibilidades pol&#x00ED;ticas y sociales (participaci&#x00F3;n digital, feminismo, ecologismo, etc.).</p>
<p>Si bien es cierto que esas propuestas han contribuido a establecer indicadores comparados para analizar el distinto grado de competencia c&#x00ED;vica o ciudadana en relaci&#x00F3;n a las dimensiones referidas anteriormente, la delimitaci&#x00F3;n conceptual de lo que sea -o no sea- la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica sigue siendo objeto de inevitables controversias: algunos autores, por ejemplo, directamente ponen en tela de juicio la manera en que se han construido los indicadores mencionados anteriormente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31749-ES">Lupia, 2016</xref>); otros, en cambio, llaman la atenci&#x00F3;n acerca de que tales conceptualizaciones (y sus correspondientes operacionalizaciones) no parten de modelos de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica donde se promueva una aut&#x00E9;ntica subjetivaci&#x00F3;n ciudadana, restringiendo su valor a determinar el grado de socializaci&#x00F3;n &#x2014;que no de educaci&#x00F3;n&#x2014; de los individuos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31749-ES">Biesta, 2016</xref>); otros han se&#x00F1;alado que tales constructos prestan escasa atenci&#x00F3;n a las cuestiones normativas y controversias pol&#x00ED;ticas inherentes a la noci&#x00F3;n de ciudadan&#x00ED;a y educaci&#x00F3;n ciudadana (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31749-ES">Malak-Minkiewicz y Torney-Purta, 2021</xref>). De todo ello, lo que otorga vigor a esta continuada controversia es la cl&#x00E1;sica contienda acerca de la construcci&#x00F3;n del conocimiento de la educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31749-ES">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2009</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31749-ES">2017</xref>), porque perduran dos tradiciones epistemol&#x00F3;gicas que son el reflejo de la amplia discusi&#x00F3;n sobre el problema de la relaci&#x00F3;n, contraposici&#x00F3;n o equilibrio entre la teor&#x00ED;a y la pr&#x00E1;ctica educativa.</p>
<p>Recogiendo las cr&#x00ED;ticas se&#x00F1;aladas anteriormente, este trabajo parte de la premisa de que los intentos hasta ahora referidos de definici&#x00F3;n y operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n reflejan de modo parcial la complejidad y multidimensionalidad del concepto, dando lugar a numerosas extensiones conceptuales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31749-ES">Sartori, 1970</xref>). Y es por ello que el presente estudio tiene por objetivo llevar a cabo una delimitaci&#x00F3;n y clarificaci&#x00F3;n del concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica para su uso en la disciplina social.</p>
<p>A partir de estas consideraciones, resulta bastante evidente la necesidad &#x2014;a menudo poco atendida&#x2014; de que los conceptos utilizados por los investigadores sociales aspiren a la m&#x00E1;xima claridad y precisi&#x00F3;n posible para que las indagaciones emp&#x00ED;ricas obtengan el mayor grado de generalidad y verosimilitud (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31749-ES">Weber, 2014</xref>). Siendo as&#x00ED;, la presente investigaci&#x00F3;n se circunscribe dentro de la tradici&#x00F3;n del an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual en ciencias sociales (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31749-ES">Collier y Gering, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31749-ES">Goertz, 2020</xref>). En particular, se lleva a cabo un an&#x00E1;lisis del concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica en virtud de i) su car&#x00E1;cter controvertido y normativo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31749-ES">Gallie, 1956</xref>), ii) los peligros de la extensi&#x00F3;n conceptual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31749-ES">Sartori, 1970</xref>), iii) sus posibilidades de traducci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31749-ES">Sartori, 1984</xref>), iv) la determinaci&#x00F3;n de sus dimensiones ontol&#x00F3;gicas constitutivas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31749-ES">Nussbaum, 1992</xref>), (v) y la atenci&#x00F3;n al car&#x00E1;cter multidimensional del concepto. Los elementos anteriores, de acuerdo con <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31749-ES">Goertz (2020)</xref>, se limitan al primer y segundo nivel del an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual, esto es, a la determinaci&#x00F3;n de los elementos constitutivos del concepto y su utilizaci&#x00F3;n en proposiciones de car&#x00E1;cter cient&#x00ED;fico. Quedar&#x00ED;a fuera, por tanto, la operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n, que se corresponde con el tercer nivel.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED; pues, con car&#x00E1;cter tentativo, se propone entender por educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica aquellos procesos educativos formales, informales y no formales orientados a desarrollar conocimientos, actitudes y destrezas relativas a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a, es decir, competencias ciudadanas. Tomando como referencia dicha definici&#x00F3;n, se deduce que la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica incorpora un primer plano o &#x00E1;mbito espacial, que aludir&#x00ED;a al tipo de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica al que nos estamos refiriendo (formal, informal y no formal); un segundo plano descriptivo, que contempla los dominios y dimensiones de la competencia ciudadana que tal tipo de educaci&#x00F3;n buscar&#x00ED;a desarrollar; y un tercer plano sociol&#x00F3;gico, que servir&#x00ED;a para acotar el alcance de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica en cuanto que hecho social observable emp&#x00ED;ricamente. Son precisamente estos distintos planos los que han llevado a caracterizar la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica como un tipo de relaci&#x00F3;n social polim&#x00F3;rfica, polis&#x00E9;mica y polit&#x00E9;cnica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>). A continuaci&#x00F3;n, se desarrolla el &#x00E1;mbito espacial y descriptivo del concepto, habi&#x00E9;ndose abordado el alcance sociol&#x00F3;gico en otro lugar (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31749-ES">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold><sc>&#x00C1;mbitos de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica</sc></bold></title>
<p>En alusi&#x00F3;n al &#x00E1;mbito espacial, la definici&#x00F3;n presentada permite diferenciar entre educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica formal, informal y no formal, ya que este tipo de educaci&#x00F3;n a menudo se desarrolla m&#x00E1;s fuera que dentro del &#x00E1;mbito de la escuela y la universidad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31749-ES">Brander <italic>et al</italic>., 2020</xref>). A efectos de evitar posibles confusiones, es preciso indicar que la alusi&#x00F3;n a instituciones escolares se refiere solamente a una de las formas que la educaci&#x00F3;n ha adoptado en las sociedades, pero nunca de modo exclusivo. Conviene insistir en que el t&#x00E9;rmino gen&#x00E9;rico escuela se refiere a una etapa formal del proceso educativo de las personas, por lo que no identificamos educaci&#x00F3;n con sistema escolar, siendo este un marco institucional que no siempre ser&#x00ED;a el m&#x00E1;s id&#x00F3;neo para la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, porque la educaci&#x00F3;n del futuro ciudadano se produce en ese marco y en otros marcos sociales. Por ello, existir&#x00ED;an diferentes tipos de actividades susceptibles de ser encuadradas dentro de los &#x00E1;mbitos espaciales de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, tal y como refleja la siguiente <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-31749-ES">Tabla 1</xref> a modo de resumen clasificatorio.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-31749-ES">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>D<sc>elimitaci&#x00F3;n espacial de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-31749-ES" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="40%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>&#x00C1;mbito</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Actividad</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Definici&#x00F3;n</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>Educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica formal (escuela, universidad)</italic></p></td>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p>Asignaturas espec&#x00ED;ficas</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Procesos de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje llevados a cabo en asignaturas espec&#x00ED;ficas concernientes a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p>Programaci&#x00F3;n transversal</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Programas de ense&#x00F1;anza-aprendizaje transversal (reglados) que redunden en la provisi&#x00F3;n de competencias ciudadanas.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>Educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal</italic></p>
<p><italic>(escuela, universidad)</italic></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos informales</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Procesos de socializaci&#x00F3;n que se circunscriben a la instituci&#x00F3;n escolar y universitaria.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Participaci&#x00F3;n convencional y no convencional</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Procesos de participaci&#x00F3;n (convencionales y no convencionales) que reviertan en aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>Educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica no formal</italic></p>
<p><italic>(Instituciones educativamente no regladas)</italic></p></td>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p>Actividades y programas de car&#x00E1;cter c&#x00ED;vico</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Actividades y programas organizados por instituciones no regladas educativamente que, dirigidas a cualquier p&#x00FA;blico y con una estructura sistem&#x00E1;tica, favorecen el fortalecimiento de competencias ciudadanas.</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>De acuerdo con el marco com&#x00FA;n europeo,</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>educaci&#x00F3;n formal es el sistema estructurado de educaci&#x00F3;n y formaci&#x00F3;n que va desde la educaci&#x00F3;n preescolar y primaria y secundaria a la universidad. Tiene lugar, por norma, en los centros de educaci&#x00F3;n general o de formaci&#x00F3;n profesional espec&#x00ED;fica y conduce a la obtenci&#x00F3;n de la certificaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31749-ES">Consejo de Europa, 2017</xref>, p. 6).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Dicha delimitaci&#x00F3;n espacial contempla la posibilidad &#x2014;y as&#x00ED; ocurre en la pr&#x00E1;ctica&#x2014; de que en algunos pa&#x00ED;ses existen asignaturas espec&#x00ED;ficas relativas a asuntos concernientes a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a, mientras que en otros esta materia es concebida de manera transversal (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31749-ES">Arbu&#x00E9;s <italic>et al.</italic>, 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31749-ES">Comisi&#x00F3;n Europea/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017</xref>). La educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica formal, por tanto, recoger&#x00ED;a alg&#x00FA;n tipo de articulaci&#x00F3;n curricular de la materia, ya sea mediante la introducci&#x00F3;n de asignaturas o mediante una ruta de trabajo transversal. Adem&#x00E1;s, casi todos los pa&#x00ED;ses introducen distintas orientaciones pedag&#x00F3;gicas acerca del modo de regular la asignatura, tal y como puede evidenciarse de los an&#x00E1;lisis realizados sobre Espa&#x00F1;a (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31749-ES">Capilla, 2023</xref>), Francia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31749-ES">Bozec, 2023</xref>), Reino Unido (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31749-ES">Mycock, 2023</xref>) y Suecia (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31749-ES">Sandahl, 2023</xref>); o de manera m&#x00E1;s general en una amplia representaci&#x00F3;n de pa&#x00ED;ses europeos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31749-ES">Slavkova y Kurili&#x0107;, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>Por su parte, tomando como referencia la definici&#x00F3;n marco del Consejo de Europa, se dice que</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>educaci&#x00F3;n informal es el proceso de aprendizaje por el que cada individuo adquiere actitudes, valores, capacidades y conocimientos de influencia educativa y recursos de su propio entorno, tomados de su experiencia cotidiana (la familia, los amigos, los vecinos, los encuentros con otras personas, la biblioteca, los medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n, el trabajo, el juego, etc.) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31749-ES">Consejo de Europa, 2017</xref>, p. 7).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Esta delimitaci&#x00F3;n espacial es la que, a nuestro juicio, presenta mayores problemas en el plano sociol&#x00F3;gico. Entendemos que esta delimitaci&#x00F3;n conceptual se solapa por completo con lo que habitualmente se conoce como socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-31749-ES">Wasburn y Covert, 2017</xref>). Por socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica, de acuerdo a la definici&#x00F3;n cl&#x00E1;sica de Hyman, se entiende el &#x201C;aprendizaje de los patrones sociales correspondientes a la posici&#x00F3;n social de un individuo, mediado a trav&#x00E9;s de diversas agencias de la sociedad (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31749-ES">1959</xref>, p. 25). Tal solapamiento no permitir&#x00ED;a captar la variedad de funciones de regulaci&#x00F3;n, de financiaci&#x00F3;n o de realizaci&#x00F3;n de actividades a trav&#x00E9;s de las cuales las instituciones educativas (escolares y universitarias) promueven el desarrollo de competencias ciudadanas. As&#x00ED; pues, de manera alternativa, ser&#x00ED;a m&#x00E1;s preciso aplicar la denominaci&#x00F3;n educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal a aquellos procesos de aprendizaje menos institucionalizados que, vinculados a instituciones educativas regladas, promueven el desarrollo de competencias c&#x00ED;vicas o ciudadanas. Partiendo de dicha definici&#x00F3;n, experiencias concretas de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal ser&#x00ED;an el proyecto de centro o de universidad en materia de ciudadan&#x00ED;a (que provocar&#x00E1; un tipo u otro de cultura c&#x00ED;vica), los proyectos c&#x00ED;vicos que se lleven a cabo en dichas instituciones (que pueden ser de muy diverso tipo, produciendo distintos efectos), o las pol&#x00ED;ticas de convivencia y el clima de la instituci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31749-ES">Naval <italic>et al.</italic>, 2022</xref>). En definitiva, todo aquello que la literatura especializada denomina de manera bastante imprecisa el <italic>ethos</italic> escolar o universitario y que se ha demostrado que tiene un importante efecto en el desarrollo de competencias ciudadanas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31749-ES">Campbell, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>El elemento diferencial con respecto a la socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica ser&#x00ED;a que &#x00E9;sta se desarrolla en un espacio educativo institucionalizado, mientras que la otra tiene lugar en otros &#x00E1;mbitos como los que describe la propia definici&#x00F3;n (la familia, el trabajo, medios de comunicaci&#x00F3;n, grupos religiosos, etc.). Es decir, estos agentes o agencias de transmisi&#x00F3;n social no comparten con los educativamente reglados los modos de organizar y sistematizar determinados procesos educativos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-31749-ES">Trilla, 2010</xref>), porque son &#x00E1;mbitos propiamente escolares, universitarios o institucionales en donde las pr&#x00E1;cticas quedan supeditadas a ciertos controles estatales. La raz&#x00F3;n por la que realizamos esta diferenciaci&#x00F3;n &#x2014;adem&#x00E1;s de la posibilidad de distinguir ambos planos y hacer indagaciones cient&#x00ED;ficas m&#x00E1;s precisas&#x2014; es que las instituciones escolares y universitarias pueden ejercer cierta influencia sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal. Tal distinci&#x00F3;n conceptual permite pensar que esta modalidad de educaci&#x00F3;n desarrolla actuaciones concretas, dirigidas desde la esfera pol&#x00ED;tica y la acci&#x00F3;n de los educadores, mientras que la socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica depende m&#x00E1;s de la voluntad o discrecionalidad de los agentes y agencias de transmisi&#x00F3;n social sobre algunos contenidos educativos de ciudadan&#x00ED;a.</p>
<p>Otro de los aspectos concernientes a la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal, tal y como la hemos conceptualizado, se referir&#x00ED;a a todo lo que tiene que ver con la participaci&#x00F3;n en espacios educativos reglados. Los motivos que permiten catalogar la participaci&#x00F3;n estudiantil como educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal han sido ya objeto de reflexi&#x00F3;n cr&#x00ED;tica, y son fundamentalmente tres (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>).</p>
<p>En primer lugar, porque hablar de participaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica como tal en estudiantes sin la edad m&#x00ED;nima legal es incurrir en contradicci&#x00F3;n con la asunci&#x00F3;n de derechos de participaci&#x00F3;n que comporta la mayor&#x00ED;a de edad. En este sentido, la participaci&#x00F3;n estudiantil vendr&#x00ED;a a ser m&#x00E1;s bien un aprendizaje de las capacidades o competencias requeridas para la participaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica adulta. Eso no significa que los alumnos no puedan ni tengan derecho a participar, sino que el fin de la participaci&#x00F3;n en el &#x00E1;mbito escolar es aprender a participar (por lo que participar no ser&#x00ED;a un fin en s&#x00ED; mismo, sino un medio para un fin ulterior). En segundo lugar, porque es coherente con la legislaci&#x00F3;n en vigor y con la realidad educativa (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31749-ES">Comisi&#x00F3;n Europea/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017</xref>). Si bien la actual legislaci&#x00F3;n de los pa&#x00ED;ses miembros concede al alumnado una serie de derechos de participaci&#x00F3;n, estos siempre se encuentran limitados por su condici&#x00F3;n de menores de edad. Las razones anteriores no son aplicables, evidentemente, a un p&#x00FA;blico universitario o de mayor&#x00ED;a de edad, pero s&#x00ED; el tercero de los motivos: al tener lugar en espacios educativos reglados, no encaja bien con la definici&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica no formal. Es por eso que, aunque los procesos participativos en instituciones educativas puedan tener una finalidad participativa, muchos de ellos incorporan al mismo tiempo &#x2014;algunos de ellos de manera casi exclusiva&#x2014; una finalidad propiamente educativa: la de adquirir competencias participativas. En cualquier caso, ha de tenerse en cuenta que el concepto de participaci&#x00F3;n estudiantil es tambi&#x00E9;n objeto de controversia y debate acad&#x00E9;mico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31749-ES">Granizo <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, cabe destacar que, cuando se usa la expresi&#x00F3;n educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, habitualmente se evoca un espacio educativo reglado &#x2014;normalmente la escuela&#x2014;. Sin embargo, la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica se nos presenta como una realidad polim&#x00F3;rfica que integra a las tres modalidades educativas (formal, informal y no formal). Una vez m&#x00E1;s, la educaci&#x00F3;n no formal se refiere a &#x201C;cualquier programa de educaci&#x00F3;n dise&#x00F1;ado para mejorar una serie de capacidades y competencias fuera del sistema educativo oficial&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31749-ES">Consejo de Europa, 2017</xref>, p. 7). Lo que se desprende de dicha definici&#x00F3;n es que existir&#x00ED;a una mir&#x00ED;ada de programas o actividades encuadrables dentro de este &#x00E1;mbito (organizados por instituciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales). Siendo as&#x00ED;, de cara a obtener una delimitaci&#x00F3;n espacial que permita hacer operativos los an&#x00E1;lisis, entendemos por educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica no formal aquellas actividades y programas organizados por instituciones no regladas educativamente que, dirigidas a cualquier p&#x00FA;blico y con una estructura sistem&#x00E1;tica, favorecen el fortalecimiento de competencias ciudadanas.</p>
<p>De nuevo, esta definici&#x00F3;n requiere de una serie de matizaciones; en concreto, tres (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer et al, 2023</xref>): en primer lugar, se considera actividad o programa de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica no formal cuando sea llevada a cabo en su mayor parte por instituciones educativas no regladas (escuela, universidad). Sin embargo, puede darse el caso de que tales acciones sean desarrolladas en el seno de instituciones educativas, pero cuya organizaci&#x00F3;n dependa de instituciones sociales. Si se tratase de un programa dise&#x00F1;ado y aplicado por una instituci&#x00F3;n educativa, entonces estar&#x00ED;amos ante modalidades de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica formal o informal, seg&#x00FA;n el caso<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1-ES"><sup>1</sup></xref>. El segundo requisito es que el dise&#x00F1;o educativo de lo que se llevar&#x00E1; a cabo ha de tener un car&#x00E1;cter estructurado pedag&#x00F3;gicamente. Conviene recordar que cualquier dise&#x00F1;o educativo no solo supone</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>el conocimiento de la estructura cognitiva del sujeto que aprende y del espacio sociocultural en el que se aprende, [&#x2026;], sino tambi&#x00E9;n [&#x2026;] la formulaci&#x00F3;n de normas y reglas de intervenci&#x00F3;n pedag&#x00F3;gica en conceptos con significaci&#x00F3;n intr&#x00ED;nseca al &#x00E1;mbito educaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31749-ES">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2017</xref>, p. 367).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Ello nos permitir&#x00E1; distinguirlo, de nuevo, de la socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica (los aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos derivados de la interacci&#x00F3;n familiar o el ambiente laboral, por ejemplo). Por &#x00FA;ltimo, ha de tener una finalidad educativa y, de manera espec&#x00ED;fica, una finalidad educativa referida a asuntos concernientes a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a. Este requisito es compartido con el &#x00E1;mbito formal e informal y nos ocuparemos de &#x00E9;l m&#x00E1;s adelante.</p>
<p>Vemos, pues, que el acento ha de ponerse tanto en el dise&#x00F1;o educativo, como tambi&#x00E9;n en el espacio en donde se desarrollan las actividades o programas educativos. Ello quiere decir que no todas las organizaciones necesariamente desarrollen su actividad en el &#x00E1;mbito de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a, pero es probable que s&#x00ED; desarrollen una o varias actividades c&#x00ED;vicas. Este mero ejercicio dar&#x00ED;a lugar a poder considerar a tales organizaciones como &#x00AB;asociaciones c&#x00ED;vicas&#x00BB; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-31749-ES">Warren, 2001</xref>). Por el contrario, aquellas organizaciones que tan solo declarasen finalidades c&#x00ED;vicas, pero ello no se viera traducido en actividades educativas concretas, no deber&#x00ED;an ser consideradas como tales. Sin menoscabar la importancia de las ideas en el terreno de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica &#x2014;cuesti&#x00F3;n que tambi&#x00E9;n examinaremos&#x2014; dicha distinci&#x00F3;n responder&#x00ED;a fundamentalmente a un principio de claridad metodol&#x00F3;gica: llevar labores de identificaci&#x00F3;n con arreglo a acciones educativas concretas.</p>
<p>Finalmente, es conveniente destacar que, si bien esta forma de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica tradicionalmente ha recibido una menor atenci&#x00F3;n, en los &#x00FA;ltimos a&#x00F1;os va aumentando su importancia a nivel social, tal y como se refleja en dos informes recientes sobre el particular, uno a nivel europeo (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31749-ES">Slavkova y Kurili&#x0107;, 2023</xref>) y otro dedicado a analizar la situaci&#x00F3;n en Espa&#x00F1;a (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer et al, 2023</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31749-ES">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>D<sc>imensiones</sc>, <sc>dominios y subdominios de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica</sc></bold></title>
<p>Coherentemente con la definici&#x00F3;n de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, la competencia ciudadana har&#x00ED;a alusi&#x00F3;n al nivel alcanzado y el nivel deseado de conocimientos, actitudes y destrezas relativos al ejercicio de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a de un individuo en sociedad tras uno o varios procesos de educaci&#x00F3;n formal, informal o no formal. Como nivel alcanzado, designa &#x2014;en un plano descriptivo&#x2014; el &#x00AB;grado de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica&#x00BB; en t&#x00E9;rminos de conocimientos, actitudes y destrezas relativos al ejercicio de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a. Como nivel deseado, nos emplaza al debate normativo sobre aquellas virtudes que son necesarias para la vida buena en sociedad.</p>
<p>As&#x00ED; pues, la competencia ciudadana nos permitir&#x00ED;a identificar una serie dominios y subdominios &#x2014;que ser&#x00ED;an propios de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a&#x2014; y una serie de dimensiones &#x2014;las propias de la arquitectura competencial: conocimientos, actitudes y destrezas (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31749-ES">Schulz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2019</xref>)&#x2014;. El modo de configurar las dimensiones ha ido variando en mayor medida en los sucesivos intentos de operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n del concepto (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31749-ES">Schulz <italic>et al.</italic>, 2023</xref>). Los dominios, por su parte, han mantenido una mayor coherencia desde las primeras mediciones internacionales sobre la materia. La <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-2-31749-ES">Tabla 2</xref> presenta una primera aproximaci&#x00F3;n te&#x00F3;rico-conceptual de los principales dominios y subdominios del concepto de competencia ciudadana, que recoge algunos de los elementos propuestos por la literatura previa identificada al comienzo de este trabajo e incorpora otros nuevos, fruto del an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual llevado a cabo. Posteriormente se detallan los aspectos contenidos en la tabla.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-2-31749-ES">
<label>T<sc>abla</sc> 2</label>
<caption><title>D<sc>elimitaci&#x00F3;n descriptiva de la competencia ciudadana</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-2-31749-ES" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="70%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Dominio</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Subdominio</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Sociedad y sistema pol&#x00ED;tico</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Ciudadan&#x00ED;a legal</italic> (funciones, derechos y responsabilidades de los ciudadanos a nivel nacional e internacional, incluidos los derechos humanos).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Ciudadan&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> (instituciones de gobierno, legislaci&#x00F3;n y administraci&#x00F3;n de justicia de las democracias, a nivel nacional e internacional)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Ciudadan&#x00ED;a econ&#x00F3;mica y social</italic> (funcionamiento del mercado y de las instituciones mediadoras del tercer sector, as&#x00ED; como aquellos aspectos que constituyan al ciudadano como agente econ&#x00F3;mico).</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Valores c&#x00ED;vicos</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Libertad</italic> (es la libertad del ciudadano &#x2013; &#x2018;libre de&#x2019; &#x2013; o sentirse protegido frente al poder del Estado: libertad de conciencia y expresi&#x00F3;n, de pensamiento pol&#x00ED;tico, de creencia religiosa, de propiedad, de residir en cualquier territorio y libertad de movimiento).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Igualdad</italic> (imponen al Estado la obligaci&#x00F3;n de proporcionar los recursos necesarios para la satisfacci&#x00F3;n de necesidades individuales a trav&#x00E9;s de servicios p&#x00FA;blicos: el derecho a asistencia sanitaria y servicios sociales que le permita acceder a condiciones de salud y calidad de vida adecuadas.</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Solidaridad</italic> (se plantea desde una cultura de la colaboraci&#x00F3;n, desde la gratuidad o de la humanidad altruista que abre la voluntad de las personas o instituciones a adquirir compromisos a favor del otro, manifestado en la atenci&#x00F3;n y cuidado de personas o grupos, especialmente excluidos y marginados, compartiendo intereses y necesidades, dolor y sufrimiento).</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Participaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Participaci&#x00F3;n convencional</italic> (participaci&#x00F3;n en el sistema electoral o el contacto con los representantes pol&#x00ED;ticos).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Participaci&#x00F3;n no convencional</italic> (debate, manifestaci&#x00F3;n y protesta pac&#x00ED;fica, elaboraci&#x00F3;n de propuestas c&#x00ED;vicas, proyectos de cambio, participaci&#x00F3;n digital y consumo &#x00E9;tico).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Asociacionismo</italic> (participaci&#x00F3;n voluntaria en ONG&#x2019;s, asociaciones culturales, religiosas, etc.).</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Identidad c&#x00ED;vica</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Identidad regional</italic> (rasgos de pertenencia a la comunidad de proximidad, memoria, cultura, tradiciones).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Identidad nacional</italic> (rasgos de pertenencia a la comunidad nacional, memoria, cultura, tradiciones).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Identidad europea</italic> (rasgos de pertenencia a la comunidad europea, memoria, cultura, tradiciones).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iv)</label> <p><italic>Ciudadan&#x00ED;a global</italic> (multiculturalismo; cosmopolitismo; interreligiosidad; educaci&#x00F3;n para la paz mundial).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(v)</label> <p><italic>Igualdad e identidad de g&#x00E9;nero</italic> (igualdad de derechos de la mujer y del colectivo LGTBI+).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(vi)</label> <p><italic>Identidad pol&#x00ED;tica</italic> (ideolog&#x00ED;as pol&#x00ED;ticas y partidos pol&#x00ED;ticos).</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(vii)</label> <p><italic>Sostenibilidad</italic> (protecci&#x00F3;n del medio ambiente, desarrollo sostenible).</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Fuente: elaboraci&#x00F3;n propia a partir del trabajo de <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31749-ES">Schulz <italic>et al.</italic> (2019</xref>, p. 11)</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>A partir de la definici&#x00F3;n operativa propuesta, resulta necesario hacer una serie de puntualizaciones: en primer lugar, que la competencia ciudadana incorpora numerosos &#x201C;objetos de referencia&#x201D; (dominios) hacia los que se orientan los individuos, siendo la determinaci&#x00F3;n de tales objetos una cuesti&#x00F3;n producto del consenso acad&#x00E9;mico y la tradici&#x00F3;n de operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n de tales conceptos, tal y como se ha se&#x00F1;alado en la introducci&#x00F3;n de este trabajo.</p>
<p>En segundo lugar, resulta m&#x00E1;s adecuado abogar a favor de una definici&#x00F3;n y operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n amplia de dicho concepto, en oposici&#x00F3;n a una delimitaci&#x00F3;n estrecha de la misma; tales inclusiones y exclusiones de los dominios referenciados responder&#x00ED;an por lo general a criterios ideol&#x00F3;gicos, pudiendo determinar lo que constituye un &#x201C;buen ciudadano&#x201D; y, por extensi&#x00F3;n, lo que son y no son &#x201C;pr&#x00E1;cticas oportunas&#x201D; de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, como se ver&#x00E1; m&#x00E1;s adelante. En ese sentido, los dominios y dimensiones presentados constituyen un marco com&#x00FA;n para llevar a cabo investigaciones aplicadas sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica pues, a nuestro juicio, es lo suficientemente amplio para cubrir nuevos perfiles conceptuales y actualizar otros (educaci&#x00F3;n en derechos humanos, ciudadan&#x00ED;a global, etc.). Y, en contrapartida, lo suficientemente restringido para separarse de otros conceptos que no necesariamente constituyen aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos, como puede ser el caso de la competencia social. A este respecto, compartimos la diferenciaci&#x00F3;n que se ha realizado entre capital social y cultura c&#x00ED;vica, escogiendo tan solo aquellos aspectos del capital social que tengan un car&#x00E1;cter c&#x00ED;vico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31749-ES">P&#x00E9;rez-D&#x00ED;az y Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2011</xref>). Y, consecuentemente, tan solo se han de recoger aquellos aspectos de la competencia social que realmente supongan un verdadero aprendizaje c&#x00ED;vico (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31749-ES">Puig y Morales, 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>En tercer lugar, el concepto de competencia c&#x00ED;vica habr&#x00E1; de ser extendido en funci&#x00F3;n de los dominios establecidos y a qui&#x00E9;n va dirigido; y los indicadores e &#x00ED;tems espec&#x00ED;ficos podr&#x00E1;n tener una mayor o menor complejidad, de nuevo, en funci&#x00F3;n del p&#x00FA;blico de referencia. En resumidas cuentas: consideramos a la competencia ciudadana como un concepto susceptible de ser modulado en sus dominios y dimensiones, que habr&#x00E1; de ajustarse en funci&#x00F3;n del &#x00E1;mbito (formal, informal y no formal) y al p&#x00FA;blico de referencia (escolar, joven, adulto). Ello sin perjuicio de apreciar la utilidad que los indicadores compuestos tienen a la hora de llevar a cabo comparaciones internacionales (con todas las limitaciones que tienen a la hora de medir conceptos de esta naturaleza).</p>
<p>Por &#x00FA;ltimo, no podemos obviar que la competencia ciudadana es un concepto especialmente controvertido, ya que en su propia definici&#x00F3;n incorpora elementos normativos, esto es, juicios de valor sobre lo que es deseable en t&#x00E9;rminos de identidad y valores c&#x00ED;vicos. Siendo as&#x00ED;, la labor m&#x00E1;s compleja en el intento de operacionalizaci&#x00F3;n de un concepto de este tipo pasa por el establecimiento de indicadores que permitan medir juicios de valor. A este respecto, cabe hacer una serie de consideraciones: en primer lugar, que tales intentos de medici&#x00F3;n siempre van a ser limitados e incapaces de captar la complejidad que comporta la realizaci&#x00F3;n de juicios de valor en asuntos concernientes a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a. Segundo, que el intento de operacionalizar conceptos como los educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica o competencia ciudadana siempre va a estar atravesado por los distintos ideales de ciudadan&#x00ED;a que se aspira promover educativamente (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31749-ES">Westheimer y Khane, 2004</xref>). O, dicho de otra manera, debemos reconocer que toda concepci&#x00F3;n sobre la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica es ideol&#x00F3;gica, y por tanto incorpora diversos ideales sobre aquello que constituye un buen ciudadano (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer y Mart&#x00ED;nez Rivas, 2023</xref>). Con todo, si bien existen distintas teor&#x00ED;as a prop&#x00F3;sito de los ideales de ciudadan&#x00ED;a normativamente diferenciados que estar&#x00ED;an detr&#x00E1;s de cada programa de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31749-ES">Kerr, 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31749-ES">Westheimer y Khane, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31749-ES">Leenders y Veugelers, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31749-ES">Coleman y Blumler, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31749-ES">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer y Mart&#x00ED;nez Rivas, 2023</xref>), se ha optado por incluir como valores c&#x00ED;vicos aquellos que son admitidos en nuestro marco europeo y derivan directamente de los derechos humanos. A pesar de que dicho marco te&#x00F3;rico-anal&#x00ED;tico incorpora un menor grado de precisi&#x00F3;n en el an&#x00E1;lisis de los juicios de valor referidos a la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, constituye un marco consensuado y com&#x00FA;nmente reconocido del que se pueden desprender un conjunto de valores que pueden ser objeto de medici&#x00F3;n. Adem&#x00E1;s, los modelos te&#x00F3;ricos anteriormente citados de una u otra forma tienen cabida en ese marco, con las adaptaciones y matices que fuera necesario en cada caso. Y, para mayor precisi&#x00F3;n, siempre se puede remitir a dichas teorizaciones.</p>
<p>Teniendo en cuenta las consideraciones anteriores, de ah&#x00ED; se deriva la importancia de reclamar una mayor atenci&#x00F3;n a los conceptos y sus aspectos normativos, sobre todo cuando se llevan a cabo an&#x00E1;lisis cuantitativos que incorporan juicios de valor. Como expresa elocuentemente Goertz &#x201C;la cantidad de atenci&#x00F3;n dedicada al an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual es inversamente proporcional a la atenci&#x00F3;n que recibe la medici&#x00F3;n cuantitativa&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31749-ES">2006</xref>, p. 2). Y ello empobrece enormemente cualquier objeto de investigaci&#x00F3;n en ciencias sociales.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31749-ES" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>CONCLUSI&#x00D3;N</bold></title>
<p>A modo de s&#x00ED;ntesis podr&#x00ED;amos decir que la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica alude, con car&#x00E1;cter general, a cualquier forma de ense&#x00F1;ar <italic>de manera intencionada</italic> la importancia de &#x201C;lo c&#x00ED;vico-pol&#x00ED;tico&#x201D;. No resulta dif&#x00ED;cil percatarse de que la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica o ciudadana se ha convertido en uno de los elementos capitales de la educaci&#x00F3;n actual (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31749-ES">M&#x00ED;nguez Vallejos y Romero S&#x00E1;nchez, 2018</xref>) y, a la vez, en tarea urgente frente a la creciente desafecci&#x00F3;n socio-pol&#x00ED;tica de amplios sectores de la poblaci&#x00F3;n (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31749-ES">Meg&#x00ED;as y Moreno, 2022</xref>). Est&#x00E1; por ver si, realmente, la intenci&#x00F3;n de educar en lo c&#x00ED;vico contribuir&#x00E1; a desarrollar un concepto inclusivo de ciudadan&#x00ED;a respetuoso con las identidades socio-pol&#x00ED;ticas y, al mismo tiempo, con lo que constituye el sustrato com&#x00FA;n de la ciudadan&#x00ED;a democr&#x00E1;tica. Por lo que sigue siendo deseable vislumbrar qu&#x00E9; tipo de competencia es efectiva para desarrollar un modelo cohesionado y, a la vez, plural, de ciudadan&#x00ED;a. El esfuerzo aqu&#x00ED; reflejado por aportar un an&#x00E1;lisis te&#x00F3;rico del concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica responde, de modo tentativo, a ese anhelo.</p>
<p>Llegados a este punto, cabe preguntarse: &#x00BF;qu&#x00E9; aporta el concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica que aqu&#x00ED; se propone? Probablemente, la conceptualizaci&#x00F3;n aqu&#x00ED; desarrollada, aunque no lo refleja expresamente, permite la libre conjugaci&#x00F3;n de los modos de configurar acad&#x00E9;micamente esta materia, bien sea como asignatura, de modo transversal o como cultura c&#x00ED;vica de una comunidad. Lo cual admite distintas formulaciones pedag&#x00F3;gicas en el modo de dise&#x00F1;ar la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica. Bien sea como formal, informal, o no formal, lo que sobresale de esta triple formulaci&#x00F3;n es la necesaria superaci&#x00F3;n de que la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica se limite a lo meramente instructivo o discursivo, sino que habr&#x00E1; de incluir espacios sociales y pol&#x00ED;ticos para que, junto a los escolares, permita el correspondiente aprendizaje de lo c&#x00ED;vico. Junto a esta caracter&#x00ED;stica deseable, se derivan otras no menos importantes de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica si se pretende la formaci&#x00F3;n de ciudadanos activos. Entre ellas, el necesario compromiso colectivo de la sociedad y no solo de los centros escolares, para conseguir que la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica adquiera el reconocimiento que ella precisa, m&#x00E1;s a&#x00FA;n como medida preventiva ante los convulsos acontecimientos sociales que est&#x00E1;n ocurriendo a nuestro alrededor.</p>
<p>En conjunto, el concepto aqu&#x00ED; esbozado est&#x00E1; necesitado de sucesivas concreciones operativas, esto es, de la determinaci&#x00F3;n de aquellos indicadores e &#x00ED;tems sobre c&#x00F3;mo se aprende a ser ciudadano y los resultados alcanzados en t&#x00E9;rminos de competencia ciudadana. Ello obligar&#x00E1; a reinterpretar las dimensiones y dominios aqu&#x00ED; reflejados, lo cual invita a situar los valores, la identidad y la participaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica como focos de prioridad educativa. En consecuencia, es deseable seguir profundizando en medidas concretas que contribuyan a la pr&#x00E1;ctica y evaluaci&#x00F3;n de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, tanto en los tres &#x00E1;mbitos espaciales m&#x00E1;s arriba plasmados, como tambi&#x00E9;n en las actividades que pudieran derivarse de esos &#x00E1;mbitos.</p>
<p>Hasta aqu&#x00ED; hemos intentado establecer distinciones conceptuales entre los modos habituales de nombrar los distintos espacios de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica. Aunque hemos conjugado los tres tipos de realidades educativas (formal, no formal e informal), como si fueran tres categor&#x00ED;as l&#x00F3;gicamente distintas, sin embargo, conforman dos elementos de un mismo universo de referencia. Por un lado, mientras que lo formal y no formal &#x201C;tienen en com&#x00FA;n el atributo de actividad <italic>organizada y sistematizada</italic>, que es, al mismo tiempo, el atributo que, supuestamente, no existe en los procesos informales de educaci&#x00F3;n&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31749-ES">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2016</xref>, p. 538), es preciso insistir en que la diferencia espec&#x00ED;fica entre lo formal y lo no formal en los procesos de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica radica en que las actividades educativas est&#x00E1;n &#x201C;conformadas o no por el sistema escolar&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31749-ES">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2016</xref>, p. 546).</p>
<p>Por otro lado, quiz&#x00E1; una de las aportaciones m&#x00E1;s reveladoras del an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica aqu&#x00ED; reflejado sea la diferenciaci&#x00F3;n entre educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal y socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica. As&#x00ED;, hemos distinguido un espacio informal atribuible a las instituciones regladas dentro del sistema escolar (escuelas, universidades) de otros espacios de socializaci&#x00F3;n (familia, entornos laborales, grupo de iguales, etc.). En sendos espacios se producen aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos, y la diferencia reside, por tanto, en que los primeros est&#x00E1;n sometidos a cierto control estatal (leyes educativas, universitarias) y de los agentes educativos formados a tal efecto, mientras que en los segundos dicho aprendizaje se producir&#x00ED;a de una manera m&#x00E1;s espont&#x00E1;nea. Se podr&#x00ED;a decir, para mayor claridad, que la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica informal ser&#x00ED;a un subtipo cualificado de socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica, que es algo mucho m&#x00E1;s amplio. A pesar de su aparente lejan&#x00ED;a del discurso educativo, se comprende as&#x00ED; que la socializaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica supone una importante contribuci&#x00F3;n de la ciencia pol&#x00ED;tica capaz de integrar y dar sentido a lo que realmente constituye la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica, no solo en lo que se aprende como contenido c&#x00ED;vico, sino tambi&#x00E9;n a trav&#x00E9;s de qu&#x00E9; procesos se alcanza el sentido de ser ciudadanos. Ello es indicador de que es necesario seguir investigando te&#x00F3;rica y emp&#x00ED;ricamente sobre la relaci&#x00F3;n entre ciudadan&#x00ED;a, socializaci&#x00F3;n y educaci&#x00F3;n. En consecuencia, es necesario seguir identificando los problemas que permiten disponer de un conocimiento m&#x00E1;s ajustado a c&#x00F3;mo las instituciones sociales y educativas ense&#x00F1;an valores c&#x00ED;vicos y educan para la ciudadan&#x00ED;a (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31749-ES">Veugelers, 2023</xref>), y en desarrollar indicadores fiables que permitan medir c&#x00F3;mo se aprende a ser ciudadano y con qu&#x00E9; resultado en diferentes contextos (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31749-ES">Campbell, 2019</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1-ES" fn-type="other"><label><sup>1</sup></label> <p>El elemento distintivo es de quien depende la organizaci&#x00F3;n de la actividad o programa: si depende de una organizaci&#x00F3;n externa a la escuela, pero desarrolla actividades en el interior de una o varias escuelas o universidades (o con p&#x00FA;blico escolar o universitario fuera de la misma), lo consideraremos educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica no formal. Ejemplo: una intervenci&#x00F3;n dise&#x00F1;ada por un organismo p&#x00FA;blico, ONG, fundaci&#x00F3;n o asociaci&#x00F3;n que capacita a profesores para que organicen debates morales sobre asuntos controvertidos en sus clases, de forma estructurada. Por su parte, si se trata de una actividad organizada por la escuela, pero se desarrolla en el exterior de la misma sin que sea parte de un programa externo y es llevada a cabo por un profesor del centro, hablar&#x00ED;amos de educaci&#x00F3;n informal. Ejemplo: una visita organizada por alg&#x00FA;n profesor a una exposici&#x00F3;n de museo donde se traten asuntos concernientes a la ciudadan&#x00ED;a.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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</back>
<sub-article article-type="translation" xml:lang="en" id="S1">
<front-stub>
<article-id pub-id-type="publisher-id">teri.31749</article-id>
<article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.31749</article-id>
<article-categories>
<subj-group subj-group-type="heading">
<subject>Articles</subject>
</subj-group>
</article-categories>
<title-group>
    <article-title>Civic Education: a Concept Analysis</article-title>
<trans-title-group>
<trans-title xml:lang="es"><italic>Educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica: an&#x00E1;lisis del concepto</italic></trans-title>
</trans-title-group>
</title-group>
<contrib-group>
<contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8488-2888</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>L&#x00D3;PEZ-MESEGUER</surname>
<given-names>Rafael</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff1-EN"><sup>*</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c1-EN"/>
</contrib>
<contrib contrib-type="author">
<contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2678-5224</contrib-id>
<name>
<surname>M&#x00CD;NGUEZ-VALLEJOS</surname>
<given-names>Ram&#x00F3;n</given-names>
</name>
<xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff2-EN"><sup>**</sup></xref>
<xref ref-type="corresp" rid="c2-EN"/>
</contrib>
<aff id="aff1-EN">
<label><sup>*</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad Internacional de la Rioja. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad Internacional de la Rioja</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
<aff id="aff2-EN">
<label><sup>**</sup></label>
<institution content-type="original">Universidad de Murcia. Espa&#x00F1;a.</institution>
<institution content-type="orgname">Universidad de Murcia</institution>
<country country="ES">Espa&#x00F1;a</country>
</aff>
</contrib-group>
<author-notes>
<corresp id="c1-EN"><email>rafael.lopezmeseguer@unir.net</email></corresp>
<corresp id="c2-EN"><email>rminguez@um.es</email></corresp>
</author-notes>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="pub">
    <day>04</day>
    <month>06</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<pub-date publication-format="electronic" date-type="collection">
    <day>01</day>
    <month>07</month>
<year>2024</year>
</pub-date>
<volume>36</volume>
<issue>2</issue>
<issue-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14201/teri.2024362</issue-id>
<fpage>199</fpage>
<lpage>217</lpage>
<history>
<date date-type="received">
<day>30</day>
<month>10</month>
<year>2023</year>
</date>
<date date-type="accepted">
<day>12</day>
<month>02</month>
<year>2024</year>
</date>
</history>
<permissions>
<copyright-statement>&#x00A9; 2024 Ediciones Universidad de Salamanca</copyright-statement>
<copyright-year>2024</copyright-year>
<license license-type="open-access" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/" xml:lang="en">

<license-p>Esta obra est&#x00E1; bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 4.0 International</license-p>
</license>
</permissions>
<abstract>
<title>ABSTRACT</title>
<p>The concept of civic education is the focus of numerous contemporary studies. As a socio-political issue, its importance is debated as one of the fundamental processes in the socialization of individuals. As an educational issue, it is the subject of numerous discussions regarding its curricular organization and goals. What is common to all the studies and debates is a certain indeterminacy regarding its conceptualization, as it is referred to in multiple ways, giving rise to various conceptual extensions. The objective of this present study was to carry out a concept analysis of civic education based on knowledge from political, social and education theory. Thus, by using the method of concept analysis, the objective was to try to understand it from the perspective of formal, informal, and non-formal educational processes that develop certain citizenship competences (knowledge, attitudes, and skills). Subsequently, the contexts in which civic education takes place (formal, informal, and non-formal) are theoretically delimited, distinguishing them from other contexts of socialization where civic learning occurs. Finally, the dimensions, domains, and subdomains of citizenship competence, currently considered the expected outcome of civic education, are theoretically outlined and discussed. Nonetheless, we must emphasize that we are dealing with an essentially controversial concept, and that the concept analysis will need to be interpreted according to different target audiences and considering the reality of each historical moment.</p>
</abstract>
<trans-abstract xml:lang="es">
<title>RESUMEN</title>
<p>El concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica est&#x00E1; en el centro de numerosas investigaciones en la actualidad. En tanto que cuesti&#x00F3;n sociopol&#x00ED;tica, se debate su importancia como uno de los procesos fundamentales en la socializaci&#x00F3;n de los individuos. En tanto que cuesti&#x00F3;n educativa, es objeto de numerosas discusiones a prop&#x00F3;sito de su organizaci&#x00F3;n curricular y sobre los fines a los que habr&#x00ED;a de aspirar una educaci&#x00F3;n de este tipo. Lo com&#x00FA;n a todos los estudios y debates es una cierta indeterminaci&#x00F3;n en cuanto al objeto de esta, pues en todas esas investigaciones es denominada de m&#x00FA;ltiples maneras dando lugar a extensiones conceptuales de todo tipo. El objetivo del presente trabajo ha sido el de llevar a cabo un an&#x00E1;lisis te&#x00F3;rico del concepto de educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica a partir del conocimiento disponible desde la teor&#x00ED;a pol&#x00ED;tica, social y educativa. As&#x00ED; pues, tomando como referencia el m&#x00E9;todo del an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual, se propone entender la misma como aquellos procesos educativos formales, informales y no formales que desarrollan determinadas competencias ciudadanas (conocimientos, actitudes y destrezas). Seguidamente, se delimitan te&#x00F3;ricamente los &#x00E1;mbitos en que tiene lugar la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica (formal, informal y no formal), distingui&#x00E9;ndolos de otros espacios de socializaci&#x00F3;n donde se producen aprendizajes c&#x00ED;vicos. Y, por &#x00FA;ltimo, se establecen y discuten te&#x00F3;ricamente las dimensiones, dominios y subdominios de la competencia ciudadana, erigida en la actualidad como el resultado esperable de la educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica. Con todo, se destaca que estamos frente a un concepto esencialmente controvertido, y que los an&#x00E1;lisis conceptuales sobre el mismo habr&#x00E1;n de actualizarse de acuerdo con el p&#x00FA;blico objeto de estudio y en atenci&#x00F3;n a la realidad de cada tiempo hist&#x00F3;rico.</p>
</trans-abstract>
<kwd-group xml:lang="en">
<title><italic>Keywords:</italic></title>
<kwd>citizenship education</kwd>
<kwd>civic education</kwd>
<kwd>political education</kwd>
<kwd>citizenship</kwd>
<kwd>interpersonal skills</kwd>
<kwd>concept analysis</kwd>
</kwd-group>
<kwd-group xml:lang="es">
<title><italic>Palabras clave:</italic></title>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n ciudadana</kwd>
<kwd>educaci&#x00F3;n c&#x00ED;vica</kwd>
<kwd>formaci&#x00F3;n pol&#x00ED;tica</kwd>
<kwd>ciudadan&#x00ED;a</kwd>
<kwd>competencias sociales</kwd>
<kwd>an&#x00E1;lisis conceptual</kwd>
</kwd-group>
</front-stub>
<body>
<sec id="sec-1-31749-EN" sec-type="intro">
<label><bold>1.</bold></label>
<title><bold>I<sc>ntroduction</sc></bold></title>
<p>One of the most controversial and recurring problems in the majority of modern democratic countries is the configuration of an education model aimed at promoting citizenship that responds to the challenges of the historical period. Each generation has to face the task of discerning what scope it grants to politics in the education of citizens. Accordingly, it must weigh the effects or consequences of the education of citizens in the context of the political community. In this regard, it is worth remembering that education is a politically conditioning act and, at the same time, it is politically conditioned (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-3-31749-EN">B&#x00E1;rcena, 1998</xref>).</p>
<p>Concerning the first aspect, a monograph has recently been published in this journal that explores the relationships between the theory of education and politics and we referred to this with a view to considering this issue in a contemporary light. That said, it seems prudent to start from the assumption that a human being is someone built within the framework of a culture or tradition, and tied to a way of seeing the world and relating to others, so that any educational process must necessarily be linked to the concept of a human being as a historical and relational being, who interacts with others based on the exercise of his or her freedom and responsibility. Without being exhaustive, it is enough to keep in mind that his or her convictions and decisions may undoubtedly have an impact on common life, which is why education presents undeniable challenges, with inevitable consequences for politics.</p>
<p>Concerning the second aforementioned aspect, theoretical research on what civic education is continues to be involved in endless theoretical and political debates of all kinds (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-41-31749-EN">Rodr&#x00ED;guez et al., 2015</xref>). Furthermore, it is easy to see that the concept itself has incorporated new ideas as a result of the vicissitudes of the systems of thought and political action over the last few decades, whether due to the influence of political and institutional decisions, or to the occurrence of, for example, terrorist attacks or other events of collective violence, which are often followed by political responses in terms of civic education policy (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-23-31749-EN">Kells, 2022</xref>). It is noted, therefore, that the very notion of civic education is an issue as current as it is controversial and subject to constant political, educational and academic discussion (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-21-31749-EN">J&#x00F3;nsson &#x0026; Garces Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31749-EN">Naval et al., 2022</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-1-31749-EN">Anderson, 2023</xref>). Hence the importance of continuing to investigate the theoretical delimitation of the concept &#x2014;as this present study aims to do&#x2014; for which it is opportune to consider, from the outset, its most recent theoretical construction.</p>
<p>While it is true that the idea of civic education, as well as its conceptual development over time, has its roots in classical, modern and contemporary debates on the social function of education and the meaning of citizenship in each historical period (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-27-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2022</xref>), it is from the nineties onwards that what we could call a shift in competence in the educational systems of the most developed countries took place, together with the emergence of a renewed interest in civic education, in both the institutional field (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-22-31749-EN">Keating et al., 2009</xref>) and the academic field (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-15-31749-EN">Garc&#x00ED;a Guiti&#x00E1;n, 2008</xref>).</p>
<p>In Europe, this renewed interest, at the institutional level, materialized, for example, in the decision of community institutions to jointly promote social and civic competence in educational systems as one of the key competences of lifelong learning (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-40-31749-EN">Recommendation of the European Parliament and of the Council, 2006</xref>, p.7). The acquisition of such competences, understood as a set of knowledge, skills and attitudes, was considered to enable individuals to &#x201C;to fully participate in civic life, based on knowledge of social and political concepts and structures and a commitment to active and democratic participation&#x201D; (ibid.). Civic competence therefore became the expected outcome of civic education, and one of the most relevant demands of the European Union, as already proposed in the North American context some years earlier (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-9-31749-EN">Center for Civic Education, 1994</xref>).</p>
<p>Since then, civic competence has become an obligatory reference in the identity of the European Community, acquiring greater recognition and political notoriety in both official documents and the guidelines of its Member States&#x2019; educational systems. However, recently, new nuances have been incorporated into its conceptualization, moving from the recognized concept of civic competence to a broader and more updated concept of citizenship competence, denoted as &#x201C;the ability to act as responsible citizens and to fully participate in civic and social life, based on understanding of social, economic, legal and political concepts and structures, as well as global developments and sustainability&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-39-31749-EN">Council Recommendation, 2018</xref>, p.10).</p>
<p>These matters, apparently nominal in nature, have been translated to the field of international politics, with numerous attempts made to promote what would be different formulations of civic education, more in line with collective sensitivity and the socio-political issues of the moment. Therefore, it has naturally followed that, over recent years, various pronouncements have been made on certain civic teaching-learning processes, such as regarding the notion and importance of education for democratic citizenship and human rights (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31749-EN">Council of Europe, 2017</xref>), peace education, intercultural education, global or world citizenship education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-52-31749-EN">UNESCO, 2015</xref>), and sustainable development (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-53-31749-EN">UNESCO, 2019</xref>). Such statements, among others, appear to be little more than variations on the same theme, that is, the preparation of citizens for today&#x2019;s circumstances, introducing different nuances in what civic education refers to, but without substantively changing the interest of educational systems being actively committed to the task of educating for citizenship.</p>
<p>In the field of academic research, since the emergence and progressive popularization of the concept of civic competence as an outcome of civic education, there have been numerous attempts to operationalize the concept, with the proposal of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-19-31749-EN">Hoskins et al. (2012)</xref> being the one that has had the greatest scope and reach. These authors see civic competence as the set of &#x201C;knowledge, skills, values and attitudes necessary to be an active citizen&#x201D; (p. 13). To operationalize the concept, they established four dimensions of civic competence: civic values; social justice; participatory skills; and democratic knowledge and skills. In turn, they considered two domains of civic competence (cognitive, and affective-attitudinal), divided into several subdomains (knowledge and judgment, for the cognitive domain; values, attitudes, intentions and actions, for the affective-attitudinal domain). Each of the dimensions considered were given a series of indicators, referring to one or more domains. Since then, the different ways of operationalizing the concept within the framework of international measurements have followed similar guidelines (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31749-EN">Schulz et al., 2019</xref>), although it should be noted that the latest edition of the most relevant international report on civic education (ICSS) applies a greater differentiation between the domains, and confers greater independence to the affective-attitudinal domain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31749-EN">Schulz et al., 2023</xref>). Furthermore, these operationalizations have been progressively enriched with new indicators, based on new political and social sensitivities, such as digital participation, feminism, environmentalism, etc.</p>
<p>Although it is true that these proposals have contributed to establishing comparative indicators for analyzing degrees of civic or citizen competence in relation to the abovementioned dimensions, the delimitation of the concept of what civic education is &#x2014;or is not&#x2014; continues to be the subject of inevitable controversies. Some authors, for example, directly question the way in which the indicators have been constructed (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-30-31749-EN">Lupia, 2016</xref>). Others draw attention to the fact that the conceptualizations, and their corresponding operationalizations, do not base themselves on models of civic education in which authentic citizen subjectivation is promoted, and therefore restrict their value to determining a degree of socialization, and not education, of individuals (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-4-31749-EN">Biesta, 2016</xref>). Yet others have noted that the constructs pay little attention to the normative issues and political controversies inherent to the notion of citizenship and citizenship education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-31-31749-EN">Malak-Minkiewicz &#x0026; Torney-Purta, 2021</xref>). In all this, what feeds the continued controversy is the classic debate on the construction of the knowledge of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-48-31749-EN">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2009</xref>, <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31749-EN">2017</xref>), with two epistemological traditions persisting that reflect broad discussions on the problem of the relationship, contraposition or balance between educational theory and practice.</p>
<p>Taking into account the above-noted criticisms, the present work is based on the premise that the attempts referred to so far at definition and operationalization partially reflect the complexity and multidimensionality of the concept, giving rise to numerous conceptual extensions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31749-EN">Sartori, 1970</xref>). This is why the present study aims to delimit and clarify the concept of civic education for its use in the social discipline.</p>
<p>It is clear from the above considerations that there is an often little attended to need for the concepts used by social researchers to aspire to the maximum possible clarity and precision, so that empirical investigations can achieve the highest degree of generality and verisimilitude (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-57-31749-EN">Weber, 2014</xref>). Thus, the present research is circumscribed to the tradition of concept analysis in the social sciences (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-11-31749-EN">Collier &#x0026; Gering, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31749-EN">Goertz, 2020</xref>). In particular, the concept analysis of civic education is carried out by virtue of: i) its controversial and normative nature (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-14-31749-EN">Gallie, 1956</xref>); ii) the risks of its conceptual extension (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-43-31749-EN">Sartori, 1970</xref>); iii) its possibilities for political translation (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-44-31749-EN">Sartori, 1984</xref>); iv) the determination of its constitutive ontological dimensions (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-36-31749-EN">Nussbaum, 1992</xref>); v) and attention to the multidimensional character of the concept. These elements, according to <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-17-31749-EN">Goertz (2020)</xref>, are limited to the first and second level of concept analysis, that is, to the determination of the constitutive elements of the concept and their use in propositions of a scientific nature, therefore leaving out operationalization, which would correspond to the third level.</p>
<p>Consequently, in a tentative manner, it is proposed to understand civic education as those formal, informal and non-formal educational processes that are aimed at developing knowledge, attitudes and skills related to citizenship, that is, citizenship competences. Taking this definition as a reference, it follows that civic education incorporates: a first level, or contextual scope, alluding to the context in which civic education occurs (formal, informal, or non-formal); a second descriptive level, contemplating the domains and dimensions of citizen competence that such education would seek to develop; and a third sociological level, limiting the scope of civic education to an empirically observable social fact. It is precisely these different levels that have led to the characterization of civic education as a type of polymorphic, polysemic and polytechnic social relationship (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>). Below, we will proceed with an analysis of the contextual and descriptive scopes of the concept, having addressed the sociological scope elsewhere (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-2-31749-EN">
<label><bold>2.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>ontexts in which civic education occurs</sc></bold></title>
<p>In reference to the contextual scope, the presented definition allows us to differentiate between formal, informal and non-formal civic education, given that this type of education is often developed more outside than inside the contexts of school and university (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-6-31749-EN">Brander et al., 2020</xref>). In order to avoid possible confusion, it is opportune to clarify that the reference to school institutions refers only to one of the forms that education has adopted in societies, though never exclusively. It is worth insisting that the generic term &#x201C;school&#x201D; refers to a formal stage of the educational process of people, which is why we do not identify education merely with the school system, this being an institutional framework that may not always be the most suitable for civic education, because the education of future citizen occurs both in that framework and in other social frameworks too. Therefore, different types of activities may exist that can be included in the contextual contexts of civic education, as reflected in the following classificatory summary (<xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-1-31749-EN">Table 1</xref>).</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-1-31749-EN">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 1</label>
<caption><title>C<sc>ontextual delimitation of civic education</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-1-31749-EN" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="40%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Context</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Activity</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Definition</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>Formal civic education (school, university)</italic></p></td>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p>Specific subjects</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Teaching-learning processes carried out in specific subjects concerning citizenship.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p>Transversal programs</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Transversal teaching-learning programs (regulated) that result in the development of citizenship competences.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left" rowspan="2"><p><italic>Informal civic education</italic></p>
<p><italic>(school, university)</italic></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Informal civic learning</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Socialization processes that are limited to school or university institutions.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Conventional and unconventional participation</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Participation processes (conventional and unconventional) that result in civic learning.</p></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><italic>Non-formal civic education</italic></p>
<p><italic>(non-regulated educational institutions)</italic></p></td>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p>Civic activities and programs</p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><p>Activities and programs organized by non-regulated educational institutions that, in addressing any audience and having a systematic structure, favor the strengthening of citizen competences.</p></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: own elaboration.</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>According to the Council of Europe common framework:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2018;Formal education&#x2019; means the structured education and training system that runs from pre-primary and primary through secondary school and on to university. It takes place, as a rule, at general or vocational educational institutions and leads to certification (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31749-EN">Council of Europe, 2017</xref>, p. 6).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>Such contextual delimitation contemplates the possibility &#x2014;and this is what occurs in practice&#x2014; that, in some countries, there are specific subjects related to issues of citizenship, while, in others, this subject of citizenship is conceived in a transversal manner (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-2-31749-EN">Arbu&#x00E9;s et al., 2012</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31749-EN">European Commission-EACEA-Eurydice, 2017</xref>). Formal civic education would therefore include some form of curricular articulation of the subject, either through the direct introduction of specific subjects, or via a transversal route. Furthermore, many countries introduce different pedagogical guidelines to regulate the teaching of the subject, as illustrated by analyses carried out in Spain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-8-31749-EN">Capilla, 2023</xref>), France (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-5-31749-EN">Bozec, 2023</xref>), the United Kingdom (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-34-31749-EN">Mycock, 2023</xref>), and Sweden (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-42-31749-EN">Sandahl, 2023</xref>), and more generally across a broad representation of European countries (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31749-EN">Slavkova and Kurili&#x0107;, 2023</xref>).</p>
<p>For its part, according to Council of Europe framework:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>&#x2018;Informal education&#x2019; means the lifelong process whereby every individual acquires attitudes, values, skills and knowledge from the educational influences and resources in his or her own environment and from daily experience (family, peer group, neighbours, encounters, library, mass media, work, play, etc) (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31749-EN">Council of Europe, 2017</xref>, p. 7).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This contextual delimitation is what, in our opinion, presents the greatest problems on a sociological level. We understand that this conceptual delimitation wholly overlaps with what is usually known as political socialization (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-56-31749-EN">Wasburn &#x0026; Covert, 2017</xref>). Political socialization, according to Hyman&#x2019;s classic definition, is understood as the &#x201C;learning of social patterns corresponding to [an individual&#x2019;s] societal position as mediated through various agencies of society&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-20-31749-EN">1959</xref>, p.25). Such an overlap would not allow us to characterize the variety of functions of regulation, financing or other activities through which educational institutions, such as schools and universities, promote the development of citizen competencies. Thus, alternatively, it would be more accurate to apply the denomination of informal civic education to those less institutionalized learning processes that, linked to regulated educational institutions, promote the development of civic or citizen competences. Under this definition, tangible experiences of informal civic education might include institution or university citizenship projects (aiming to promote one aspect or another of civic culture), civic projects carried out in said institutions (which may be of very diverse types, and produce diverse effects), or the policies to promote the social harmony of the institution (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-35-31749-EN">Naval et al., 2022</xref>). In short, this includes everything that specialist literature quite imprecisely calls the school or university ethos and that has been shown to have an important effect on the development of citizenship skills (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31749-EN">Campbell, 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>The differentiating element with respect to political socialization would be that this takes place in an institutionalized educational context, while the other takes place in other contexts, such as those described in the definition itself, i.e., the family, peer groups, neighbors, encounters, libraries, mass media, work and play, as well as, for example, religious groups. That is to say, these agents or agencies of social transmission do not share with regulated educational institutions ways of organizing and systematizing certain educational processes (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-51-31749-EN">Trilla, 2010</xref>), due to the fact that the latter are strictly school, university or institutional environments where practices are subject to certain state controls. The reason we make this distinction &#x2014;in addition to the possibility of distinguishing both levels, and making more precise scientific inquiries&#x2014; is that school and university institutions can in fact exert some influence on informal civic education. Such a conceptual distinction allows us to contemplate this type of education developing concrete actions, directed by the political sphere and the action of educators, while political socialization depends more on the will or discretion of the agents and agencies of social transmission exercised over certain educational contents of citizenship.</p>
<p>Another aspect concerning informal civic education, as we have conceptualized it, would refer to everything that has to do with participation in regulated educational contexts. Reasons that allow student participation to be classified as informal civic education have been the subject of certain critical reflections (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-26-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer, 2021</xref>), divided fundamentally into three main considerations.</p>
<p>First, to speak of political participation as such in students who have not reached the minimum legal age is to contradict the assumption of participation rights that the coming of age entails. In this sense, student participation would rather be a learning of the skills or competences required for adult political participation. This does not mean that students cannot or do not have the right to participate, but rather that the purpose of participation in the school environment is to learn to participate, and therefore participating would not be an end in itself, but a means to a further end. Second, student participation is consistent with both applicable legislation and educational reality (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-13-31749-EN">European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice, 2017</xref>). Though the legislation of European Member State countries grants students a series of participation rights, these are always limited by their status as minors. The previous reasons are naturally not applicable to a university or adult audience, but the third consideration is that, since the participation takes place in regulated educational contexts, it does not fit well with the definition of non-formal civic education. That is why, although participatory processes in educational institutions may have a participatory purpose, many of them incorporate at the same time &#x2014;some of them almost exclusively&#x2014; a specifically educational purpose: that of acquiring participatory skills. In any case, it must be taken into account that the concept of student participation is also the subject of controversy and academic debate (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-18-31749-EN">Granizo et al., 2019</xref>).</p>
<p>Finally, it should be noted that, when the term civic education is used, a regulated educational context is usually evoked, normally school. However, civic education is presented to us as a polymorphic reality that integrates three educational modalities, formal, informal and non-formal. Once more, according to Council of Europe framework, non-formal education refers to &#x201C;any planned programme of education designed to improve a range of skills and competences, outside the formal educational setting&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-12-31749-EN">Council of Europe, 2017</xref>, p.7). What emerges from this definition is that there can be a myriad of programs or activities that fall within this scope, including, for example, those organized by both governmental and non-governmental institutions. Therefore, in order to establish a contextual delimitation that allows analyses to be operationalized, we can contemplate non-formal civic education as activities and programs organized by non-regulated educational institutions that, in addressing any audience and having a systematic structure, favor the strengthening of citizen competences.</p>
<p>Again, this definition demands a series of qualifications, that we can divide into three main requirements (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer et al, 2023</xref>). First, it is considered a non-formal civic education activity or program when it is carried out for the most part by non-regulated educational institutions (school, university). Nonetheless, it may be the case that such activities are developed within educational institutions, but the organization of which depends on social institutions. If it were a program designed and implemented by an educational institution, then we would be dealing with the formal or informal civic education modalities, depending on the case<xref ref-type="fn" rid="fn1-EN"><sup>1</sup></xref>. The second requirement is that the educational design of that which will be carried out must have a pedagogically structured character. It is worth remembering that any educational design not only involves:</p>
<disp-quote>
<p>knowledge of the cognitive structure of the learning subject and the sociocultural space in which it is learned [&#x2026;] but also [&#x2026;] the formulation of norms and rules of pedagogical intervention in concepts with intrinsic significance to the field of education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-50-31749-EN">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2017</xref>, p. 367).</p>
</disp-quote>
<p>This will allow us to distinguish non-formal civic education, again, from political socialization (e.g., civic learning derived from family or work interactions). Finally, it must have an educational purpose and, specifically, an educational purpose referring to matters concerning citizenship. This requirement is shared with the formal and informal contexts, and we will deal further with it later.</p>
<p>We can see, therefore, that the emphasis must be placed on both educational design and the context in which the educational activities or programs are developed. This allows for the fact that not all organizations necessarily develop their activities in the field of citizenship, but it is likely that they do develop one or more civic activities. This mere practice would imply being able to consider such organizations as &#x201C;civic associations&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-55-31749-EN">Warren, 2001</xref>). On the contrary, those organizations that only declare themselves to have civic purposes, without translating them into specific educational activities, should not be considered under the same category. Without undermining the importance of ideas in the field of civic education &#x2014;an issue that we will also examine&#x2014; this distinction would fundamentally respond to a principle of methodological clarity: carrying out identification tasks in accordance with specific educational actions.</p>
<p>Finally, it is worth highlighting that, although this form of civic education has traditionally received less attention, in recent years, its importance at a social level has grown, as reflected in two recent reports on the subject, one at the European level (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-47-31749-EN">Slavkova &#x0026; Kurili&#x0107;, 2023</xref>) and another dedicated to analyzing the situation in Spain (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-29-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer et al, 2023</xref>).</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-3-31749-EN">
<label><bold>3.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>ivic education dimensions</sc>, <sc>domains</sc> &#x0026; <sc>sub</sc>-<sc>domains</sc></bold></title>
<p>Consistently with the definition of civic education, civic competence is given to refer to a level achieved or desired of knowledge, attitudes and skills related to the exercise of citizenship by an individual in society through one or more processes of formal, informal or non-formal education. As a level achieved, it designates &#x2014;on a descriptive level&#x2014; a &#x201C;degree of civic education&#x201D; in terms of knowledge, attitudes and skills related to the exercise of citizenship. As a desired level, it calls for a normative debate on those virtues that are necessary for good citizenship in society.</p>
<p>Therefore, citizen competence should allow us to identify a series of domains and subdomains that would be typical of citizenship, and a series of dimensions that structurally compose that competence, i.e., knowledge, attitudes, and skills (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31749-EN">Schulz et al., 2019</xref>). The way of configuring the dimensions has varied to great extent in successive attempts to operationalize the concept (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-46-31749-EN">Schulz et al., 2023</xref>). The domains, for their part, have seen greater coherence since the first international measurements were developed on the subject. <xref ref-type="table" rid="tabw-2-31749-EN">Table 2</xref> presents a first theoretical-conceptual approach to the main domains and subdomains of the concept of citizen competence, including some elements proposed by previous literature, identified at the beginning of this study, and some new ones, resulting from the conceptual analysis carried out in this study. The contents of the table are expanded on below.</p>
<table-wrap id="tabw-2-31749-EN">
<label>T<sc>able</sc> 2</label>
<caption><title>D<sc>escriptive delimitation of citizen competence</sc></title></caption>
<table id="tab-2-31749-EN" frame="hsides" border="1" rules="all">
<col width="30%"/>
<col width="70%"/>
<thead>
<tr>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Domain</bold></p></th>
<th valign="top" align="left"><p><bold>Subdomain</bold></p></th>
</tr>
</thead>
<tbody>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Society and political systems</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Legal citizenship</italic> (the roles, rights and responsibilities of citizens at national and international levels, including human rights)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Political citizenship</italic> (government, legislative and judiciary institutions of democracies, at national and international levels)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Economic and social citizenship</italic> (the role of markets and intermediary third-sector organizations, as well as of citizens as economic agents)</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Civic values</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Freedom</italic> (the freedom of the citizen or protection from the powers of the state, including freedom of conscience, expression, political thought, religious belief, property ownership, residence, and movement)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Equality</italic> (the obligation of the state to provide the necessary resources to satisfy individual needs through public services, including the right to health care and social services that allow equal access to adequate health conditions and quality of life)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Solidarity</italic> (the culture of collaboration, gratuitousness and altruistic humanity that encourages people or institutions to make selfless commitments in favor of others, manifested, for example, in care given especially to excluded and marginalized individuals or groups, and in the sharing of interests, needs, pain and suffering)</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Civic participation</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Conventional participation</italic> (participation in the electoral system, and contact with political representatives)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>Unconventional participation</italic> (debates, demonstrations and peaceful protests, and the development of civic proposals, change projects, digital participation and ethical consumption)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>Association</italic> (voluntary participation in NGOs and cultural or religious associations)</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td valign="middle" align="left"><p><bold><italic>Civic identity</italic></bold></p></td>
<td valign="top" align="left"><list list-type="simple">
<list-item><label>(i)</label> <p><italic>Regional identity</italic> (traits of belonging to a local community, with a shared memory, culture and traditions)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(ii)</label> <p><italic>National identity</italic> (traits of belonging to national community, with a shared memory, culture and traditions)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iii)</label> <p><italic>European identity</italic> (traits of belonging to the European community, with a shared memory, culture and traditions)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(iv)</label> <p><italic>Global citizenship</italic> (multiculturalism, cosmopolitanism, interreligiousness, education for world peace)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(v)</label> <p><italic>Gender equality and identity</italic> (equal rights for women and the LGTBI+ community)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(vi)</label> <p><italic>Political identity</italic> (political ideologies and political parties)</p></list-item>
<list-item><label>(vii)</label> <p><italic>Sustainability</italic> (environmental protection, sustainable development)</p></list-item>
</list></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<table-wrap-foot>
<attrib>Source: own elaboration based on the work of <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-45-31749-EN">Schulz et al. (2019</xref>, p.11)</attrib>
</table-wrap-foot>
</table-wrap>
<p>Following on from the proposed operational definition, it is necessary to make a series of points. First is that citizen competence incorporates numerous &#x201C;reference objects&#x201D; (domains) to which individuals orient themselves, with the determination of such objects being a matter that is the product of academic consensus and the tradition of operationalization of such concepts, as noted in the introduction of the present work.</p>
<p>Second, it is more appropriate to advocate for a broad definition and operationalization of the concept, as opposed to a narrow delimitation of it. The inclusions and exclusions of the referenced domains should generally respond to ideological criteria, being able to determine what constitutes a &#x201C;good citizen&#x201D;, and, by extension, what are and are not the &#x201C;opportune practices&#x201D; of civic education, as we will explore later. In this sense, the domains and dimensions presented constitute a common framework for carrying out applied research on civic education, since, in our opinion, it is broad enough to cover new conceptual profiles and update others (human rights education, global citizenship, etc.). On the other hand, it is restricted enough to separate itself from other concepts that would not necessarily constitute civic learning, as may be the case of social competence. In this regard, we share the distinction that has been made between social capital and civic culture, picking only those aspects of social capital that have a civic character (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-37-31749-EN">P&#x00E9;rez-D&#x00ED;az &#x0026; Rodr&#x00ED;guez, 2011</xref>). Consequently, only those aspects of social competence that really involve true civic learning must be included (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-38-31749-EN">Puig &#x0026; Morales, 2015</xref>).</p>
<p>Third, the concept of citizenship competence will need to be extended depending on the established domains and audience, and the specific indicators and items may have greater or lesser complexity, again, depending on the reference audience. In short, we consider citizen competence as a concept that can be modulated in terms of its domains and dimensions, and adjusted depending on the context (formal, informal, or non-formal) and the reference audience (schoolchildren, young people, or adults). This is without prejudice to appreciating the usefulness that composite indicators have when carrying out international comparisons (with all the limitations they have when measuring concepts of this nature).</p>
<p>Finally, we cannot ignore that citizenship competence is a particularly controversial concept, since in its very definition it incorporates normative elements, that is, value judgments about what is desirable in terms of identity and civic values. Therefore, the most complex task in the attempt to operationalize a concept of this type involves the establishment of indicators that allow value judgments to be measured. In this regard, a series of considerations are worth making. First, such measurement attempts will always be limited and incapable of capturing the full complexity involved in making value judgments in matters concerning citizenship. Second, the attempt to operationalize concepts such as civic education or citizenship competence will always intersect with the different ideals of citizenship that one may aim to promote educationally (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31749-EN">Westheimer &#x0026; Khane, 2004</xref>). Put another way, we must recognize that every conception of civic education is ideological, and therefore incorporates various ideals about what constitutes a good citizen (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer &#x0026; Mart&#x00ED;nez Rivas, 2023</xref>). All in all, though there are distinct theories regarding the normatively differentiated ideals of citizenship that would form the basis of each civic education program (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-24-31749-EN">Kerr, 2002</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-58-31749-EN">Westheimer &#x0026; Khane, 2004</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-25-31749-EN">Leenders &#x0026; Veugelers, 2006</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-10-31749-EN">Coleman &#x0026; Blumler, 2009</xref>; <xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-28-31749-EN">L&#x00F3;pez-Meseguer &#x0026; Mart&#x00ED;nez Rivas, 2023</xref>), we include as civic values those that are accepted in our European framework and that derive directly from human rights. Despite this theoretical-analytical framework incorporating a lower degree of precision in the analysis of value judgments referring to civic education, it constitutes a consensual and commonly recognized framework from which a set of values can be derived that can be subjected to measurement. Furthermore, the aforementioned theoretical models, in one way or another, have a place in this framework, with the adaptations and subtleties that are necessary in each case. Furthermore, for greater precision, one can always make specific reference to said theoretical models.</p>
<p>The previous considerations explain the importance of demanding greater attention to concepts and their normative aspects, especially when quantitative analyzes that incorporate value judgments are carried out. As Goertz eloquently expressed, &#x201C;The amount of attention devoted to a concept is inversely related to the attention devoted to the quantitative measure&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-16-31749-EN">2006</xref>, p.2), and this greatly impoverishes any object of research in social sciences.</p>
</sec>
<sec id="sec-4-31749-EN" sec-type="conclusions">
<label><bold>4.</bold></label>
<title><bold>C<sc>onclusion</sc></bold></title>
<p>In summary, we could say that civic education refers, in general, to any way of intentionally teaching the importance of &#x201C;the civic-political&#x201D;. It is not difficult to realize that civic or citizen education has become one of the key elements of current education (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-33-31749-EN">M&#x00ED;nguez Vallejos &#x0026; Romero S&#x00E1;nchez, 2018</xref>), and, at the same time, an urgent task in the face of a growing socio-political disaffection across broad sectors of society (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-32-31749-EN">Meg&#x00ED;as &#x0026; Moreno, 2022</xref>). It remains to be seen if, in fact, the intention to educate in civic matters will contribute to developing an inclusive concept of citizenship that is respectful of socio-political identities and of what constitutes the common substrate of democratic citizenship. Therefore, it is still desirable to envisage what type of competence is effective in developing a cohesive and yet plural model of citizenship. The effort made here to provide a theoretical analysis of the concept of civic education responds, tentatively, to that desire.</p>
<p>At this point, it is worth asking: what does the concept of civic education proposed here contribute to? In one regard, the conceptualization developed here, though it does not expressly reflect it, allows for the free conjugation of ways of academically configuring the subject, whether as a specific subject, transversally, or as the civic culture of a community. This admits different pedagogical formulations in the way of designing civic education. Whether formal, informal, or non-formal, what stands out from the three-way formulation is the need to overcome civic education being limited to what is merely instructive or discursive, in order to include social and political contexts that, in addition to the school context, allow the learning of civics. Along with this desirable characteristic, other no less important characteristics arise from civic education, if the aim is to train active citizens. Among them is the necessary collective commitment of society, and not only of schools, to ensure that civic education acquires the recognition it needs, even more so as a preventive measure in the face of the turbulent social events that are occurring around us.</p>
<p>Overall, the concept outlined here needs successive operational concretions, that is, the determination of those indicators and items regarding how one learns to be a citizen and the results achieved in terms of citizen competence. This will force us to reinterpret the dimensions and domains reported here, inviting us to place values, identity and civic participation as focal points of educational priority. Consequently, it is desirable to continue to investigate specific measures that can contribute to the practice and evaluation of civic education, both in the three delimited contexts outlined here, and in the activities that could be derived in these contexts.</p>
<p>Up to this point, we have tried to establish conceptual distinctions between the usual ways of naming the different contexts of civic education. Although we have articulated the three types of educational realities (formal, non-formal, and informal) as if they were three logically different categories, they, in fact, make up two elements of the same reference universe. On the one hand, while formal and non-formal &#x201C;have in common the attribute of organized and systematized activity, which is, at the same time, the attribute that, supposedly, does not exist in informal education processes&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31749-EN">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2016</xref>, p.538), it is necessary to insist that the specific difference between the formal and non-formal in the processes of civic education lies in the fact that educational activities are &#x201C;shaped or not by the school system&#x201D; (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-49-31749-EN">Touri&#x00F1;&#x00E1;n, 2016</xref>, p.546).</p>
<p>On the other hand, perhaps one of the most revealing contributions of the conceptual analysis of civic education reflected here is the distinction made between informal civic education and political socialization. Thus, we distinguish between an informal context attributable to regulated institutions within the school system (schools, universities) and other contexts of socialization (family, work environments, peer groups, etc.). Civic learning takes place in both contexts, and the difference lies, therefore, in that the former are subject to certain state control (educational or university regulations) and educational agents trained for this purpose, and the latter are where said learning occurs in a more spontaneous way. One might say, for greater clarity, that informal civic education is a qualified subtype of political socialization, which is something much broader. Despite its apparent distance from educational discourse, it is thus understood that political socialization represents an important contribution of political science that is capable of integrating and giving meaning to what really constitutes civic education, not only in what is learned as civic contents, but also through what processes the meaning of being citizens is achieved. This is an indicator that it is necessary to continue researching, both theoretically and empirically, the relationship between citizenship, socialization and education. It is therefore necessary to continue identifying issues that allow us to gain more accurate knowledge of how social and educational institutions teach civic values and educate for citizenship (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-54-31749-EN">Veugelers, 2023</xref>), and to develop reliable indicators that allow us to measure how people learn to be citizens and with what results in different contexts (<xref ref-type="bibr" rid="ref-7-31749-EN">Campbell, 2019</xref>).</p>
</sec>
</body>
<back>
<fn-group>
<fn id="fn1-EN" fn-type="other"><label><sup>1</sup></label> <p>The distinctive element is what the organization of the activity or program depends on: if it depends on an organization external to the school or university, but carries out activities within one or various schools or universities (or with school or university audiences outside of it), we should consider it non-formal civic education. An example is an intervention designed by a public body, non-governmental organization, foundation or association that trains teachers to organize moral debates on controversial issues in their classes in a structured way. On the other hand, if it is an activity organized by the school or university, but it takes place outside the school or university without being part of an external program, and is carried out by a teacher from that school or university, we should consider it informal education. An example is a visit organized by a teacher to a museum exhibition in which issues regarding citizenship are discussed.</p></fn>
</fn-group>
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